LESSON

4
Seasons on Earth

INTRODUCTION
Nearly every place on Earth has four distinct sea-
sons: winter, spring, summer, and fall. Both the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres experience

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA) PHOTO LIBRARY/NOAA CENTRAL LIBRARY
seasons, but they experience different seasons
at the same time. When it is summer in the
Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern
Hemisphere, and vice versa. The shape and tilt of
Earth on its axis affects the angle at which the
Sun’s rays pass through the atmosphere, and the
length of daylight that an area experiences.
In this lesson, you will read about seasons and
observe how the relative positions of the Sun
and Earth change throughout the year. You will
investigate the tilt of Earth’s axis as it orbits the
Sun, and you will see how the tilted Earth’s orbit
relates to seasons and changing shadows. You
also will return to the software program you
used in Lesson 3 to analyze the position of the
North Star, as well as sunrise and sunset data
over the year at different latitudes. You will
On Earth, orange and red autumn leaves
stand out against the blue sky.

OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LESSON

Model Earth’s orbit.

Identify Polaris as the current North Star.

Compare sunrise and sunset times at

different latitudes throughout the year.

Relate changes in the apparent path of

the Sun and the length of daylight to
Earth’s orbit on its tilted axis.

Create a working definition of the

term “revolution.” Identify “orbit” as
its synonym.

42 STC/MS™ E A R T H IN S PA C E
explore what the apparent path of the Sun at MATERIALS FOR For your group
different latitudes tells us about Earth’s position LESSON 4 1 transparency copy
relative to the Sun. Why does Earth’s revolution of Student Sheet
around the Sun cause seasons? Let’s find out. For you 4.3a: Sunrise and
1 copy of Student Sunset Data for
Sheet 4.3a: Different Latitudes
Getting Started Sunrise and 1 transparency copy
Sunset Data for of Student Sheet

1. Examine the shadow data from Lesson 3.

Why do you think winter and summer
Different Latitudes
1 copy of Student
4.3b: Graphing the
Ecliptic at Different
shadows are different? Do you think that Sheet 4.3b: Latitudes
the shadows in June are the same every- Graphing the 1 set of fine-point
where on Earth? Discuss your ideas with Ecliptic at Different transparency
the class. Latitudes markers
1 copy of Student 1 Sun-Earth-Moon

2. What do you already know about seasons?

What questions do you have about sea-
Sheet 4: Review:
Lessons 1-4
Board™
1 globe of Earth,
sons? Share your ideas with the class. 12 cm
1 rod labeled “E”

3. Look at the two mounted globes. What

observations can you make about the
1 toothpick, 1 cm
of tip
globes? Discuss your ideas as a class. Modeling clay,
bead-sized amount
1 Mini Maglite®
2 AA batteries
5 removable dots
1 protractor
1 foam sleeve
(optional)

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

4. Watch as your teacher demonstrates how

Earth’s axis can be “fixed” on one star as
5. Read “The Reasons for Seasons” in this
lesson. Discuss the questions with the
it orbits the Sun, as shown in Figure 4.1. class.

Figure 4.1 The axis of this globe is “fixed” on the same point in the room as it orbits the
Mini Maglite®.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

Inquiry 4.1
Investigating Seasons
on Earth
PROCEDURE

1. Insert the rod labeled “E” through your

globe to form an axis.
3. Mark your home location on the globe
using a small bead-sized amount of mod-
eling clay and the tip of your toothpick,

2. Stick the rod of your globe into the center

hole of Side B of the SEM Board. If you
as in Lesson 3 (see Figure 3.7). This will
serve as a miniature shadow stick.
have a protractor, measure the degree to
which the axis is tilted. It should tilt
approximately 23.5 degrees, as shown in
4. How can you use these materials to
recreate winter and summer shadows on
Figure 4.2. your globe? Discuss your ideas with
your group.

Figure 4.2 Setting up the Sun-Earth-Moon Board

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

5. Place a removable dot in the center of

your workspace. Place four additional
6. Position the SEM Board so that the rod of
your globe is approximately over the dot
removable dots approximately 30 cm labeled “A.” Position the board so that the
from that dot to form a cross. Label the hole on the board marked “1” is closest to
center dot “S.” Label the outside dots your “S” dot, as shown in Figure 4.4.
“A,” “B,” “C,” and “D” for the four sea-
sons, as shown in Figure 4.3.

30 c cm
m 30
30 c
m
cm
30

Figure 4.3 Place the removable dots on your table, floor, or desk. Position and label them as
shown. If the dots were a compass, the “A” would be north, the “B” would be west, the “C”
would be south, and the “D” would be east. The “S” would be the center of the compass.

