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EMERSON COY - PHD - THESIS

Quantum physics describes behavior at small scales including molecules, atoms and subatomic particles. Quantum entanglement links particles such that measuring one determines the other. Shearing stress is the ratio of tangential force to area over which it is applied. Light travels at 186,282 miles per second in space. Plasma has free electrical charges and is often seen in ionized gases.

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103 views23 pages

EMERSON COY - PHD - THESIS

Quantum physics describes behavior at small scales including molecules, atoms and subatomic particles. Quantum entanglement links particles such that measuring one determines the other. Shearing stress is the ratio of tangential force to area over which it is applied. Light travels at 186,282 miles per second in space. Plasma has free electrical charges and is often seen in ionized gases.

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Explain what is Quantum Physics?

The understanding of behavior of matter and energy at the molecular, nuclear, atomic and even
microscopic levels is referred as Quantum physics.

Explain what is Quantum entanglement?

Quantum entanglement is one of the central principle of quantum physics, which means multiple
particles are linked together in a way that the measurement of one particle quantum state
determines the possible quantum of the other particles

Explain what is shearing stress?

Shearing stress is the ratio of the tangential force F to the area of the face BCGH over which it is
applied. The ratio shearing stress is divided by shearing strain is the shear module or co-efficient
of rigidity,

Shearing stress / Shearing strain = const = shear module or co-efficient of rigidity

Mention what is the speed of light in space?

In the space, light travels at a speed of 186,282 miles per second and sunlight takes about 8 min
and 19 sec to reach the surface of the earth.

What are the properties of fourth matter Plasma?

After Solid, liquid and gas there is one more matter that exists known as Plasma. Properties of
Plasma are

• Plasma has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume


• Plasma often seen in ionized gases, and heating produces it and ionizing a gas
• Free electrical charges which are not bound to atoms or ions can cause plasma to be
electrically conductive
• Some of the examples of plasma are lightning, stars, inside fluorescent lights and neon
signs
Define what is Thermal Conductivity?

The property of the material that relates to its ability to conduct heat is referred as Thermal
Conductivity.

Explain what is Parallax and Distance Measurement?

To measure the distance to nearby stars, astronomers use an effect called Parallax. Parallax is
the apparent displacement of an object because of a change in observer’s point of view, for
instance, when we look at object with one eye shut and then doing the same with other eye,
there is a difference in the position of the object this is known as Parallax.

To measure the star position astronomer uses this technique. Once the star position is located
after six month they will again calculate the apparent change in position.

Mention what is the unit to measure the heat resistance?

Ohm is the unit to measure the heat resistance.

What is the instrument used to know the scattering of light by particles suspended in a liquid?

Nephelometer is the instrument used to measure the scattering of light by particles suspended
in a liquid

Explain what is dyne?

Dyne is a unit of force or also referred as C-G-S (centimeter – gram –-second). It means that
when a force is applied to mass of 1 gram, it gives acceleration of 1 centimeter per Second Square.

Explain what is Wave-Particle duality?

When matter and light exhibits properties of both waves and particles, it is referred as Wave-
Particle duality. For instance, Light can behave like wave when it shines through narrow slits
while, when exposed to some metal surface it will spray electrons acting as a particle. So under
different conditions it will act.
Explain what is Quantum tunneling?

Quantum tunneling is the process where the particle passes through an obstruction or barrier to
reach at another end. It is referred as tunneling as the particle as “dug” out the way through the
potential barrier.

Explain what is Uncertainty principle?

Uncertainty principle tells that the momentum and position of a particle cannot be measured
precisely.

Explain what is dark matter?

Dark matter is an invisible matter in the space that can hold the stars into the galaxy. They have
no effect of electromagnetic force on it, which means it does absorb, reflect or emit light that
makes them practically invisible.

Explain what is a photon under the photon theory of light?

A discrete bundle of electromagnetic light or energy, which always remains in motion is referred
as photon.

Mention what are the properties of Photon?


• It moves at a constant velocity
• It has zero mass and rest energy
• When exposed (absorbed/emitted) to radiation it can be destroyed or created
• With the electron and another particle it will show particle like interaction
• It carries energy and momentum
Explain what is Pascal law?

A Pascal law states that when you apply force at one point on liquid it will transmit equal force
from one location to another within the liquid

Explain what is Neutrino?


Neutrino is a small, tiny elementary particle which carries no electrical charge which means it is
not affected by electro-magnetic forces, and travels almost the speed of light and passes through
ordinary matter without making any interaction.

Mention the factors on which the velocity of sound depends?

Velocity of sound depends on velocity and density of the medium on which it travels. It varies
directly as the square root of elasticity and inversely as the square root of the density.

