Crystal Defects in Metals Lecture
Crystal Defects in Metals Lecture
Lecture 11
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NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
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Keywords : Mixed dislocation, Dislocation glide, Glide plane, Cross slip, Stress field of edge & screw
dislocations, Elastic stored energy, Forces acting on dislocation, Dislocation ‐ dislocation interaction, and
Dislocation ‐vacancy interaction
Introduction
In the last module we learnt about point and line defects found in metals. Properties of metal depend
on the nature of the defects, their number and the way they interact with each other. The presence of
point defects in crystals of metal is associated with local lattice distortion. This means the distance
between atoms around it is different from that in a region where there is no point defect. However in
this case the distortion is much less than those around a line defect. The distortion is a measure of local
strain. It can help one estimate local stresses. In this module we shall look at line defects in more
details. Edge and screw dislocations are the two line defects we are now familiar with. In order to
describe such a defect in metals one has to specify its direction (t) and its Burgers vector (b). In the case
of screw dislocation both are parallel whereas in the case of edge dislocation they are at right angle.
They also represent boundaries between deformed and yet to deform region. In case t & b don’t satisfy
this condition the dislocation has a mixed character. It is assumed to have two Burgers vector one
denoting its edge character (bcos) and the other denoting its screw nature (bsin). We also learned
about glide motion of dislocation. Glide plane contains both t & b. In this lecture we shall learn (a) how
to find the indices of the slip plane, (b) Burgers vector of dislocation in common crystals (c) non‐
conservative motion (other than glide) of dislocation, (d) stress fields of edge & screw dislocations.
How to find slip plane of a dislocation if its Burgers vector & direction are known?
Slide 1: Left hand top figure shows a plane within
Mixed Dislocation
a crystal with a dislocation (red circle).The arrow
on the plane is its Burgers vector. It is necessary
to define its direction. The curved arrow denotes
its direction. Under the influence of shear stress
Dislocation the circle would grow in size. Ultimately it moves
out leaving behind slip steps on the two faces as
bs = b cos b
shown in the figure at bottom left corner. The
be = b sin
bottom right corner shows how to find the edge
& screw components of Burgers vectors of a
mixed dislocation
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Glide plane of dislocation Slide 2: Note that the red arrow denotes direction of
dislocation (t), grey arrow denotes its Burgers vector. The
[n1 n2 n3]
[t1 t2 t3]
n bt two lie on plane shown in light blue color. The slip plane
[b1 b2 b3] normal is denoted by n. The 3 components of these
vectors are denoted by respective symbols with subscripts
i j k
1, 2, & 3. The vector n is perpendicular to both b & t.
n n1i n2 j n3 k b1 b2 b3
Therefore it is given by cross product (b X t). If i, j, k are
t1 t2 t3
b=[1, -1, 0] & unit vectors along the 3 orthogonal crystal axes vector n
n=?
t=[1,1,2] can be written in the form of a determinant as shown.
1 1 0 2 2 2
1 1 2
Slide 3: This gives the list of slip system for
Dislocations in common crystals
the 3 most common crystal structures of
Crystal Slip system Mobile dislocation metals. Note that in FCC {111} is the slip
structure plane and a/2<110> is the Burgers vector of a
B vector Glide plane
FCC {111}<110> a/2<110> {111} dislocation that could glide on it. In BCC
BCC {110}<111> a/2<111> {110} metals dislocations could glide on three
BCC {112}<111> a/2<111> {112} different slip planes. However the Burgers
BCC {113}<111> a/2<111> {123} vector of mobile dislocation is the same. For
HCP (0001)<1120> a/3<1120> (0001) HCP crystal Miller Bravais indices have been
HCP {1010}<1120> a/3<1120> {1010} used. Underline is used to denote negative
sign.
Screw dislocation can glide on any plane passing through it whereas edge dislocation can only glide on
planes containing both the dislocation and its Burgers vector. In the case of a mixed dislocation only the
screw part could cross slip on another intersecting slip plane. This is illustrated in Fig. 1. Note that only a
part of the loop which is along CD has moved to plane B. This is known as cross slip.
Fig 1: A sketch showing two slip planes A & B intersecting along line CD.
Look at the dislocation loop da in plane A. The arrow within this loop
3 da D
A denotes its Burgers vector. The part of the dislocation lying along the
B line of intersection CD has moved over to the second slip plane B. The
db part of the dislocation lying on this plane is denoted by db. Note that
C dislocation loop extends over two slip planes. Burgers vector remains
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unaltered. The arrow sign on the dislocation line is its direction.
