TILAHUN HABTE - ETS0946/09

FTP STUDENT

Submitted to Dr. Teshome

Submission date 8/06/2020
 Answer
#1.
A) there are different type of power quality disturbances that cause poor power
quality. Three of those power quality disturbances are defined as follow with their
main sources.
a.voltage sag:- is a short duration reduction in RMS voltage which can be caused by
a short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors. Or decrease in rms voltage at
power frequency for duration from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute” although they typically
only last 1 min to a few cycles.
Primary sources of voltage sags are:-
 Starting of large motors
 Energization of heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace).
 Transmission and distribution faults.
 Local starting faults.
 Protection system faults.
 Load transferring from one power source to another.
Fig. 1 shows voltage dip of reduction of line voltage to half.

b.voltage swell:-.Voltage swell is the opposite of voltage sag which is momentary

increase in nominal supply voltage. Voltage swell is rise to within 1.1 to 1.8 Pu of the
normal voltage for duration from half a cycle to several seconds.
Primary sources of voltage swell are:-
 when heavy load is turned off
 loss of generation
 badly regulated transformer
 faulty conditions at various points in the AC distribution system
 under-loading of a phase while other two phases in a 3-phase system are
overloaded.
Figure 2 shows the waveform of voltage swell.

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c.voltage flicker;-
Flicker is the effect of random and repetitive variations in
voltage between 0.9-1.1 Pu. It result in rapid visible changes
in brightening and dimming of screen and variation in the
luminosity produced by light bulb. It causes irritation to
human sight.
Primary sources of voltage flicker are :-
 switching on and off of electric motor
 pulsating load
 arc furnaces and welding equipment.

Figure 3 voltage fluctuation

B) Voltage distortion:- any distortion from the nominal sine waveform of the AC
line voltage.when distorted current passing through the linear, series impedance of
the power delivery system, the voltage is distorted.the amount of voltage distortion
depends on impedance and distorted current.but load has no control over voltage
distortion. i.e the same load put in two different locations on the power system will
result in two different voltage distortion values.
Current distortion:-any distortion from the nominal sine waveform of the AC line
current. Assuming that the source bus is a pure sinusoid, there is a non linear load
that draws a distorted current.

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 Figure 4 non-linear load produce distorted current and distorted current
produce distorted voltage.

#2.
The EEP has 3000 customers around AASTU (Tulu Demtu condominium) which
have twelve outages that occurred to the customers in may 13,2020. to calculate the
reliability indices the summary of each interruption and duration is given in table 1.
Date time No of Duration(min) Customer
customer interrupted
interrupted *duration(hours)
13th 8:15 24 80 32(24*(80/60))
13th 10:10 10 30 5
13th 11:23 5 140 11.667
13th 12:50 4 200 13.333
13th 13:00 34 120 68
13th 15:27 3 30 1.5
13th 16:30 2 10 0.333
13th 17:10 15 15 3.75
13th 18:34 120 20 40
13th 19:50 80 10 13.333
13th 20:10 30 5 2.5
13th 23:00 40 15 10
  367   675   201.413
table 1
A) Now from the table we can determine SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, CAIFI,ASAI as
follow:-

SAIDI = Summation of(customer interrupted*duration(hour))

Total no. Of customers
= 201.413/3000
=0.067hr*60 ( to change to minute)
SAIDI= 4.028min

SAIFI = Summation of customers interrupted

Total no. Of customers
=367/3000

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SAIFI=0.122
So on 13th of the month, customer of this utility had a 0.122 probability of
experiencing an outage.

CAIDI = Summation of(customer interrupted*duration(hour))

Total no. Of customers interruption
= 201.413*60min/367
CAIDI=32.93min
That means on average any customer who experience an outage on 13th was out of
service for 32.93min.
CAIFI = total no. Of customer interruption
total No.of customer interrupted
=12/367
CAIFI =0.033
So the average number of interruption for a customer who was interrupted on 13th is
0.033.
ASAI = customers hours service availability
Customers hour service demand

=1- customer hours of service non-availability

Customers hours service demand
= 1- 201.413/(3000*24) ( as one day 13th is under study customers hours
service demand is 24hrs)
ASAI=0.9972
ASAI=99.72%