Define term “Convection”?

Convection is the process of transferring heat by movement of heated fluid such as water or
air. In this process, the heated fluid expands, and gravity pulls the denser masses under them
thus forcing them into motion. One good example is a draft of lamps and stoves.

Explain the term angular acceleration?

Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity or speed of a body moving along a
circular path.

What Is The Measure Of The Force Of Gravity On An Object?


Force is the vector product of mass and acceleration: F = ma. Weight is a special case of that
formula, where you substitute the acceleration of gravity, g, for a. We can therefore write: W =
mg.

For example, if an object has a mass of 10 slugs2, its weight near the surface of the Earth is 10 x
32.2 (ft/s2) = 322 pounds (pound-force).

If an object has a mass of 10 kilograms, its weight near the surface of the Earth is 10 x 9.8 (m/s2)
= 98 newton’s.

You can measure the force of gravity on an object (i.e., its weight) by putting it on a scale.

What Is Neutral Buoyancy?


Buoyancy is the net upward force experienced by an object submersed in a fluid. Pascal's
principle dictates that fluid pressure on an object increases with depth, so there is greater
pressure on the bottom of the object than the top, resulting in a net upward force. When an
object's buoyancy is greater than its weight, the object will float.

An object with neutral buoyancy has a density such that when it is fully submerged the upward
force due to buoyancy is exactly equal to the downward force due to the weight of the object.

In pure water this is a density of 1000 kg/m3 (1kg/liter)


in seawater, this is a density of about 1025 kg/m3 (1.025kg/liter)
What Affect Does Electricity Have On Soil?
Electrical current and ions can cause certain molecules (and moisture) to adhere to soil. Large
amounts of current, such as a lightning strike, can fuse particles of soil into a crystalline structure,
somewhat like glass.

How Much Does Automotive Oil Weigh?


As a rough guide engine oil usually weighs about 0.87 kg/liter or about 7.2 pounds per US gallon.

Unfortunately a rough answer is the best that can be done as there are hundreds of different
types of engine oil with slightly different densities. To get an exact density we would have to
know the details of the oil you're using. For a really accurate answer we would also have to state
the temperature as the density of oil as with most fluids varies with temperature.

What Is A Newton Meter?


A unit of energy also known as a Joule. When a force of 1 Newton is applied on an object for a
distance of 1 meter then 1 Joule of energy is used. It is the result of a vector calculation involving
the meter (a unit of length in the SI system) and the Newton (the unit of force in the SI system).

A unit of torque. (Turning force.) When a force of 1 Newton is applied at a distance of 1 meter
from the pivot at right angle to the radius then a torque of 1 Newton Meter is present. It is the
metric equivalent of lb ft. It is the name given to a device that measures force. It is a meter that
measures Newton’s.

What Instrument Is Used To Measure Volume?


Liquid volume is measured with beakers, measuring cups, spoons, graduated cylinders, and the
like. For regular objects, solid volume can be calculated. For irregular objects, their volumes can
be determined by measuring the amount of liquid that is displaced by the object when it is
submerged in the liquid.

How Does The Elevation And Air Pressure Affect The Boiling Point Of Water?
The only factor that determines the boiling point of water at any altitude is the barometric
pressure (the altitude itself doesn't actually matter, it's just that at higher elevation, the
barometric pressure usually drops). However, water will boil at two different temperatures at
the same elevation if you are in a high pressure weather system instead of a low pressure system.

What Is Time?
This is the question that every true scientist dreads to be asked especially in a public setting by
extremely inquisitive young students. We have learned to measure and calculate it relative to the
natural arrangement of known and visible celestial bodies. This is the ultimate question you ask
a theoretical Astro physicist if you want to see them shake in their pants.

To this day time can only be described by the measure of elapsed period using the SI unit,
Seconds. It is the only SI unit that is freely allowed to shift depending on subject topic. For
example in Astro physics, to measure distance between galaxies it would be impractical to use
seconds as the measure of time it takes light to travel between the two galaxies.

Time transcends everything known to man up to and including the universe, time has no
beginning or end. Time is constant and infinite and we just tap in and out of it in reference to
occurrence of an event.

What Are Wave Fronts?


A wave front is an imaginary surface joining all points in space that are reached at the same
instant by a wave propagating through a medium.

Let's try some examples. When a rock is tossed into a calm lake, a surface disturbance radiates
from the point where the rock broke the water. The leading edge of that entire wave forms a
circle, and that circle is the wave front for that event. It is moving outward at a constant speed in
all directions. Note that it's two-dimensional (2D). Want 3D? You got it.
How Many Pounds Does One Gallon Of Water Weigh?
One wine measure or US gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds. An Imperial Gallon is ten pounds
of water at 62F and 30 inches of mercury air pressure.