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Stress field of dislocation:
Dislocation represents a boundary between deformed and un‐deformed parts of a crystal on the slip
plane. Burgers vector b represents the magnitude of local displacement. As a result there will be severe
lattice distortion around this. This is a measure of local strain (or stress) field. Very near the dislocation it
is very high. However it drops rapidly with distance. It may be assumed to be elastic beyond a few
atomic distances from the line defect. It is necessary to have some idea about the nature of the stress
field in order to understand dislocation interactions with other dislocations or crystal defects. The
expressions for stress fields of dislocation have been derived with the assumptions that the crystal is
isotropic and the stress field is elastic beyond a few atomic spacing from the exact core of the
dislocation. Let us try to derive these for screw dislocation from a simple physical concept.
Stress field of a screw dislocation:
Let us visualize a hollow cylinder. The internal radius r0 represents the dimension of the dislocation core.
We would assume that the deformation within this is extremely large. Beyond this the stress field is
elastic. Therefore it can be estimated using the theory of linear elasticity. Assume that the right hand
side of the hollow cylinder has been sectioned as shown in slide 4. Try to push the top half along the
direction x3 by a distance b. Now fix (weld) the two parts rigidly all along the plane of displacement. The
process is exactly same as what happens when a screw dislocation is created in a crystal. The axis x3 of
the cylinder is the dislocation. The displacement b is its Burgers vector. The hole represents the
dislocation core where the stress field is extremely large. Linear elastic theory is not applicable within
this region. Note that as a result of the process there will be elastic strain field around the core. Slide 4
also shows the nature of shear stress strain plot. The area under the plot represents elastic stored
energy. The partly sectioned cylinder has been deformed by movement on x1x3 plane against the
direction x3. The displacement along x1 & x2 are zero: 0 . If you draw a clockwise circuit on
the front face of the hollow cylinder you would have moved through a distance b against the direction
x3 on completion of one rotation of magnitude 2. This is why the displacement u3 can be described by
the equation given in slide 4.
Slide 4: A sketch showing a macroscopic view of
elastic deformation of a hollow cylinder that has
Elastic stored energy of dislocation been sliced along the x1x3 plane as shown by the
x2 thick white line. Assume that on application of
E/V = ()/2 = (G2)/2
shear stress on plane x1x3, the two parts of the
x1
partly sectioned cylinder has been moved through a
x3 distance b against the direction x3. If the two parts
are welded all along the sliced plane and the stress
4 u3 = -(b/2)
is withdrawn it will not come back to its initial state.
Rather an internal stress would develop. This would
represent the nature of the stress field around a
screw dislocation.
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strains are given by 0.5 and it is possible derive the expressions for
stress field of a screw dislocation. Details of the derivations are given in slides 5‐7. Since u3 is
independent of x3 we do not expect any axial strain or stress field in this case. The only non‐zero
components of strains / stresses are , & , .
a screw dislocation. The one on the right
x3
r shows that if it is again sliced along the
r0 L
plane where there is a displacement of
ui u j b b x
ij / 2 & u1 u2 0, u3 tan 1 2 magnitude b and unrolled into a plate
x j xi 2 2 x1
what it would look like.
u3 u3
11 22 33 12 0 13 & 23
x1 x2
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NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
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Elastic stress field of a screw dislocation
Slide 7: Displays the expressions for elastic
0 0 13 13
Gb x2 stress field. This is obtained by multiplying
2 x12 x2 2 the expression for elastic strain by shear
0 0 23
Gb x1
23 modulus G. The expression could be used
13 23 0 2 x12 x2 2 to estimate the magnitude of shear stress
x2 on the internal surface of the core. Assume
Gb G
23 th x2 = 0 & x1=r0. This comes out to be of the
x1 2 r0 2 order of G/2which is nearly equal to the
r0 r0 b theoretical strength of metals.
The above analysis shows that screw dislocation does not have hydrostatic strain (stress) field.
Therefore it does interact with point defects having only hydrostatic stress field. Also note that the
stresses at any point in the neighborhood are inversely proportional to its distance from the dislocation.
Its magnitude becomes extremely large as you approach the dislocation. It could be higher than the
yield strength of the metal. No metal can support stresses of such high magnitude. The expressions for
the stresses obtained as above may not be applicable at distances very close to the dislocation. However
let us not bother about it. It is enough to know that a screw dislocation has a shear stress field around it.
Its magnitude diminishes as you move away from it.
