DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER AT ROOM

TEMPERATURE BY DIFFERENT METHODS AND VERIFICATION

WITH STANDARD VALUE

project report submitted to university of Kerala in partial fulfillment of the

requirements of degree of Bachelor of Science in Physics
(First Degree Programme under CBSS)

By
ANAND S

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SREE NARAYANA GURU COLLEGE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHEMPAZHANTHI
UNIVERSITY OF KERALA
MAY 2020
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SNGCAS CHEMPAZHANTHI

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project work entitled

DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE BY DIFFERENT METHODS AND VERIFICATION WITH
STANDARD VALUE is an authentic record of work carried out by Mr. ANAND S
(Reg.No.23017888016), under my supervision and guidance, for the partial fulfillment
for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Physics of University of Kerala (First
degree programme under CBSS).

Dr. K. Kochunarayanan
HOD Supervising Teacher

PRINCIPAL

1
 CERTIFICATE OF EVALUATION

This report of the project work submitted by ANAND S (Reg.No: 23017888016) is

confirmed to be the report of the work done by the student and then evaluated.

Examiners: 1.

2.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We place on record our deep sense of gratitude and personal indebtedness to our
supervising teacher, Dr. K. Kochunarayanan, Head of the Department of Physics, Sree
Narayana Guru College of Advanced Studies, Chempazhanthi, for his effective
guidance and encouragement throughout the work.
We are greatly indebted to our principal, Dr. C.Mohan Sreekumar for
permitting us to undertake this work.
We extend our sincere thanks to all the teaching staff and members of
Department of Physics for their encouragement and suggestions.
We also owe a lot of gratitude to all others who have directly or indirectly
helped us in this endeavor.

Anand S
Anand S
Reshma Rajagopal
Jomol

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CONTENTS
Acknowledgment
Abstract
1. Introduction 6
1.1 Theory
1.1.1 Refraction 7
1.1.2 Snell’s Law 9
2. Determination of Refractive index of Water 10
2.1 Method 1
2.1.1 Using Concave Mirror 10
2.1.2 Theory and Formula 11
2.1.3 Procedure 12
2.1.4 Precaution 12
2.1.5 Sources of Error 12
2.1.6 Observations 13
2.1.6.1 Tabular Column 13
2.2 Method 2
2.2.1 Using Travelling Microscope 14
2.2.2 Theory and Formula 15
2.2.3 Procedure 15
2.2.4 Precaution 16
2.2.5 Sources of Error 16
2.2.6 Observations 17
2.2.6.1 Tabular Column 17
2.3 Method 3
2.3.1 Using Refraction through Rectangular Glass
Box filled with Water 18
2.3.2 Theory and Formula 18
2.3.3 Procedure 19
2.3.4 Precaution 20
2.3.5 Sources of Error 20
2.3.6 Observations 20
2.3.6.1 Tabular Column 20
3. Result and Discussion 21
4. References 22

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ABSTRACT

This project is an effort to determine the refractive index of water at room

temperature by three methods of experiment including usage of concave mirror,
travelling microscope and vertical pin pointers and verify the value with the standard
value.
Water is the most important liquid of human organism. It is the main
component of interstitial fluid, plasma of blood, intercellular fluid, etc. Knowledge of
optical properties of water is very important for solution of problems of biomedical
optics.
Knowing the refractive index of a given material helps to find the purity of the
material. Since the refractive index depends on temperature, this project is carried out
at normal room temperature. This project also describes the basic principle and
methods used for conducting all three experiments.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Refractive index, also called index of refraction, is a measure of the bending of