At 60F. The density of water (and any other liquid) is dependent on temperature. So a gallon of
boiling water weighs less (8.00 pounds) than a gallon of water at 60F.

So fill up your car first thing in the morning when it should be the coolest, you'll get more pounds
of gasoline.

Except that most vehicle fuels are stored underground and are at a pretty constant temperature.
Fortunately it's pretty cool down there...

Make it easy to remember; an ounce of water weights, about an ounce. Can’t be easier than that.
So an American pint, 16 ounces, weighs about a pound. And an American gallon, 8 pints, about 8
pounds. Whereas an Imperial pint, 20 ounces; and an Imperial gallon, 160 ounces, about ten
pounds. Just like it says, up top.

When A Radar Gun Says The Pitch Is 90 Miles Per Hour At What Point In The Balls Travel To
Home Plate Is The Radar Gun Measuring The Velocity?

The measurement is made at the point where the ball is when the trigger is squeezed and the
contacts close to activate the unit. The gun responds in a "split second" by sending out a pulse,
catching the return, and then comparing the two to discover the difference (the Doppler shift).
It is so fast that the ball doesn't travel very far in the time it takes the unit to respond and resolve
the speed.

Does Sunlight Reflected off a Mirror Increase the Temperature of the Sun-rays?
A standard planar mirror will not increase the energy contained in the rays that reflect off it. In
fact, there will be some loss of energy since the reflective surface is not perfect. There is some
reduction in the light's intensity as it passes through the mirror's glass and reflects off the backing
surface.

Parabolic mirrors, on the other hand, focus and concentrate the light rays on a single point in
front of the mirror, aptly named the focus. Although the energy is not amplified, it will be
effectively increased because of the additive effect that will result when the light energy is
concentrated.

How Is Radiation Emitted From The Body?


The body radiates energy through thermal conduction through the skin to the air, clothes, etc.,
around the body. A small amount of energy would also be radiated as electromagnetic radiation
with a peak wavelength directly related to the Kelvin temperature of the skin.

Also very small amounts of other radiation are emitted due to naturally occurring radioactive
isotopes in the body (i.e. Carbon-14).

What Are The Steps To The Scientific Notation?


To write in scientific notation, you should first move the decimal point of the number to where
the number is between 1 and 9. For example, change 567 to 5.67. Then count the number of
places you moved the decimal. If you moved it left then the number is positive. If you moved it
right then the number is negative. Finally times the number with the decimal point by 10 to the
power of the number the decimal moved.
Example: 500000 --> 5.00000 --> over 5 --> 5 x 105
Give One Advantage Of A Scanning Electron Microscope Over A Transmission Electron
Microscope?
The SEM has become more popular than the TEM as it can produce images of high resolution,
greater clarity and three dimensional qualities and requires less sample preparation.

How Is Specific Gravity Defined?


Specific Gravity, SG, is a unit less quantity that gives the scientist or engineers an idea of how
dense a substance is compared to water. The density of water, which is one kilogram per liter (at
4 degrees C), is assigned a SG of 1.000. If a substance is denser than water, it will have a SG
greater than 1.000; if it is less dense than water, its S.G. will be a value less than 1.000 (but greater
than zero). Let's say a substance has a density of 2.5 kilograms per liter. That means that its SG is
2.5 (2.5 divided by 1.000).
What Is A Neutron?
A neutron is a subatomic particle; it is one of the building blocks of the atom. It has a mass of
about 1.675 x 10-27 kg. Its spin is + 1/2 and that makes it a fermions. Additionally, it has no electric
charge, which is a distinctive feature. It is unstable when free in nature, and has a half-life of
about 886 seconds

How Much Does Sea Salt Weigh Per Cubic Foot?


Sodium chloride, NaCl, weighs 72 lb/ft3

How Can Light Be Defined In Simplest Form?


The common definition of 'light' (visible) is electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye. It
is only a small part of what is known as the 'electromagnetic spectrum' - which is the range of
wavelengths of all possible electromagnetic radiation.

Does Weight Affect How Far You Jump?


For the same leg strength / jumping technique, weight affects how far one can jump.
Acceleration = Force / Mass
With more mass, you cannot accelerate yourself as much when you jump with the same force.
Imagine trying to jump with a small backpack full of sand strapped to your back. Your strength
hasn't changed. That is, the amount of force you can deliver hasn't changed, but your mass has.
You can't jump as high.