Edge dislocation – stress field:
Derivation for the stress field is not as simple as in the case of a screw dislocation. However it easy to
guess which of the three components of displacement vectors is zero. This is illustrated in slide 8. The
sketch in this slide shows how by slip due to shear stress acting on the sliced plane of a hollow cylinder
and subsequent welding a situation similar to that in the case of an edge dislocation can arise. Note that
in this case at a distance r from the dislocation the displacement along the slip plane against the
direction x1 is b. But it is a function of distance of point on the slip plane from the dislocation (axis of the
cylinder). Also note that although u2 = 0 for any point on the slip plane, but it has a definite value
depending on its coordinates as you move up or down the slip plane. Both of these are independent of
x3. Apart from this there is no displacement along the axial direction x3. This means u3=0. This is true for
any point within the cylinder. Therefore it is a classic example of a plane strain situation. The non‐zero
components of strains & stresses are and resepectively. Look at slide 8
for details.
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Elastic stress field of edge dislocation Slide 8: The sketch shows a partly sliced hollow
cylinder. It has undergone slip due to shear on
11
Gb
x2 3x12 x22
2 1 v x 2 x 2 2
the slip plane. After slip the two parts are
1 2
welded. This denotes all the features of
22
Gb
x2 x12 x22 deformation around an edge dislocation. The
2 1 v x x
2 2
2
1 2
axis of the cylinder is along x3. The slip plane is
Gb x x x 2 2
12
1 1 2
x1x3. The magnitude of displacement on the slip
11 12 0 2 1 v x x
2 2
2
1 2
plane at the edge is b. Note: , ,
12 22 0 33 11 22
; , , ; & 0.
0 0 33
It may be seen that the slip plane is represented by x2=0. The only stress acting on this plane is given by
2 1
Also note that above slip plane 11 is compressive. Its magnitude is much larger than 22. This also
signifies that the stress field is compressive above the slip plane whereas it is tensile beneath it. From
the expressions given in the slide it is evident that edge dislocation has a strong hydrostatic stress field.
This is given by . Therefore unlike screw dislocation it can also interact
with symmetric point defects having only hydrostatic stress field. We shall look at it more critically in
subsequent lectures.
Elastic stored energy of dislocation:
Using the expressions for stress field it is possible to find the magnitude of stored elastic energy. Note
that the energy per unit volume is given by . Note that the use of repeated suffix denotes
summation. The limits of integration should cover the entire region from the core to the outer surface.
In the case of screw dislocation derivation is easy to follow. It can be further simplified using cylindrical
coordinate system. In this case stress field is axi‐symmetric. It depends only on the distance r from the
axis. The slide 9 illustrates a simple way of estimating elastic energy of a screw dislocation of length L.
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Elastic stored energy of dislocation Slide 9: The sketch on the left shows shear stress
b strain diagram. The shaded area as shown is a
E/V = ()/2 = (G2)/2
measure of energy per unit volume. The sketch
=b/(2r)
2r
on the right shows the shape of the thin annular
deformed cylinder of width dr (as in slide 4) if it is
L
uncoiled and laid straight. L is the length of the
2 LGb 2 R
2
b
R R
E G 2 rLdr GL rdr ln dislocation. The displacement over the entire
r0
2 r0 2 r 4 r0
circumference (2r) is b. This is used to estimate
2 G r0 L Gb
2 2 2
Ecore V V L shear strain. The volume of this thin cylinder is
2 2G 2 2G 8
2rLdr. The derivation given is easy to follow.
The energy of an edge dislocation can also be estimated using the expressions for stress fields. The
expressions are exactly similar. The energy for both edge and screw dislocation is proportional to Gb2.
So far we have ignored the energy store in the core of the dislocation. It is true that the stress fields
within this zone do not follow linear elastic behavior. However it is still possible to guess its magnitude.
Slide 10 gives the expressions for screw and edge dislocations. A mixed dislocation has both edge and
screw components. Its energy can be estimated by substituting these in respective equations.
Slide 10: This gives the expressions for energy
Elastic stored energy of dislocation per unit length of an edge & a screw dislocation.
Note that the difference between the size r of
E Ee Ecore / L the crystal and the radius of the core r0 is large.
Gb 2 r r0=b=0.3nm & r=30m
Therefore energy within the core is expected to
Es ln 1
4 r0 (r/r0)= 105 & ln(r/r0) ~ 11
be much less. It is taken to be of the order
Gb 2
r
Ee ln 1 of . The energy of edge dislocation includes a
4 1 r0
term (1‐) in the denominator where is the
Ed = Es =Ee ~ 0.5 Gb2 Poisson ratio. Since its value is 0.3. The energy of
an edge dislocation is a little higher than that of
a screw dislocation.