46 STC/MS™ E A R T H IN S PA C E
 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

Figure 4.4 Set up your model as shown. Shine the Mini Maglite® on the equator of your globe. Keep the head of the
light over the “S” at all times.

7. Hold the Mini Maglite over the “S” so that

the light shines on the equator of your
8. Record a description of your observations
in your notebook. Label your observa-
globe. Slowly rotate the globe counter- tions “A.” You may want to draw a picture
clockwise so that your toothpick experi- as well.
ences day and then night. Observe the
shadows that form near the toothpick. Do
this several times. Discuss your observa-
tions with your group.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

Figure 4.5 Move your Sun-Earth-Moon Board counterclockwise around your Mini Maglite® to dot
“B.” Keep the axis of the globe pointing in the same direction each time.

9. Now slide your SEM board counterclock-

wise around your Mini Maglite until the
observations. Record them in your note-
book. Label your observations “B.”
axis of your globe rests approximately
over the dot labeled “B,” as shown in
Figure 4.5. Keep the axis of your globe
12. Repeat Step 11 with the dot labeled “C.”
Keep the axis of your globe facing the
facing the same direction as it was in hole on the board marked “5,” which
Step 6. This means that the hole on the should now be closest to the “S” dot.
board marked “3” should now be closest Keep the Mini Maglite over the dot labeled
to your “S” dot and your globe is still “S” but face it toward the globe. Discuss,
leaning toward the hole marked “5.” record, and label your observations.

10. Examine the new position of your board.

How many months would it take Earth to
13. Repeat Step 11 with the dot labeled “D.”
The hole on the board marked “7” should
move one-fourth of its orbit around the now be closest to your “S” dot.
Sun (from dot “A” to “B”)? Discuss your
ideas with your group.
14. Now move your clay and miniature
shadow stick to a place in the Southern

11. Keep your Mini Maglite over the dot labeled

“S,” but shine it on your globe. Rotate your
Hemisphere (such as South Africa).
Repeat Steps 6–13. Record your obser-
globe counterclockwise on its axis. What vations in both words and pictures.
shadows does the toothpick cast as your Label your observations (for example,
globe rotates on its axis? Discuss your “Southern Hemisphere”).

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

REFLECTING ON WHAT YOU’VE DONE C. Why are summer and winter 6 months
apart?

1. Share your group’s results. Your teacher

may ask you to demonstrate what you did. D. What is happening in the Southern
Hemisphere when it is winter in the

2. Answer the following questions in your

science notebooks, and then discuss them
Northern Hemisphere?

with your class: E. Earth travels in a slightly elliptical

orbit around the Sun. Therefore, Earth is
A. Describe and draw the position of the closer to the Sun in December than it is
Sun and Earth during winter in the in June. If Earth is closer to the Sun in
Northern Hemisphere. December, why is December in the
Northern Hemisphere colder than June?
B. Describe and draw the position of the
Sun and Earth during summer in the F. What did you learn in this lab that
Northern Hemisphere. helps you to describe one reason why
winter is colder than summer?

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

Inquiry 4.2 8. Set the sky in motion again by clicking on

the <Flow Time Forward> arrow. What
Observing the North Star observations can you make about the
apparent motion of the stars? Record your
PROCEDURE observations in your table. Explain what
you see and why you think it is happening.

1. Read “Steering by the Stars.” Discuss

the questions at the end of the reading
selection.
9. Change the date on the screen to 3 months
from the date of the lesson. Repeat Steps
6–8. Do this for all four seasons by advanc-

2. Review the steps of the inquiry, in which

you will observe the North Star during
ing the dates in 3-month intervals. What
observations can you make about the
four different times of the year. Create a North Star and the motion of the other
table in your notebook to record your stars throughout the year? What observa-
observations. tions can you make about the star’s angle
of separation each time? Record the date,
TM
3. Using Starry Night Backyard , set the
computer program to your Home Location
angle of separation, and your observations
in your table each time.
(use today’s date and your nearest city).
Record the latitude of your Home
Location.
10. Visit another location (latitude) in the
Northern Hemisphere. What observations
can you make about the relationship

4. Select <Celestial Poles> from <Guides>

on the menu bar. Set the <Time Step> to
between latitude and the location of the
North Celestial Pole? What does the
003 minutes. apparent motion of the stars tell you
about Earth? In your notebook, write a

5. Click and drag the cursor around the

screen until you find the labeled North
short paragraph describing the conclu-
sions you can make from this inquiry.
Celestial Pole.