Is Air Travel Time The Same Whether Or Not The Plane Is Flying With Or Against The Rotation
Of The Earth?
All air travel takes the earth's rotation into account. Flights from east to west take less time in
absolute terms, having nothing to do with time zones. The reverse is true with west to east flights,
and even north-south flights must calculate the amount of rotational deviance while the aircraft
is in flight. Long range naval cannons have been computing the earth's rotation under the
projectile in aiming calculations for more than a century. Satellites in synchronous orbit that
appear stationary are actually traveling at the earth's rate of rotation.
What Would Happen If A Disk One Light Second In Circumference Were To Spin At 60 Rpm?
60 revolutions per minute is one revolution per second. 1 light second is the distance light travels
in one second.

What Are Newton S Laws Of Motion?


1. A body at rest will remain at rest and one in motion will remain in motion, until and unless
acted upon by an external force. (Law of inertia).
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting
on the body in the same direction as its motion. (F = ma)
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Note: These laws apply only at speeds not approaching the speed of light and do not apply to
sub-atomic particles.
Will A Dc Motor Actually Produce Voltage If It Is Spin In Reverse?
It'll produce voltage if you spin it forwards, too. The only difference between a DC motor and a
DC generator is what you use it for.
A long time ago, cars had DC generators on them instead of AC alternators. When you replaced
a generator, you had to "polarize" it so it would make electricity. You hooked it up to your battery
and let it run, as a motor, for a few seconds. Don't try that with an alternator because you'll break
it.
If you're looking for a neat little elementary-school science project, you can use little Radio Shack
electric motors as generators for things like windmills, water wheels, dynamos turned by bicycle
tires..

What Is An Alloy?
An alloy is a homogeneous hybrid of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and
where the resulting material has metallic properties. The resulting metallic substance often have
unexpected characteristics.

What Is The Law Of Machines?


Machines which are used to lift a load are governed by the "Law of machines", which states that
the effort to be applied on the machine (p) is related to the weight (w) which it can lift as -
p = mw + c. Where m and c are positive constants which are characteristics of the machine.
How Does The Arrangement Of Atoms In Most Solids Differ From The Arrangement Of Atoms
In A Liquid?
The arrangement of atoms in solids are different from those in liquids in that they are unable to
move from their location in the solid, where they can move in the liquid. A solid's atoms are
vibrating very rapidly, but the molecules are all locked into place, whereas in a liquid the
molecules are free to move around. Also in general the atoms of a solid are closer together than
those of a liquid with the exception of water, whose solid form is less dense.

When An Object Moves With Constant Velocity Does Its Average Velocity During Any Time
Interval Differ From Its Instantaneous Velocity At Any Instant?
No. Its velocity, average velocity and instantaneous velocity will all be the same at any (or every)
time an investigator makes an observation.

What Is Cardiac Output?


Cardiac output is the volume of blood the heart pumps within one minute. Cardiac output (CO)
is equal to the stroke volume (SV) of the heart multiplied by the heart rate (HR). Thus, cardiac
output is given by the equation: CO=HR X SV.

What Is the Longest Lasting Synthetic Periodic Element?

A good candidate would be curium 247 (247Cm), which has a half-life of 1.56 × 107 years. That's
15,600,000 years (15.6 million years).

What Happens When You Travel Across The Dateline?

If westbound, the day changes to the next day. If eastbound, the day is the day before. Seems
strange, but it all works out. Let's imagine we're on the beach in the early evening west of the
dateline at 4:59 PM Tuesday. If we swim eastward across the dateline and continue east seven
time zones, it will be 11:59 PM Monday. We rest from all this exercise and ponder the strangeness
of turning back a day. Whew! One more minute and it will be Tuesday anyway. Continue 17 more
time zones (24 totals) eastward and it will be 4:59 PM Tuesday. Just like we left it. It works just
fine in the reverse going the other way.
What Are The Applications Of NMR Spectroscopy?

The main applications of NMR stereoscopy are the elucidation of the carbon-hydrogen backbone
of organic compounds and the determination of the relative stereochemistry of the same
molecule.

What Are The Weights In Pounds Of Liquid Gallons?


First, you must know the specific gravity of the liquid then you can calculate the weight by
multiplying the specific gravity by 8.34 lbs. 8.34 lbs is the weight of a gallon of water that has a
specific gravity of 1.

How Do You Calculate Tensile Strength?

Tensile strength isn't really calculated; it's measured. It is defined as the point at which a sample
of material fails when subjected to tensile stress. The unit of measure of tensile strength (and
stress) is the Newton per square meter (N/m2), also known as the Pascal (Pa). Tensile strengths
of various building materials, such as steel, are measure in millions of Pa.

