Lecture 1: Sets
1.1 Introduction
This lecture introduces you to the Set theory, which is a branch of mathematical logic dealing with
collections of objects. Set theory is applied to objects that are relevant to mathematics, as well as
the solution of related problems. We shall also discuss the applications of sets in everyday life. It
is within this context that the study of set theory as presented in this lecture becomes necessary.
Lecture Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to do the following:
i. Explain what set theory is all about.
ii. State the notations used to describe sets.
iii. Describe the properties of sets.
iv. Discuss the practical applications of sets in everyday life.
1.2 Concept of Sets
A set in the context of mathematics is any clearly defined collection of objects. Set theory is very
general. Important sets commonly encountered in elementary Mathematics are sets of numbers
(refer to number systems discussed before) of particular importance in mathematical analysis, is
the set of real numbers which will often be used in solving many problems in Mathematics.
The objects in sets can be anything, such as numbers, people, letters, rivers, equations, etc. These
objects are normally called elements or members of the set.
Sets are either finite or infinite. A finite set consists of members which can be counted to an end
while an infinite set consists of elements which cannot be counted to the end.
1.3 Set Notations
Sets are denoted by capital letters like, A, B, C, ...P, Q… while the members of a set are denoted
by lower case letters such as a, b, c… p, q, r…
A set may be defined by:
(i) Listing its members
(ii) By describing the properties of its elements.
1.4 Subsets
If every member of set A is also a member of set B then set A is said to be a subset of B i.e. A
is contained in B .This is represented as A B.
Example:
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
Hence A B.
If A is not a subset of B, we write A B, meaning there exists at least one element in set A that
is not a member of set B.
On the other hand A is a proper subset of B if:
(i) A B.
(ii) A B.
When sets A and B have no members in common then the two sets are said to be DISJOINT.
NOTE:
(i) The null set is a subset of every set.
(ii) Every set is a subset of itself i.e. A A or B B.
Take Note
(i) The null set is a subset of every set.
(ii) Every set is a subset of itself i.e. A A or B B.
1.5 Venn Diagrams
Other than the usual ways of listing or stating the properties of a set, a set can also be represented
by the use of a Venn-diagram. This is in the form of a circle. Venn diagrams are very useful tools
in depicting relationships that may exist between two or more sets.
Example:
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. B = {–2, –1, 0, 3, 5, 10}.
This is represented as follows:
Students will find it useful to use Venn-diagrams when solving problems involving two or more
sets as will be illustrated in the examples shown below:
Example 1: Let u, v, w and x be the number of elements of each region in the diagram below:
c c c
Write: n A , n B , n A B , n A B , n A B , n A , n B
𝑛(A) = 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑛(B) = 𝑣 + 𝑤
𝑛(A ∪ B) = 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤
Solution:
Note, n(U) = u + v + w + x, Hence,
n(AUB)c = x
n(Ac) = w + x
n(A∩B) = v
From the above results, we note that n A B n A n B n A B.
Example 2: In a school of 240 students, students showed interest of study in the subjects as
follows: 80 were interested in mathematics, 115 in physics, 75 students in chemistry while 60
students showed interest in mathematics and physics, 55 in physics and chemistry, 35 mathematics
and chemistry. If 25 students were interested in all of the three subjects, how many of the students
were interested in:
(i) Just two of the subjects?
(ii) Just in one of the subjects?
(iii) In none of the subjects?
Solution
From the Venn diagram:
(i) Students who were interested in just two subjects are 35+30+10 = 75
(ii) Students who were interested in just one of the subjects are 10+25+10 = 45
(iii) Students who were not interested in any of the subjects are 95.
1.6 Language of Sets
The language of set uses a predicate non logic symbol, ∈ (an element of) to imply the set
membership i.e. 𝑥 is an element of A, (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) and 𝑦 is not an element of B, (𝑦 ∉ 𝐵) for no set
membership.
Sets are either finite or infinite. A finite set consists of members which can be counted to an end
while an infinite set consists of elements which cannot be counted to the end.
It is important to introduce here the most commonly mistaken set, the empty set. This is the set
that has no members and is denoted by the symbol or by the brackets { } .The empty set in
some instances is known as the NULL SET. Some students mistakenly write empty / null set as {
}.This is not applicable since the symbol itself represents a set, the empty set. Therefore, the
set { } is not empty.
References
Backhouse, J.K. and Houldsworth, S.P.T. (2005). Pure Mathematics (Vol. 1). Twenty
Seventh Impression: Longman.
Goyal, N. M. and Watikins, C. (2007). Advanced Engineering Mathematics: Computer
approach (7thEdition). Bali: Firewall Media.
Khan, R.N. and Hill, D. (2017). Mathematics Fundamentals. Bookboon
Rosen, H. Kenneth. (2003). Discrete Mathematics and Applications (5th Edition). Mc
Graw-Hill Book Company.