11. Visit a country in the Southern

6. Put the screen in motion by clicking on
the <Flow Time Forward> arrow. Stop it
Hemisphere. Find the South Celestial
Pole. Find the “South Star.” What do
when you see the night sky. Move your you observe? Discuss your ideas with
cursor over the North Celestial Pole to see your group.
the name of the star nearest the pole. Can
you find the North Star? What is its name?
Use this name in the title of your table.

7. Measure the angle of separation between

the North Star and the horizon. Do this by
moving the cursor over the North Star,
turning the cursor into an arrow, and then
clicking and dragging the arrow to the
horizon. Record the date and the angle of
separation in your observation table.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

Inquiry 4.3 6. Put the screen in play by clicking on the

<Time Forward> button. Stop the screen
Investigating Seasonal when the Sun begins to rise (that is, the
Variations at Different first moment you see a shadow appear).
Latitudes You may have to rewind or go forward
to stop the screen at the exact time of
PROCEDURE sunrise.

1. How can you use Starry Night Backyard

to learn more about sunrise and sunset
7. Record the sunrise time in Table 1 of
Student Sheet 4.3a. (If you do not see the
and seasons at various latitudes? Your Sun rise at all on March 21, record “0” in
group will be assigned one of the following Table 1.) Where along the horizon is the
places to investigate using the computer: Sun rising? Record the compass direction
of the rising Sun in Table 1.
• Home location (nearest city)
• Anchorage, Alaska
• Quito, Ecuador
8. Put the screen into play again. At solar
noon (when the shadows are the short-
• Antarctica (anywhere along 75° S est for that day), stop the screen. Find
latitude) the Sun in the sky. Put your cursor on
the Sun, turn the cursor to an arrow,

2. Record your assigned location on both

Student Sheets 4.3a and 4.3b.
click, and drag the arrow down to the
horizon. What is the Sun’s angle of sepa-
ration (its “height” above the horizon)?
Using Starry Night Backyard, set your Record the angle of separation and its
3. <Home Location> to the place to which time in Table 1. (Record “0” if the Sun
your group was assigned. Record the lon- does not rise.)
gitude and latitude of that place onto
Student Sheets 4.3a and 4.3b.
9. Put the screen in play again. Stop the
screen when the Sun begins to set (the

4. Set the date on the computer program to

March 21 of this year.
minute you see the shadow disappear).
Record the sunset time. Record the
compass direction as well.

5. Set the time on the program to 4:00 A.M.

10. How many hours elapsed from the time
of sunrise until the time of sunset?
Calculate the total daylight hours and
minutes. Record the total daylight hours
in Table 1.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

11. Reset your date to June 21. Repeat Steps

5–10 and record your data in Table 1.
12. Use the data in Table 1 to complete the
graph on Student Sheet 4.3b. Connect
Then do the same for September 21 and the sunrise, sunset, and angle of separa-
December 21. tion points using an arc (curved line).
Use your key to color code each month’s
curve. A sample of what the ecliptic looks
like in June at the equator is shown in
Figure 4.6.
Angle of Separation (°)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

1 A.M. 6 A.M. 12 NOON 6 P.M. 12

MIDNIGHT
Time (hours)

Figure 4.6 Sample drawing of the ecliptic for Quito, Ecuador, on June 21

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REFLECTING ON WHAT YOU’VE DONE D. How might the apparent height of

the Sun in the sky and the length of

1. Be prepared to share your group’s data

from Table 1 on Student Sheet 4.3a and
daylight affect the temperature for a
particular latitude?
Graph 1 on Student Sheet 4.3b with the
class. E. What do you think is responsible for
the differences in the path of the Sun and

2. Answer the following questions in your

science notebook, and be prepared to dis-
in the sunrise and sunset times for differ-
ent latitudes throughout the year?
cuss your answers with the class:

A. Describe the pattern of sunrise and

3. In your own words, record a working
definition for the term “revolution” in
sunset times for the equator. Why do you your notebook. Compare your definition
think this is so? to the definition of the term “orbit” in
the glossary.
B. How do sunrise and sunset times at the
Antarctic compare to those in Alaska?
4. With your class, return to the Question B
folder (from Lesson 1) and its accompany-
C. How does the apparent path of the Sun ing photo card. Review the self-stick
across the sky during summer change as responses about what causes seasons. As
you move closer to the North Pole? a class, remove any postings that now
seem incorrect. Add any new ideas you
may have to the folder.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