a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. It is the ratio of the velocity
of light in a vacuum to its velocity in a specified medium.
The refractive index is measured for various reasons. It is a relevant parameter
when you want information on materials’ clarity, for example glasses. In addition, the
purity of chemicals and pharmaceutical ingredients can be determined. In fluids such
as drinks or foods, the refractive index is a measure of dissolved or submicron
particles.
Common industrial applications include fruit and vegetable juices, concentrates
and purees, jams, syrups, compotes and other pasty fluids as well as micro-emulsions,
biotechnical liquids and pharmacological materials.
Water is the most important liquid of human organism. It is the main
component of interstitial fluid, plasma of blood, intercellular fluid, etc. Knowledge of
optical properties of water is very important for solution of problems of biomedical
optics. In particular, wavelength dependence of the refractive index determines spectral
dependence of refractive index of tissue interstitial fluid that in its turn defines the
wavelength dependence of scattering properties of tissues. Furthermore, water
refractive index depends on temperature.
Several methods are used for measuring the refractive index of liquids, for example:
 interferometry
 the deviation method,
 the Brewster Angle method.
In this project we are using three different methods to find the refractive index of water
at room temperature and hence verify with the standard accepted value.
The methods are:
 using a concave mirror by parallax method.
 using a travelling microscope measuring the real depth and apparent depth
 using a rectangular water box by the First Principles and Snell’s Law.

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1.1. THEORY
1.1.1. Refraction

When electromagnetic radiation, in the form of visible light, travels from one
substance or medium into another, the light waves may undergo a phenomenon known
as refraction, which is manifested by a bending or change in direction of the light.
Refraction occurs as light passes from one medium to another only when there is a
difference in the index of refraction between the two materials. The effects of
refraction are responsible for a variety of familiar phenomena, such as the apparent
bending of an object that is partially submerged in water and the mirages observed on a
hot, sandy desert. The refraction of visible light is also an important characteristic of
lenses that enables them to focus a beam of light onto a single point.
As light passes from one substance into another, it will travel straight through
with no change of direction when crossing the boundary between the two substances
head-on (perpendicular, or a 90-degree angle of incidence). However, if the light
impacts the boundary at any other angle it will be bent or refracted, with the degree of
refraction increasing as the beam is progressively inclined at a greater angle with
respect to the boundary. As an example, a beam of light striking water vertically will
not be refracted, but if the beam enters the water at a slight angle it will be refracted to
a very small degree. If the angle of the beam is increased even farther, the light will
refract with increasing proportion to the entry angle.
The refractive index of a transparent substance or material is defined as the
relative speed at which light moves through the material with respect to its speed in a
vacuum. By convention, the refractive index of a vacuum is defined as having a value
of 1.0, which serves as a universally accepted reference point. The index of refraction
of other transparent materials, commonly identified by the variable n, is defined
through the equation:
n (Refractive Index) = c/v
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and v is the velocity of light in the material.
Because the refractive index of a vacuum is defined as 1.0, and light attains its
maximum speed in a vacuum (which is devoid of any material), the refractive index of
all other transparent materials exceeds the value of 1.0, and can be measured by a

7
number of techniques. For most practical purposes, the refractive index of air (1.0003)
is so close to that of a vacuum that it can be employed to calculate refractive indices of
unknown materials.
When a light wave passes from a less refractive medium (such as air) to a more
refractive medium (such as water), the velocity of the wave decreases. Conversely,
when light passes from a more refractive medium (water) to a less refractive medium
(air), the velocity of the wave increases. The normal is defined as a line perpendicular
to the boundary, or interface, between two substances. The angle of incidence in the
first medium, with respect to the normal, and the angle of refraction in the second
medium (also with respect to the normal), will differ in proportion to the difference in
indices of refraction between the two substances. If a light wave passes from a medium
of lower refractive index to one of higher refractive index, it is bent toward the normal.
However, if the wave travels from a medium of higher refractive index to a medium of
lower refractive index, it is bent away from the normal.

1.1.2. Snell’s Law

Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles of the two light waves
and the indices of refraction of the two materials as:
n1 × sin(θ1) = n2 × sin(θ2)
In Snell's equation, the variable n1 represents the refractive index of the medium
in which the incident ray travels, while n2 is the refractive index of the medium through
which the refracted ray travels. The value θ1 represents the angle (with respect to the
normal) at which the incident ray strikes the boundary, and θ2 is the angle at which the
refracted ray travels.
There are several important points that can be drawn from the Snell equation.
When n1 is less than n2, the angle of refraction is always smaller than the angle of
incidence (bending toward the normal). Alternatively, when n2 is less than n1, the angle
of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence (bending away from the
normal). When the two refractive indices are equal (n1 = n2), then the two angles must
also be equal, enabling the light to pass through without refraction.