B) system average interruption frequency index (SAIFI) standard of Ethiopia electric

agency is 20 interruption per year per customers. So the daily standard becomes 20
divide by day of the year.
Standard SAIFI per day= 20/365
Standard SAIFI =0.055 interruption/day.customer
Now compare the practically calculated SAIFI value with the standard value i.e
0.122 > 0.055. so there are more interruption per customer on 13th around tulu-demtu
condominium.
My recommendation to improve the reliability or SAIFI around tulu-demtu
condominium is:-
 replace aging infrastructure and maintain equipment which is the major concern
in our country.
 Optimize equipment loading to provide maximum value. Loading of equipment
such as transformer, cables, and lines should be determined based on evaluation
of the value obtained rather than any arbitrary standard value. Mostly the
transformers have the duty to carry over rated values this leads to failure of
insulation which results interruption.
 Avoid trees which affect the lines.
 Add reclosers and fuses.

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#3.
In an electrical power system, a harmonic is a voltage or current at a multiple of the
fundamental frequency of the system, produced by the action of non-linear loads such
as rectifiers, discharge lighting, or saturated magnet devices.
Harmonic frequencies in the power grid are frequent cause of power quality problems.
Harmonics in power system results in increased heating in the equipment and
conductors, misfiring in variable speed drives, and torque pulsations in motors.
A) Total harmonic distortion (THD):-is a common technique to calculate harmonics
distortion of current and voltage. For an ideal system, THD is equal to zero. THD is
determined by:

Vn is the rms voltage at harmonic, N is the maximum harmonic order and V1 is line
to neutral rms voltage.
B) Harmonics are very dangerous for the remaining power system and the
equipment’s that are attached with the power system. The main effects of voltage and
current harmonics within the power system are:
The possibility of amplification of harmonic levels resulting from series and
parallel resonances
Degradation of the power factor
Overheating of the phase and neutral conductors
Efficiency of the generators is reduced day by day due to harmonics
Eddy current and hysteresis losses in transformers
Overheating of the system components e.g. generators, motors and transformers
Flow of additional current through power capacitors
Decrements in the useful lives of the incandescent lamps
Increase skin and proximity effects
Interference problem with telecommunication
C)
elements of power system circuit are predominantly inductive.so power factor
correction capacitors are commonly used in practical electrical system to offset utility
imposed power factor penalties. The combination of capacitors and and inductive
elements in the system can result either in series or parallel resonance, or a
combination of both, depending on system configuration, which can result in an
abnormal situation.
 Parallel resonance is more common as capacitor banks act in parallel with
inductive system impedance, which can be a problem when the resonant
frequency is close to one of those generated by the harmonic source. It may
produce excessive harmonic voltage across network elements. This will cause
capacitor or insulation failure.
 Series resonance can result in unexpected amounts of harmonic currents flowing
through certain elements. Excessive harmonic current flow can cause inadvertent
relay operation, burned fuses, or overheating of cables.
So the effect of series and parallel resonant circuit is the same as harmonic since they
produce their on current harmonics and voltage harmonics.

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D)
 main source of harmonics:-
 Non-linear loads such as diode, rectifiers, power electronic converters etc.
 Saturated transformers
 Machines
 Florescent lamps
 Arc furnace
 Mitigation techniques:-
 Line reactor.
 K-factor transformer.
 Tuned harmonic filter.
 Active harmonic filter.
 IGBT based fast switch harmonic filter.
 Phase shift transformer.
 12 and 18 pulse rectifiers.

#4.
A) The definition of voltage sag, swell are briefly found in question number 1.here
there main difference between voltage sag, swell, dip and interruption is shown.

Voltage sag :-short duration reduction in RMS voltage

Typical duration for instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles
Momentary 30 cycle to 1 second
temporary 3 second to 1 minute
Typical voltage magnitude in Pu 0.1 to 0.9pu typical duration.
Voltage dip:- means the amount of voltage decline from nominal value.
Example a voltage dip of 30% is equal to voltage sag to 70%.
Voltage swell:- short duration increase in nominal supply voltage.
Typical duration for instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles with voltage magnitude of 1.1 to
1.8pu
Momentary 30 cycle to 1 second with voltage magnitude of 1.1
to 1.4pu
temporary 3 second to 1 minute with voltage magnitude of 1.1 to
1.2pu
Voltage interruption:- much decrease in voltage which approaches to less than
0.1pu of nominal voltage magnitude.

Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on the
utility system.4 Consider a customer that is supplied from the feeder supplied by
circuit breaker 1 on the diagram shown below.
If there is a fault on the same feeder, the customer will experience a voltage sag
during the fault followed by an interruption when the breaker opens to clear the fault.
If the fault is temporary in nature, a reclosing operation on the breaker should be
successful and the interruption will only be temporary. It will usually require about 5
or 6 cycles for the breaker to operate, during which time a voltage sag occurs. The
breaker will remain open for typically a minimum of 12 cycles up to 5 s depending

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on utility reclosing practices. Sensitive. equipment will almost surely trip during this
interruption
A much more common event would be a fault on one of the other feeders from the
substation, i.e., a fault on a parallel feeder, or a fault somewhere on the transmission
system (see the fault locations shown in Fig.3.1). In either of these cases, the
customer will experience a voltage sag during the period that the fault is actually on
the system. As soon as breakers open to clear the fault, normal voltage will be
restored at the customer

To clear the fault shown on the transmission system, both breakers A and B must
operate. Transmission breakers will typically clear a fault in 5 or 6 cycles. In this case
there are two lines supplying the distribution substation and only one has a fault.
Therefore, customers supplied from the substation should expect to see only a sag
and not an interruption.

Figure 5 fault location on power system

B) causes of voltage sags and interruptions are:-

 Starting of large motors.
 Sudden change in heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace).
 Transformer connection.
 Faults and switching operation.
 Protection system faults.
 Load transferring from one power source to another.
C) to estimate voltage sag performance to design the CPD and equipment
specifications to assure the optimum operation of production facilities.
For the estimation of voltage sag performance, the following procedure is considered
1.Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
transmission system faults
2.Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
distribution system faults (for facilities that are supplied from distribution systems).

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3. Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the actual
performance of the production process based on voltage sag performance calculated
in steps 1and 2
4.Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the performance,
either on the supply system (fewer voltage sags) or within the customer facility
(better immunity)

#5.
for the radial power system supplying one of the industrial customer in Addis Ababa
with several large AC and DC adjustable-speed drives is shown below. The DC and
AC drives are fed via dedicated transformers at 100 V and 380 V, respectively.
System information including source impedance, feeder and transformer data are
provided in Tables below.

A) in sag analysis Pcc points have to be identified first. Pcc points “point of common
coupling” means the point from which both the fault and load fed (the load current
branch off from fault current).
For any fault on one of 15KV feeders, the fault current will flow through kalit-15KV
bus, but not farther to wards the load. So the Pcc bus is kalit-15KV for all fault within
15KV feeders. In the same way , kalit-33KV bus is the Pcc for any of the fault within
33KV feeders. Other Pcc’s are kalit-132KV and kalit-230KV.
 To calculate the critical distance that result critical voltage sag by applying fault
on the bus for a radial power system
Vsag= Zf/(Zs+Zf) but Zf=0 since the fault happens at the bus the impedance from
the bus to the fault is zero. Now the sag magnitude becomes zero to find the critical
distance Lcrt= Zs*Vsag/(Z(1-Vsag)) in km.since Vsag=0 the critical distance becomes
zero when applying fault at the bus.

Figure 6 AC and DC adjustable speed drive

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B) the critical distances (Lcrit) in table below for sag magnitudes of 10%, 30%, 50%,
70% and 90% on the 15 kV, 33 KV, 132 kV and 230 kV feeders. Using the formula
Lcrit = Zs*V/(Z(1-V)) we can get the critical distance for each buses.
For a sag magnitude of 10% on bus 15KV, Zs=70% and Z=22% from the table given
below. The critical distance becomes

Lcrit = Zs*V/(Z(1-V)) = 0.7*0.1/(0.22(1-0.1)) =0.354km, in the same way,the critical

distance at each bus and sag level can be calculated in the table 2 . note that critical
distance measured in kilo meter(KM).