Why Is It Important Not To Expose A Patient To X-rays For Too Long?


Someone who is exposed to x-rays too long can develop cancer, skin burns, anemia, or other
serious conditions.

Why Does The Pilot Tilt The Outer Wing Of The Airplane Inward While Taking A Turn?
Airplanes have two control surfaces involved when turning, the ailerons are on the trailing edge
of the wings. By moving them in opposite directions, one up one down, the plane tilts, the lift the
wings are generating now causes the plane to turn instead of going up. The rudder which is
vertical at the back turns the plane to the left and right, but the rudder alone can turn the plane
but not change its direction (side slipping) so in order to turn correctly you must use both the
rudder and the ailerons.

What Is Ntu In Thermodynamics?


Ntu is nothing but number of transfer units it is one of the method used to find the heat transfer
of hot and cold body it is applicable to both parallel and counter flow.
Why Have The Electron And The Proton The Same Charge Whereas The Proton Is 1836 Times
Heavier?

Because the electric charge depends on the mass times the radius of a particle and whereas the
mass of the proton is 1836 heavier than the mass of the electron, the radius of the proton is 1836
times smaller. Thus, the product of mass time's radius is in both particles the same and therefore
they have the same charge.

How Do You Convert From Pascal To Torr?

Converting Pascal to torr

The Pascal is a smaller unit of pressure than the torr. There are 133.32 Pascal per torr. Hence,
divide your pressure measurement in Pascal by 133.32 to convert to torr.

If your measurement is in torr to begin with, multiply it by 133.32 to convert to Pascal.

Which Atomic Model Did Erwin Schrodinger Create?


Schrödinger's wave equation was based on the Heisenberg uncertainty principal that the position
and velocity of a electron cannot be determined accurately (accuracy in one will sacrifice
accuracy in another). Schrödinger's wave equation gave a wave function, which squared gave the
probability cloud of electrons. Therefore, Schrödinger's contribution resulted in the electron
cloud model of the atom.

Is A Sewing Needle Magnetic Or Non Magnetic?


When you buy it in the store it is not magnetized, but if you rub it with a magnet it becomes
magnetic.

What Is Meant By 4th Dimension?


When a reference is used to four-dimensional co-ordinates, it is likely that what is referred to, is
the three spatial dimensions plus a time-line.

What Is The Difference Between Isolation Transformers And Step Up Or Step Down
Transformer?
Actually an isolation transformer may be physically the same as a Step up/Step Down
transformer. The main difference is in the way they are used.
Another difference is that in a normal transformer there will be capacitance between the 2
windings, between the windings and core, between the core and shell, etc.

These capacitances bring in high frequency noise from outside, which will be transmitted in the
secondary circuit. So [in an isolation transformer] wires are connected between each component,
(not direct contact, but with insulation present). This permits a leakage current and eliminates
unnecessary capacitance.

How Do You Calculate Shaft Power?


Shaft power P = (2(pi) * (angular Speed in rpm) * (Torque at shaft))/ 60
Torque of a solid shaft is given by (pi/16)* (Shear stress of material of shaft) * (Dia of shaft3)
What Is Free Fall Acceleration?
On earth free fall acceleration is 9.81 meters per second per second or 32.2 feet per second per
second, not including air resistance.

Around these parts, free fall acceleration is the acceleration due to earth gravity on a body that
is not acted on by an outside force (like air resistance or a bungee tether).

What Is Nucleus?
It is the part of an atom where whole mass of the atom is assume to be concentrated. Or it is
the central part of an atom which contain proton and neutron.

How Is Energy Transformed In Windmills?


Essentially what happens is that as the energy from the wind rotates the vanes of the mill, coils
of wire rotate inside a permanent magnet (generator) and produce electric voltage/current.
This current is then sent onto the grid and used by us as electricity another form of energy.
This is a very simple explanation and there is a lot more in the design of the system.

Name The Women Scientist Who Has Played the Pivotal Role in the Development Missile
Technology of India and Nick Named As "missile Woman"?

Tessy Thomas.
In Radioactive Dating We Use Half Life To Determine The Age Of A Sample But Not Average
Life Why?
It is a quantitative measure in which we compare the quantity of a radioactive substance in
the sample to that in the atmosphere/fresh substance.

What Is Meant By The Rest Mass Energy Of An Electron?


According to the Einstein's Theory of Relativity, the mass of a body (say a particle) depends on
the energy and on the momentum (say the velocity) with which the particle moves.