The Reasons for Seasons

Like all the planets in our solar system, Earth warm Earth is, it would mean that everyone
orbits around the Sun. Earth also rotates on its on Earth would have summer in December.
axis, which is currently tilted 23.5 degrees to You know this is not true if you live in the
the plane of its orbit. While the tilt of Earth’s Northern Hemisphere.
axis will change very little over your lifetime, It is Earth’s atmosphere and the tilt of its axis
the part of Earth that is exposed to the most that are responsible for the changes in seasons.
solar energy—energy from the Sun—does These factors affect the amount of solar energy
change, and on a regular basis. This is because that reaches each part of Earth at any time.
the tilted Earth orbits the Sun. The tilt of Earth on its axis affects the angle at
What do you think causes the seasons? which the Sun’s rays pass through the atmos-
Many people believe that seasons depend on phere and strike Earth’s surface. The higher
the distance between Earth and the Sun. That the Sun’s angle, the more intense the solar
might seem logical, but consider this: Earth radiation and the less atmosphere the rays
travels in an ellipse, or oval, around the Sun. must pass through. The lower the Sun’s angle,
Due to this ellipse, Earth is slightly closer to the less intense the solar radiation and the
the Sun in December than in June. If the dis- more atmosphere the rays must pass through
tance from the Sun were responsible for how (see the illustrations).
(continued)

June

December

East
South

North

West
The angle of the Sun above the horizon is much greater in the summer than in the winter.

54 STC/MS™ E A R T H IN S PA C E
 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

80°
45°
30°

The higher the angle, the more intense the solar radiation.

Because of the curvature of Earth, sunlight strikes the poles at a low angle. Rays striking Earth at a low angle must
pass through more atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere absorbs and reflects solar energy. The more atmosphere the
rays have to pass through, the less solar energy reaches Earth’s surface. This is one reason the poles are colder
than other parts of Earth.

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The tilt of Earth also affects the length of day- On two days of the year (somewhere around
light in any particular area. Between March 21 March 21 and September 21), the Sun is over
and September 21 on average, the Northern Earth’s equator and neither hemisphere tilts
Hemisphere tilts toward the Sun. During this toward the Sun. On those two days, the surface
period the surface of Earth in the Northern of Earth in both hemispheres receives equal
Hemisphere receives longer periods of daylight amounts of energy from the Sun. Night and day
than the surface of Earth in the Southern are almost equal in length all over the world
Hemisphere. More direct sunlight for longer except at the poles. These two days are called
periods causes warmer weather. However, the equinox. (To remember this term, think of
between September 21 and March 21, the “equal night.”) Equinoxes occur midway
Southern Hemisphere tilts toward the Sun between the solstices.
and has warmer weather. On December 21 On average, December 21 has the shortest
(or December 22, depending on the year), the period of daylight in the Northern Hemisphere.
Southern Hemisphere celebrates the first day But December 21 is not usually the coldest day
of summer—called the summer solstice; on of the year because it takes several weeks in fall
that same day, the Northern Hemisphere and early winter before the atmosphere and
experiences its first day of winter—the winter oceans cool off. There is a lag, or delay, in sea-
solstice! sonal temperatures, and the coldest period in

Northern
Hemisphere:
Northern
Winter
Hemisphere: March 21
Summer

Sun

December 21
June 21
Southern
Hemisphere:
Summer
Southern
Hemisphere:
Winter

September 21

Between March 21 and September 21, the Northern Hemisphere tilts toward the Sun and has spring and summer.
During that same time, the Southern Hemisphere tilts away from the Sun and has fall and winter. The equator is
warm all year round. (Diagram is not drawn to scale.)

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

the Northern Hemisphere

therefore may not arrive until
early February. The same sea-
sonal temperature delay
occurs in spring and summer.
The amount of solar energy
that reaches each hemisphere
affects the temperature of the
Sun Earth
Earth’s surface. Even though
the Sun is closer to Earth in
winter than in summer in the
Northern Hemisphere, the
Sun’s rays do not hit Earth
directly. The rays hit it at an
angle after passing through
the atmosphere. During win-
ter, there are also fewer hours Seasons are the result of uneven heating of Earth’s surfaces.
of daylight, which accounts
for some of the chill of winter.