8
Snell's Law demonstrates that the ratio of the sines of the incident and refracted angles
is equal to a constant, n, which is the ratio of the light velocities (or indices of
refraction) in the two media. This ratio, n2/n1, is termed the relative index of refraction
for those two substances.
Relative Index of Refraction = sin(θ1)/sin(θ2) = nr = n2/n1
A number of phenomena that result from light refraction are often observed in
everyday life. One of the most common is experienced by nearly everyone who has
tried to reach for and touch something submerged in water. An object seen in the water
will usually appear to be at a different depth than it actually is, due to the refraction of
light rays as they travel from the water into the air. The eyes and brain trace the light
rays back into the water as though they had not refracted, but traveled from the object
in a straight line, creating a virtual image of the object that appears at a shallower
depth. This phenomenon can be used to determine the refractive index of a liquid with
an optical microscope.
Although it is generally true that light must pass from one substance into
another to undergo refraction, there are circumstances in which perturbations, such as
temperature gradients, can produce enough fluctuation in refractive index within a
single medium to generate a refractive effect. If they have significantly different
temperatures, overlapping layers of air in the atmosphere are responsible for producing
what are often termed mirages, a phenomenon in which the virtual image of an object
is observed to be positioned either above or below the actual object.

9
2. DETEMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

2.1. METHOD 1
2.1.1. USING CONCAVE MIRROR.

This method is based on the measurements of the actual and apparent position
of the center of curvature of the mirror, when it is empty and filled with water,
respectively.
Apparatus required for this method are concave spherical mirror, water, an optical
needle, a clamp stand, one-metre scale.
Let us first consider the spherical concave mirror shown in figure 1. The optical
axis is the radial line through the center of the mirror that intersects its surface at the
vertex point V. Some relevant points on the optical axis are the center of curvature C,
and the focal point F. The center of
curvature coincides with the center of the
sphere of which the mirror forms a section.
At the focal point, rays parallel to the optical
axis and incident on the concave mirror,
intersect after being reflected by the mirror’s
surface.
The distance CV between the center
of curvature and the vertex is equal to the
radius of the sphere and is called the radius
of curvature R. Similarly, the distance FV between the focal point of the mirror and the
vertex is known as the focal length f.
In general, when the rays are close to the optical axis—that is, for the small-angle
approximation, the focal length can be shown to be half of the radius of curvature:
f =R/2
The location and nature of the image formed by a spherical mirror can be determined
by graphical ray-tracing techniques. To find the conjugate image point I of an object
point O located at the center of curvature C, the paths of any two rays leaving O are
sufficient. We first use the so-called parallel ray 1 that is incident along a path parallel

10
to the optical axis, strikes the mirror at point H, and is reflected through the focal point
F as ray 1′. Next, we use the so-called focal ray 2 that passes through the focal point
and is reflected parallel to the optical axis as ray 2′. The image points I is formed where
the two rays 1′ and 2′ intersect. This image is real, inverted, located at the centre of
curvature C, and has the same size of the object, as shown in figure.

2.1.2. Theory and Formula

If the tip of object needle O be at the centre of curvature C, tip of image will
exactly coincide with it. (Principle axis is
vertical to the plane).
When water is filled in concave mirror, object
needle is again replaced to move to C' to remove
parallax between tips of object needle and its
image.
A ray starting from C will reach at E
without deviation because it is along radius of
curvature.
Due to water in the concave mirror the position
of object and image shifts to C' i.e., now ray
starting from C' after refraction moves along ED and then DC to make apparent image
of centre of curvature.
NDC' = i (angel of incidence) = BC'D
MDE = r (angel of refraction) = BCD

Therefore, anw = = =

In ∆BCD, Sin i =

∆BCD, Sin r =

For normal view, D will be near B.