So, we have a problem: is there a mass value that every observers can relate to? Yes: is the
rest mass that is the mass you could measure in a frame of reference co-moving with the
particle (in which the particle is still), that is the center-of-mass frame and that coincide with
the minimum value measurable for every observers.

What Is Fusion?

It is a nuclear reaction in which two nuclei combine to form a larger (with nearly combined
mass) nuclei.

It releases lot of energy. Sun and stars release energy in this fashion.

What Is The Difference Between Cathode Ray And Beta Ray?


Actually normal on the wave front called RAY, in the beta radiation there is wave packet and
hence no wave front. In cathode ray there is electromagnetic radiation and we can use word
ray but in the case of beta particle we use word beta radiation instead of beta ray.

Can an Electron Be Obtained (or Come Out) From the Nucleus?


Yes, electron having an energy higher than the ordinary atomic electron may come out of the
nucleus due to beta decay process. A negative beta is identical to an electron in all respect
except with difference in kinetic energy.

Explain History Of Nuclear Reaction?


Bigger nucleus broken to from two lighter nucleus and two or three neutrons is called nuclear
fission used for making atom bomb two lighter nucleus joined to form bigger nucleus is called
nuclear fusion used for making hydrogen bomb.
What Is Fission And Fusion?
Fission: The breaking down of a Nucleus (not atom) into smaller nuclei. It is usually induced by
a neutron.

For example, a Helium nucleus (called alpha particle) is divided into two 4He (+2) --> 2H (+1) +
2H (+1)

A lot of energy is released in the process.


Fusion: This happens when two nuclei combines to form a larger nuclei. Huge amount of
energy is needed to start this. Because it’s not easy to bring two positively charged nuclei
closer. When they combine, a huge amount of energy is released.

This usually happens in the stars. The energy required to start the fusion comes from
the gravitational force between the particles.

The Velocity Of A Body Was Noted To Be Constant During Five Minutes Of Its Motion. What
Was Acceleration during This Interval Its?

Since velocity of body remains constant during given time period, so diff. of velocity (constant)
with respect to time will be ZERO.

Name Any Two Elementary Particles Which Have Almost Infinite Life Time?
Electron and proton have almost infinite life time.

Cadmium Rods Are Provided In A Nuclear Reactor. Why?


Cadmium rods are provided in nuclear reactors because when we start nuclear reactor then
more energy is required for start the reactor, we cannot start nuclear reactor with less energy,
the rod is used specially for stopping contact of newton particles with the system.

What Is The Essential Difference Between An Electron And A Beta Ray?


The electron of nuclear origin is called a beta-particle. There is otherwise no difference
between an electron and a beta-particle.

What Does Held Nucleons Together In A Nucleus?


Nuclear force. It is the nuclear force which binds the nucleons together and is responsible for
the stability of nucleus.
Tell Me Is It Possible That A Nucleus Has Negative Mass Defect?
If the nucleus has had a mass defect it is likely that the strong force and the weak force have
sustained a major reduction in equilibrium. This can cause the positive and negative charges
to reverse and change energy levels. Such a phenomenon has been describe by Einstein in his
paper on the speed of light and time reduction. You can check this with the use of an electron
microscope to determine is the color spectrum had changed drastically. If so, then you
may have a problem.

Why Is Heavy Water Used As A Moderator?


Heavy water is water highly enriched in the hydrogen isotope deuterium. We can compare the
neutron interactions with billiard ball collision, where neutron collides with nucleus of other
atoms & lose energy. If the colliding nucleus size is small like hydrogen nucleus it will
lose maximum energey.If nucleus is heavy the neutron hits the nucleus just changes its
direction but not that much change in the energy of neutron. So we use heavy water
as moderator to slow down neutrons.

How Asteroids Are Formed?

Due to impact of planets, rocks are escape in the space and became asteroids. In some case
the gaseous material and vapor produced in the supernova are coagulated in the space and
form asteroids.

What Is E= Mc2?
This is mass-energy lesion.

Why “quantum Physics” Is Named as It Is?


In 1905 Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric phenomena by assuming that light can be
absorbed in certain “packets”, only. He suggested that light has an elementary “quanta”; the
photon, as it was then called. This contributed to the birth of a new physics in an important
way. Many other quantities (that were previously considered “continuous”) were also
discovered to be quantized. Thus the emerging new physics was named “quantum physics”.
So The Essence Of Quantum Physics Is That Everything Has A Quanta?
Not really. In fact, it is not even true. For example, if we take an H-atom, we find that it has
certain energy levels. But it is not true that “energy is quantized”. If we now take a different
atom, we find different energy levels; the actual levels does not reflect some universal
property of energy — rather, it is specific to the system in question. By the way, such things
can happen in classical physics, too. For example, if we have a cord, it can only vibrate at certain
frequencies. However, different cords can vibrate at all sort of different frequencies —
altogether, in classical physics there is no natural unit of frequency.