Seasons on Other Planets cold on each end of Uranus. Other planets also
Did you know that other planets also have differ- have interesting relationships to the Sun that
ent seasons? The spin axis of Uranus, for exam- cause different seasonal characteristics. You will
ple, points to the Sun. That means that Uranus learn about them in Part 2 of this module. 
is tilted about 98 degrees to the plane of the
ecliptic (the plane along which the Sun exists), QUESTIONS
compared to Earth’s current tilt of 23.5 degrees.
With Uranus completely on its side, one hemi- 1. What is the winter solstice, and when does
sphere always has summer during half of it occur in the Northern Hemisphere?
Uranus’s 84-year orbit around the Sun, while the 2. Draw a picture of Earth’s position relative to
other hemisphere doesn’t experience summer the Sun when the Southern Hemisphere is
until the second half of its 84-year orbit! This experiencing summer.
pattern creates 42-year seasons of warmth and 3. How long is winter on Uranus? Why?
© 1997-2000 BY CALVIN J. HAMILTON

Each planet is tilted slightly differently. Notice how Uranus is tilted 98 degrees on its axis as it revolves around the Sun.
What other planet might have an unusual pattern of seasons?

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

2
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2

2
2
2

2
2

2
Steering by the Stars 2

2
2
2
2

2
2

2
2
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2
How did sailors of centuries past find their
way across the seas before the invention of
the compass and the sextant? The earliest
sailors followed the coastline as far as they
could, using features on land to mark their
location. But when their journey took them
far from land, they relied on the sky.
Early sailors knew that the Sun rises in the
east and sets in the west, and they used that
knowledge to guide them. So if they sailed
into the rising Sun, they knew they were
heading east. If they turned to the right,
putting the rising Sun on their left side, they
knew that they were heading south.
At night, these ancient mariners steered by
the stars. The North Star proved a stable
marker in the Northern Hemisphere because
Earth’s northern axis points to the North
Celestial Pole (celestial means “dealing with
the sky; heavenly”). The North Star, Polaris, is Sailors looked at stars and other celestial bodies through
the star currently closest to the North the telescope of this sextant. The angular distance of a
Celestial Pole. As Earth rotates on its axis, the star above the horizon was read off the sextant’s scale.
stars in the night sky seem to move in a circle, This way, sailors could calculate their positions.
because they are fixed relative to Earth. But
the North Star remains in one spot in
the Northern Hemisphere sky at
all times, and all the other stars
seem to rotate around it.
The farther north a sailor
traveled in the Northern
Hemisphere, the higher
the North Star appeared Polaris
in the sky. The farther Polaris, the current North Star,
south one sailed in the Little is at the tip of the handle of the
Northern Hemisphere, Dipper Little Dipper. You can also find it
the lower the star Big by connecting the two stars in the
Dipper
appeared in the sky. pan of the Big Dipper.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

Many sailors of old used a handy tool to help tion. They would, for example, turn west or east
measure precisely how high or low a star was in once a particular star selected for navigation was
the sky: their fingers! By holding his arms two finger-widths above the horizon. Very clever!
straight out in front of him, a mariner laid his fin- Although the skies are still important in
gers on top of each other to measure the “height” guiding ships, today’s sailors use computer
of a star such as the North Star from the horizon. and satellite technology—such as the Global
Because the height of Polaris above the horizon is Positioning System—to guide their travels.
equal to the latitude at a particular location, Navigators have come a long way since the
sailors could use the star to estimate their loca- days of steering by the stars. 
NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY/ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITIES FOR RESEARCH IN ASTRONOMY/NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

This time exposure shows star trails that mirror Earth’s rotation. It was taken with a
camera aimed at the North Star over Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona.

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 LESSON 4 SEASONS ON EARTH

North
Celestial
Pole

61°
Angle of separation

This illustration shows what the North Star looks like from Anchorage, Alaska (latitude 61° N).

North
Celestial Pole

19°
Angle of separation

This illustration shows what the North Star looks like from Mexico City, Mexico (latitude 19° N).

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QUESTIONS
Constant as the North Star
As constant as it seems, Polaris, the 1. Before the invention of the compass, how
North Star that we see in our night sky, did sailors determine if they were sailing
has not always been our North Star. This east or west?
is because Earth wobbles on its axis as it 2. Why is Polaris called the North Star?
rotates, like a spinning top. While a top 3. Why is Polaris a stable sky marker today?
can make one complete wobble in a sec- 4. What handy tool did sailors use to help
ond, it takes Earth 26,000 years to com- them navigate? How did this tool work?
plete one wobble—or precession. This 5. What is the relationship between the
means that Earth’s axis points to different position of the North Star and latitude?
stars over the centuries. For example,
around 3000 B.C., the North Celestial Pole
pointed to Thuban, not Polaris.

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