Therefore anw =

If small quantity of water in concave mirror B will be very near to P i.e,

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BC ≈ PC and BC’ ≈ PC’

Therefore, anw = =( )

2.1.3. PROCEDURE

 Place the concave mirror on a horizontal surface (plane) so that its principle
axis is along vertical.
 Hold the optical needle horizontally in a clamp stand so that its tip lies just
above the pole 'P' and at a distance equal to 2f (f is focal length).
 Remove the parallax between the needle and its image.
 Mark the real and inverted image of the optical needle in the mirror. Note the
reading of this image.
 Measure the distance (PC) using plumb line and meter scale.
 This measured distance is the actual radius of curvature of the concave mirror.
 Now add small amount of water to the concave mirror which will change the
position of image needle.
 Adjust the screw to upper or lower the optical needle and adjust its position
from 'C' to 'C" to remove parallax between the needle and its shifted image is
seen.
 Measure the distance (PC') which is the apparent radius of curvature of the
concave mirror.
 Repeatedly do the experiment for four to five times and record the readings.

2.1.4. PRECAUTIONS
 The mirror and surface of the water should be very clean.
 The needle should be clamped properly in horizontal position.
 The parallax between the optical needle and its image should be removed
properly.
2.1.5. SOURCES OF ERROR
 The needle may not be proper horizontal.
 Parallax error

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2.1.6. OBSERVATIONS
2.1.6.1. Tabular Column
Rough focal length of the concave mirror, f = 10 cm
Sl.No. Actual radius of Apparent radius of Refractive index
curvature (R) (in cm) curvature (R’) (in cm) n=

1 20.3 15.1 1.344

2 20.5 15.4 1.331
3 20.9 15.7 1.331
4 20.4 15.2 1.342
5 20.6 15.6 1.329
6 20.5 15.4 1.331
7 20.4 15.3 1.333
8 20.7 15.5 1.335
9 20.6 15.4 1.337
10 20.3 15.2 1.335
Mean n = 1.334

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2.2. METHOD 2
2.2.1. USING TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

This method is based on the measurements of the actual and apparent depth of
the ink dot marked on the inner bottom surface of beaker, when it is empty and filled
with water, respectively.
Water, Traveling microscope, Saw dust or any fine powder which can float on water as
flotsam, beaker, marker, magnifying lens, etc. are required for this method.

A travelling microscope is a device which measures length with a resolution in

order of 0.01mm. The precision is such that better-quality instruments have measuring
scales made from Invar (Nickel- iron alloy) to prevent misinterpretation of thermal
effects. Also known as withering microscope after William Withering a medical
student, who designed a simple pocket microscope, made of brass, to help him and
others in the study of botany when out of the laboratory.
Travelling microscope is defined as a microscope provided with cross hairs and
mounted in such a way that it can be moved along a base with a screw for the purpose
of making accurate measurements of distance.
Purpose of the instrument is to aim at reference points with higher accuracy
than is possible with bare eye. It is widely used in laboratories to calculate the
refractive index of liquids using ray optics.
The instrument comprises a microscope mounted on two rails fixed to rigid bed.
The coarse and fine adjustment of microscope can be done by sliding along the rails
and turning screw. The eyepiece is fitted with fine cross-hairs to fix a precise position,
which is then read off the vernier scale.
Travelling microscope consists of a cast iron base with machined-Vee-top
surface, fitted with three leveling screws. A metallic carriage is fixed to a spring-
loaded bar slides with vernier and reading lens along a positioned metal scale. The
scale is divided in half millimeters. Fine adjustments are made by micrometer screw
for taking accurate reading. Both vernier reading to 0.01mm or 0.02mm. Microscope
tube consists of 10x Eyepiece and 15mm, 50mm or 75mm objectives. The Microscope,

14
with its rack and pinion connection is mounted on a vertical slide, which too, runs with
an attached vernier along the vertical scale.