Note that the difference between the energy of an edge & a screw dislocation is marginal. Therefore
irrespective of the type of dislocation its energy can be taken as 0.5Gb2. G is the shear modulus of the
crystal. If you look the expression for elastic stored energy of a dislocation it may appear that it can
approach infinity (be extremely large). However it does not happen because stress field becomes
negligible beyond a certain distance. It may be assumed to extend up to a distance of around 1000r0.
Force on a dislocation:
8 Dislocation can glide on a slip plane if the resolved stress on the plane exceeds a critical value called
CRSS (critical resolved shear stress). This may be visualized that the movement of dislocation is due to a
force F acting on it. Slide 11 illustrates how it can be estimated.
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Slide 11: The sketch shows a crystal whose three
Force on dislocation sides are x1, x2, & x3. The red line of length x1 on
F = force / unit length
the shaded plane represents a dislocation. The
area of the plane is x1x2. F is the force per unit
Work by dislocation = F x1 x2
x3 length acting on it. As the dislocation glides from
Work by = x1 x2 b one end of this plane to the other, work done is
x1
x2 given by Fx1x2. This is same as the work done by
the stress acting on the plane to move the
F = b
upper part over the lower by a distance b.
Equating the two one gets the expression for F in
terms of shear stress and Burgers vector.
Dislocation vacancy interaction:
The presence of a point defect is associated with local lattice distortion. In the case of a vacancy it is the
same in all directions. Therefore the nature of the stress field is hydrostatic. It can only interact with
edge dislocation. It helps dislocation to move in a direction perpendicular to its slip plane. This is known
as a non‐conservative motion of dislocation. This is illustrated in slide 12. When a vacancy moves to an
edge dislocation it climbs up where as if an atom moves to a point beneath it climbs down.
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(a) (b) (c)
Fig 2: Illustrates interaction between vacancy and edge dislocation. (a) Note the initial
location of a dislocation and a vacancy. When the vacancy moves to a site occupied by an
atom as shown by the arrow the dislocation climbs up. This is shown in (b). The site beneath
the extra half plane may be considered as a vacant site. Exchange of position as shown by the
red arrow in (b) helps the dislocation climb down. (c) Shows that a vacant site must be
created when a dislocation climbs down.
Dislocation interaction:
If two dislocations meet at a point it may produce a third dislocation having a different Burgers vector.
Figure 3 shows a sketch of two intersecting planes. The dotted line denotes the line of intersections. The
solid lies on these represent dislocations with Burgers vector b1 & b2. Assume that the two are forced to
meet along the dotted line on application stress. The interaction between the two is represented
as . Such reactions can occur if it is energetically favorable. Since elastic energy is
proportional to b2 the condition that must be satisfied is .
3
3 3
2 2 2
The reaction is energetically favorable.
Summary:
10 In this module we have learnt about the nature of the stress field of a screw and an edge dislocation. A
screw dislocation has only a shear stress field whereas an edge dislocation stress field has hydrostatic
stress field as well. This helps it interact with vacancy and thus move in a direction perpendicular to its
slip plane. Normal motion of a dislocation is glide. It is called conservative motion whereas climb motion
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is a non‐conservative motion. The vacancy concentration in the lattice increases or decreases depending
whether a vacancy moves to the edge dislocation or moves away from it. Using the stress field an
expression for the elastic stored energy of a screw dislocation has been derived. This is roughly equal to
0.5Gb2. Two dislocations may interact to produce another dislocation having a different Burgers vector.
This is favorable if the energy of the product dislocation is less that the reactants.
Exercise:
1. There is a dislocation lying along 101 in fcc crystal. Its Burgers vector is 011 . What type of
dislocation is it? Determine its slip plane.
2. Find out the ratio of elastic stored energy of an edge dislocation to that of a screw. Assume energy of
the core to be negligible.
3. What is the hydrostatic stress (or strain) field around a screw dislocation?
4. What is the hydrostatic stress field of an edge dislocation?
Answer:
in a plane containing both t & b. If the indices of the plane is (hkl) then:
0 & 0. Therefore –h+l = 0 & ‐k+l = 0; or h = k= l Therefore slip plane is (111)
2. Energy of an edge dislocation of unit length: & that of a screw
The nature of stress is compressive above the slip plane. This is why the atoms are more closely
placed above the slip plane.
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NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
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NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
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