Then What Is The Essence Of Quantum Physics? What Makes It So Different From Classical
Physics?
Quantum physics takes account of the uncertainty present in nature. (By the way, you should
also note, that quantum physics is not a single theory; rather, it is a general framework. More
specifically, one talks about quantum mechanics, quantum thermodynamics, quantum field
theory, etc.) Here the word “uncertainty” is not meant in the sense that we don’t know
something (so that we would be uncertain of something).

Quantum physics claims that reality isn’t something crystal clear; instead, it is somewhat misty.
When we describe the electron’s position in an H-atom by a certain spherical “cloud”, we do
so not because we are not sure where it is (which would be a simple lack of information on the
observer’s side). Rather, the electron itself is not sure about its position (“intrinsic
uncertainty”), and in some sense it is really both here and there and a little bit all around.

So Quantum Physics Must Use Probability Theory?


Yes, but it uses a “built in” probability theory which is different from the classical one. There is
actually a mathematical difference between probabilities arising from lack of knowledge and
intrinsic uncertainty. When we use classical probability theory, we tacitly assume that at each
experimental round, each measurable quantity (described in the theory by a random variable)
assumes a value — independently from the fact whether we have measured it or not. In reality,
at each experimental round we can only measure some quantities.

It turns out that the statistics emerging from experimental data actually contradicts the
assumption that at each experimental round, all quantities had a value (and that only we did
not know them). On the other hand, the probability theory used in quantum physics does not
make such assumptions and in fact the predictions made by using quantum physics are in
perfect agreement with experimental data. From the point of view of abstract mathematics,
the main difference is that the event-lattice used in classical probability theory is distributive,
whereas the one used by quantum physics isn’t.

I’ve heard that in Quantum Physics A Lot of Fancy Mathematical Objects like Hilbert Spaces
Are Used, And That In Particular, and Measurable Quantities Are Described By Self-adjoint
Operators. Are These Things Related To What You Have Just Explained?
Yes, these are mathematical elements of the “built in” probability theory used by quantum
physics.

How About the Particle-wave Duality?


It is just another example of uncertainty. Consider light, which was already mentioned in the
beginning of our discussion. It can only be emitted and absorbed in certain units; this is what
have suggested the photon-theory.

Yet to describe its propagation one is forced to talk about waves. (Even if we deal with a single
photon!) Actually, this is true not only for light: it is a general fact regarding every elementary
particle. So from the classical point of view, the situation is rather paradoxical: a particle can
sometimes behave like a wave. From the point of quantum physics, there is no paradox. The
particle is a particle, but its position is uncertain. It can be both here and little bit also there,
so actually even a single particle can produce interference phenomena.

Why Is It That Sound Waves Are Not Normally Considered as Having Particle-like Properties,
Nor Raindrops as Having Wave-like Properties?
The wavelength of a wave is related to its momentum and the Planck constant by the equation
l=h/mv. For sound waves, their wavelength is too long hence the sound particles have too little
momentum to exhibit particulate properties. For raindrops, due to their large mass and hence
momentum, their wavelength is too short for them to undergo significant diffraction.
Diffraction can only be observable if the dimension of the aperture is comparable to the
wavelength of the wave.
Explain Qualitatively The Phenomenon Of Quantum Tunneling Of An Electron Across A
Potential Barrier?
An electron is considered as a wave function. The probability of finding an electron is directly
proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave function. When the wave function of
an electron encounters a potential barrier, its amplitude decreases exponentially. For a narrow
barrier, the wave amplitude may not become zero after the electron passes through the
barrier. Hence, there is a non-zero probability that the electron will be found beyond the
barrier. This process is called quantum tunneling.

Explain The Different Parts Of The X-ray Radiation Intensity Graph?