2.2.2. Theory and Formula

If a glass beaker with water is placed in air on a horizontal surface and its
bottom surface is marked with an ink spot and is viewed from top, it appears to be
elevated due to the phenomenon of refraction. The distance between this apparent
bottom and the top surface of the slab gives the apparent thickness of the water. In case
of normal observation, it can be shown that the refractive index of water with respect to
the medium, air is,

Refractive index , n =

i.e., Refractive index =

Where, a = microscopic reading when the ink dot in a beaker is focused

b = microscopic reading when the ink dot in a beaker is
focused through the given solid and liquid
c = microscopic reading when the flotsam is focused

2.2.3. PROCEDURE
 Find the least count of travelling microscope.

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  Set the microscope with its axis vertical.
 Adjust the eyepiece of microscope by moving it in or out till the cross wires are
seen clearly.
 Take a beaker and mark an ink dot at the inner surface of beaker. This dot is
focused using microscope and the corresponding vertical scale reading is noted.
 Pour some quantity of water slowly in the beaker.
 Raise the microscope (without disturbing the focusing screw) so that the image
of the dot is in focus again.
 Note the corresponding microscope reading.
 Sprinkle some flotsam over the surface of the water in the beaker. Raise the
microscope (without disturbing the focusing screw) so that the flotsam particles
are in focus. Note the corresponding microscope reading.
 Repeat the experiment.
 Find the refractive index of the water (n) with respect to air using formula.

2.2.4. PRECAUTIONS

 The screws used in focusing the microscope should be moved in only one
direction to avoid back-lash error.
 Once the microscope is focused for the first reading i.e., a1, the focusing
arrangement in the lens system should not be changed/altered for subsequent
readings namely for a2 and a3.
 The glass beaker should be placed on a horizontal surface.
 Use magnifying glass to read the vernier scale to avoid error in finding vernier
coinciding division.

2.2.5. SOURCES OF ERROR

 Parallax error
 Position of the microscope may not be normal to the surface of the water.
 If the layer of flotsam spread on the water is thick, it will not actually
represent the surface of the water and thus produce error in the result.

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2.2.6. OBSERVATIONS
 Least count of travelling microscope
Least count = Value of 1 MSD/ Number of divisions on the Vernier
Value of 1 MSD = 0.05 cm
Number of divisions on the Vernier = 50
Least count = 0.05 cm / 50 = 0.001 cm

2.2.6.1. Tabular Column

Reading of ink dot Reading of ink dot with Reading of surface of water Refractive
without water water (c) Index
(a) (b) n=
M.S.R V.S.R Total M.S.R V.S.R Total M.S.R V.S.R Total
cm cm cm
0.75 14 0.764 0.95 5 0.955 1.5 1 1.501 1.349
1.1 1 1.101 1.2 3 1.203 1.5 4 1.504 1.338
1.3 25 1.325 1.5 24 1.524 2.1 20 2.120 1.333
1.4 6 1.406 1.67 4 1.674 2.45 15 2.465 1.338
1.1 24 1.124 1.55 33 1.583 2.95 25 2.975 1.329
1 20 1.020 1.5 10 1.510 2.95 5 2.955 1.339
0.9 10 0.910 1.55 26 1.576 3.5 30 3.530 1.340
0.8 45 0.845 1.45 30 1.480 3.3 25 3.325 1.344
0.9 30 0.930 1.7 10 1.710 4.05 39 4.089 1.327
0.85 10 0.860 1.55 13 1.563 3.65 45 3.695 1.329
Mean n = 1.336

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2.3. METHOD 3
2.3.1. USING REFRACTION THROUGH RECTANGULAR GLASS BOX
FILLED WITH WATER

The present experiment discusses, presumably the most basic method, for
determination of refractive index of optically transparent liquids. All that is used in this
method is the first principle of refraction, Snell’s law of refraction, law of reciprocity
of light and a bit of geometry.
Apparatus used in this method are drawing board, sheet of paper, board pins, and
rectangular glass box filled with water.