15KV 33KV 132KV 230KV-Seb 230KV-Sul

eta ulta
Z 22% 4% 0.3% 0.02% 0.02%
Zs 70% 20% 3% 1% 1.2%
V=10% Lcrt=0.35 Lcrt=0.56 Lcrt=1.11 Lcrt=5.56 Lcrt=6.67
V=30% Lcrt=1.36 Lcrt=2.14 Lcrt=4.29 Lcrt=21.43 Lcrt=25.74
V=50% Lcrt=3.18 Lcrt=5 Lcrt=10 Lcrt=50 Lcrt=60
V=70% Lcrt=7.43 Lcrt=11.67 Lcrt=23.33 Lcrt=116.6 Lcrt=140
7
V=90% Lcrt=28.64 Lcrt=45 Lcrt=90 Lcrt=450 Lcrt=540

Table 2

#6.
Given
Non sinusoidal voltage
V  2 40 sin wt  40 sin( 2 wt  30)
Instantaneous value of current is
iL  2 15 sin( wt  45)  5 sin( 2 wt  60)  5 sin(3wt  60)
Required
SLR,SLX,SLD=? and compare those values with PL,QL,DL respectively.

Solution
rms voltage and current at the supply is given by
V2=402+402=3200V2,the rms voltage is =56.57V
L2=152+52+52=275,the rms current is L=16.58A
Load apparent volt-ampere SL is SL= L=56.57*16.58=938VA
So, SL =8.8*10 VA)
2 5( 2

Instantaneous expressions of the hypothetical currents,iR,iX,iD are given by

iR, iX contain terms those are common to both voltage and current.
iR  2 15cos45sinwt  5cos30sin(2wt - 30)
The rms value of iR is
LR2 = (15cos45°)2 + (5cos30°)2 = 131.25A2
ix   2 15 sin 45 sin wt  5 sin 30 sin( 2 wt  30)
The rms value of iX
LX2 =(15sin45°)2+(5sin30°)2 = 118.75A2

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iD  2 5 sin(3wt  60)
The rms value of iD
LD2 =52=25A2
Now we can calculate the components of SLR,SLX,SLD of apparent volt-amperes as
below.
SLR2 = 2 LR2 =3200*131.25=4.2*105(VA)2
SLR=648.07VA

SLX2= 2 LX2=3200*118.75=3.8*105(VA)2
SLX=616.44VA

SLD2= 2 LD2 =3200*25=8*104(VA)2

SLD=283VA
Now let us calculate the components PL,QL,DL of SL as follow
 ~ ~  ~ ~
P   V h Ih cosφ h , Q   V h Ih sin φ h
h 1 h 1

PL = 1 1cosØ1 + 2 2cosØ2
PL = 40*15cos45° + 40*5cos30°
PL =597.469
QL = 1 1sinØ1 + 2 2sinØ2
QL = 40*15sin45° + 40*5sin30°
QL = 524.264

DL2 = SL2 - PL2 - QL2

DL2 = 8.8*105 - 3.57*105 - 2.748*105
DL2 = 2.48*105
DL =498
Now we can compare SLR, SLX, SLD with PL, QL, DL respectively as follow
SLR=648.07VA but PL =597.469 therefore SLR ≠PL
SLX=616.44VA but QL = 524.264 therefore SLX ≠ QL and
SLD=283VA but DL =498 therefore SLD ≠ DL
So they have different value but SL is the same for both conditions.

#7.
Kaliti power distribution system was facing the voltage interruptions and sags for the
last two years due to many industrial loads like Industrial park that are connected to
the network has resulted the utility to loss much money, the loss in money increase as
the percentage voltage sag increases. Thus, the weighting factor increases as the
voltage sag increase. The following table combines the weighting factors with
expected performances.

Utility’s losses much money due to voltage interruption and sags, the losses in money
increases as the percentage voltage sag increases. The weighting factor increases as
the voltage sag increase as shown in the table 3. The total equivalent interruption is
determined by:-

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Total equivalent interruption= weighting factor * no.of events/year

Category of events Weighting factor of Number of Total

each events for events per equivalent
economic analysis year interruptions

Interruptions 1 10 10
Sag with minimum 0.8 20 16
voltage below 50%

Sag with minimum 0.4 28 11.2

voltage between 50%
and 70%

Sag with minimum 0.1 100 10

voltage between 70 %
and 90%

Total 47.2

Table 3
Then we can determine the total cost that utility losses associated with the total
voltage interruption and sags.
Given that the cost of an interruption is 100,000Birr, now from the table the total
equivalent interruption is 47.2.
Total cost that utility losses= total equivalent interruption * cost per interruption
= 47.2/yr * 100,000Birr
Total cost that utility losses =4.72 million Birr/yr but this interruption is the same
for the last to years. So the total cost of the 2 year becomes
Total cost that utility losses = 4.72 million birr/yr*2year
Total cost that utility losses =9.44 million birr

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