The broad continuous spectrum:
Formation: Electrons emitted by the heated filament are made to accelerate through a high
PD before they collide with the metal target with very high speeds à interactions with the
nuclei of the target atoms, thus electrons lose KE à KE lost converted to energy of x-ray photos
radiated from the target; different electrons slowed to different extent à energies of x-ray
photons produced take a continuous of values à continuous spectrum formed.
The sharp characteristic peak (unique for each element):
Occurs when bombarding electron colliding with a target atom has enough energy to remove
an inner-shell electron from the atom.
Existence of Ka and Kb values: Incoming electron knocked off an electron in the n = 1 level (K-
shell), in which the vacancy in this shell is then filled by an electron from the n = 2 L-shell, an
x-ray photon of the Ka characteristic x-ray is emitted; For Kb, when the vacancy in the K-shell
is filled by an electron dropping from the n = 3 M-shell, x-ray photon of the Kb characteristic x-
ray is emitted.
Why is the intensity of the Ka characteristic x-ray > Kb characteristic x-ray: Electrons in the n
= 2 L-shell are nearer to the n = 1 K-shell, thus there is a greater probability that the vacancy in
the K-shell is filled by an electron from the L-shell than the n =3 M-shell.
Other points to note for X-rays:
Same target material –> characteristic x-rays produced have same wavelengths –> energy
levels of target atoms are the same.
Higher voltage applied in x-ray tube –> minimum wavelength of x-rays produced is lower –>
bombarding electrons produced by tube have higher initial KE (ß with higher voltage applied).
Describe And Interpret Qualitatively The Evidence Provided By Electron Diffraction For The
Wave Nature Of Particles.
When a beam of electrons passed through a thin film of crystal, the dispersion pattern of the
emergent electrons produced on a screen is observed to be similar to the diffraction pattern
produced by a beam of X-ray. This phenomenon provides evidence for the wave nature of
particles like electrons.

Distinguish Between Emission And Absorption Line Spectra.


An emission line spectrum of an element consists of colored lines on a dark background while
an absorption spectrum consists of dark lines on a colored background at the same discrete
wavelength positions for the same element. For emission spectra, electrons transit from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level. For absorption spectra, electrons transit from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level.

Explain How Spectral Lines Show Discrete Energy Levels In An Atom.


An emission spectrum consists of a set of discrete wavelengths. A photon is emitted from an
isolated atom when one of its electrons transits from a higher to a lower energy level. Energy
of the photon is equal to the energy difference between the two levels involved in the
transition.

What Are The 4 Results Of The Photoelectric Effect Experiments?


Current is proportional to intensity. This result can be explained using wave nature and
particulate nature of light.
For every material of cathode irradiated, there is a threshold frequency below which no
electrons would be emitted from the cathode regardless of light intensity. This result can be
explained using the particulate nature of light only.
The maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons depends only on the frequency of the
incident radiation, and not its intensity. This result can be explained using the particulate
nature of light only.
The emission of photoelectrons starts with no observable time lag, even for very low intensity
of incident radiation. This result can be explained using the particular nature of light only.
What Is Black Body And What Are Its Characteristics?
A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and also emits the radiations completely.
In practice nobody is perfectly black. We have to coat the black color over the surface to make
a black body.
Black body is said to be a perfect absorber, since it absorbs all the wavelengths of the incident
radiation. The black body is a perfect radiator, because it radiates the entire wavelength
absorbed by it. This phenomenon is called black body radiation.
What Are The Applications Of Schrödinger Wave Equations?
It is used to find the electrons in the metal.
It is used to find the energy levels of an electron in an infinite deep potential well.
What Is Meant By Energy Spectrum Of A Black Body? What Do You Infer From It?
The distribution of energy for various wavelengths at various temperatures is known as energy
spectrum of a black body.

INFERENCE:
When temperature increases, the wavelength decreases.
The total energy emitted at any particular temperature can be found with the help of the area
traced by the curve.
Mention The Applications Of Electron Microscope.
It has a very wide area of applications in the field of biology, metallurgy, physics, chemistry,
medicine, and engineering.
It is used to determine the complicated structures of crystals.
It is used in the study of celluloid.
It is used to study the structure of microorganisms such as virus, bacteria etc.
What Is Meant By Degenerate And Non-degenerate State? Give Examples.
Degenerate state: for various combinations of quantum numbers if we get same Eigen value
(Energy levels) but different Eigen functions, then it is called degenerate state.
Non- degenerate state: for various combinations of quantum numbers if we get same Eigen
values (Energy levels) and same Eigen functions, then it is called Non- Degenerate state.
What Is Physical Significance Of Wave Function?
The probability of finding a particle in space, at any given instant of time is characterized by a
function Ψ(x, y, z) called wave-function.
It relates the particle and the wave statistically.
It gives the information about the particle behavior.
It is a complex quantity.
|Ψ 2| represents the probability density of the particle, which is real and positive.
Explain Planck’s Hypothesis or What the Postulates of Planck’s Quantum Theory? (Or) What
Are The Assumptions Of Quantum Theory Of Black Body Radiation?
The electrons in the black body are assumed as simple harmonic oscillators.
The oscillators will not emit energy continuously. They emit radiation in terms of quanta of
magnitude ‘hγ’, discretely.
E = nhγ where n= 1, 2, 3, 3…

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