2.3.2. THEORY AND FORMULA

Consider a rectangular glass beaker filled with water EFGH as shown in fig. A
ray of light AB incident at an angle of incidence i with the normal at the point of
incidence B. This ray is refracted along BC and bent towards the normal because it is
going from air to water. The refracted ray again suffers refraction at the surface GH
and bents away from the normal and emerges along CD which is thus the emergent ray.
The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but is displaced. The distance between
the incident ray produced forward and the emergent ray i.e. distance CP gives us the
lateral displacement.

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Snell’s law

If light travelling in a medium of refractive index ni is incident at an angle ‘i’ on

an interface separating medium having refractive index ni with the medium having
refractive index nr and trespasses in second medium at refraction-angle ‘r’; then
nisin(i) = nr sin(r)
Snell's Law demonstrates that the ratio of the sines of the incident and refracted angles
is equal to a constant, n, which is the ratio of the light velocities (or indices of
refraction) in the two media. This ratio, n2/n1, is termed the relative index of refraction
for those two substances.
Relative Index of Refraction = sin(i)/sin(r)
where i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction

2.3.3. PROCEDURE
 Fix a sheet of white paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins at
the four corners of the sheet.
 Place a rectangular glass box filled with water at the centre of the paper and
mark its boundary EFGH with fine pencil.
 Remove the rectangular glass box. Draw any line AB making an angle of 300
with the normal at the point B, the middle point of EF approximately.
 Put the rectangular glass box back in position on the boundary line. Fix two
pins P1 and P2 vertically on the line AB at least 5cm apart- and one pin close to
the rectangular glass box.
 Look for the image of these pins in the rectangular glass box from the opposite
side GH and fix two pins P3 and P4 so that they are in the line with the image
of pins P1 and P2 as seen through the slab and at least 5cm apart.
 Join the pricks of pins P3 and P4 to obtain the emergent ray. Draw a normal to
GH at the point C. join BC to get the refracted ray.

19
  Measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. Produce AB forward
and draw a perpendicular from C on AB produced to meet it at P. Then the
lateral displacement = CP.
 Repeat the experiment with different angles of incidence and the corresponding
angles of refraction.
 Calculate the refractive index using Snell’s law.

2.3.4. PRECAUTION
 The pins must be punched vertically.
 The incident angle θ must not give rise to total internal reflection.
 The glass box should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
 The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.

2.3.5. SOURCE OF ERROR

 Parallax error.
 All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately.

2.3.6. OBSERVATIONS
2.3.6.1. Tabular Column

S.No Angle of Angle of Refractive

incidence, i refraction, r sin i sin r index,
n = sin i/sin r
1 30 22 0.5 0.374 1.334

2 35 25 0.573 0.422 1.357

3 40 29 0.642 0.484 1.325

4 45 32 0.707 0.529 1.334

5 50 35 0.766 0.573 1.335

6 55 38 0.819 0.615 1.330

Mean n = 1.335

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The average value refractive index of water obtained from the above three methods
are:
 From method 1 = 1.334
 From method 2 = 1.336
 From method 3 = 1.335
The value refractive index of water obtained from the above three methods is very
close to the standard value refractive index of water at room temperature, which is
equal to 1.333.
The error in the final result may have risen due to variation in temperature or other
sources of error while conducting the experiments.
From the above three methods we obtained the value of refractive index of water at
room temperature which agrees with the standard value of refractive index of water
which is equal to 1.333.

21
4. REFERENCES

 Manish Khare, MIT, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284829171

 Amitabh Joshi and Juan D Serna, Department of Physics, Eastern Illinois
University, Charleston, Research Gate, Refractive index of a transparent liquid
measured with a concave mirror.
 Olympus global search, Introduction to refraction of light,
https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscope-
resource/primer/lightandcolor/refractionintro/
 Wilson J D, Buffa A J and Lou B 2010 College physics, 7th ed. (San Francisco:
Addison-Wesley)
 Hecht E 2002 Optics, 4th ed. (Reading: Addison-Wesley) p 183

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