REED’S PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS SERIES 01421-0692 VOLUME 2 APPLIED MECHANICS for ENGINEERSSUIINISNA 19} SOINVHIAIN GallddV THOMAS REEOAPPLIED MECHANICS for ENGINEERS by W. EMBLETON, 0.B.E., C.Eng., F.1.Mar.E., M.t.Mech.E. Extra First Class Engineers’ Certificate The syllabuses of Applied Mechanics for the Ordinary National Certificate, Ordinary National Diploma, and the Marine Engineers’ Certificates of Competency, are all fairly closeiy related and, although this volume is principally based on the Department of Trade’s syllabuses for Second and First Class Engineers, it should prove of undoubted value to all engineers studying Applied Mechanics. Each section commences at an elementary stage to provide ample and valuable revision, and progresses care- fully to the standards required for the O.N.C., O.N.D., 2nd Class, and 1st Class examinations. The numerous worked examples and diagrammatic illustrations in the text shouid greatly assist in the under- standing of the all-important first principles and funda- mental units involved. Test questions are set at the end of each chapter with fuilly worked solutions later in the book. These and the final set of miscellaneous problems with full solutions are included to enable the keen engineer to do that little extra self-study im his spare time so necessary to ensure the success he deserves.REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS By WILLIAM EMBLETON oBe. EXTRA FIRST CLASS ENGINEERS CERTIFICATE C.Eng., M.I.Mech.E., F.1.Mar.E, PUBLISHED BY THOMAS REED PUBLICATIONS LIMITED SUNDERLAND AND LONDONFirst Edition - 1962 Reprint - 1966 Second Edition - 1970 (in Siunits) Reprint - 1972 Third Edition - 1975 Reprint - 1979 ISBN O 900335 54 8 © Thomas Reed Publications Limited PRINTED BY THOMAS REED AND COMPANY LIMITED. SUNDERLAND, GLASGOW AND LONDON PREFACE The purpose of this book is to cover the Syllabuses on Applied Mechanics in the Examinations for Second and First Class Marine Engineers. In each Section the work progresses from an elementary stage to the standard required by the First Class Examination, Parts of the subject matter and the attendant Test Examples, are marked with the prefix “f” to indicate that they are normally considered to be beyond the syllabus for the Second Class Examination and so can be temporarily disregarded by candidates for it. Throughout the book, emphasis is placed on basic principles, and the profusely illustrated text assists the student to assimilate these principles more easily. From their study of Volume I of this series, Mathematics for Engineers, most students will have acquired a sufficient know- ledge of the pure mathematics needed for the solution of the problems in this volume. However as constant revision is essential, fully worked solutions are given to all the problems and in cases where the author has found that students experience particular difficulty, various mathematical steps are given detailed explanation. The engineer who is prepared to spend some of his spare time studying this book and working systematically through it, will be amply repaid when he finds that his final preparation time at a college will be very much reduced and that his chance of success in his Examination very much increased. W. Embleton South ShieldsCHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER, CHAPTER CHAPTER, CONTENTS 1—vVECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS. Resultant and equilibrant. Triangle and polygon of forces. Concurrent and parallel forces. Bow’s notation. Com- ponents of a force, Slings, jib cranes, re- ciprocating engine mechanism. Framed structures. Non-coplanar forces. wee 2—VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION. Speed. Linear velocity and acceleration. Velocity-time graphs. Angular velocity and acceleration. Projectiles. Relative velocity. Instantaneous centre. 3—MASS, ACCELERATING. FORCE, TORQUE, MOMENTUM Mass, force of gravity, weight, inertia. Accelerating force. Atwoods machine. Fletcher’s trolley. Momentum. Turning moment. a oe - 4—workK, POWER AND ENERGY. Work, graphical representation. Power. Transmission of power by belt and gears. Energy, potential and kinetic. .... S—CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION. Centripetal and centrifugal force. Side- skidding and overturning .of vehicles. Balancing. Conical pendulum, gover- nors. Stress in flywheel rims. Simple harmonic motion. Simple pendulum. Vibrations of a spring. .... woe “ 6—SLIDING FRICTION. Coefficient of friction. Inclined planes. Parallel forces to pull up and down. Horizontal and least forces. Efficiency of square thread. . PAGE 31—61 62—16 71—100 101—133 134—153CHAPTER ‘CHAPTER: ‘CHAPTER CHAPTER (CHAPTER ‘7—MOMENTS. First moments and applications. Couple. Centre of gravity. Second moments. Theorem of parallel axis. .... 8—LIFTING MACHINES. Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage, efficiency. Rope pulley blocks, wheel and axle, differential pulley blocks, worm and worm wheel, screw jack, warwick screw, crab winches, hydraulic jack, Experimental results, linear law. 9—STRESS AND STRAIN. Ultimate tensile strength, working stress, factor of safety. Strain. Modulus of elasticity. Tensile test. Compound bars. Restricted expansion. Resilience. Suddenly applied and shock loads. Stresses on oblique planes, 10—PRESSURE VESSELS AND RIVETED JOINTS. Circumferential and longitudinal stres- ses in thin cylinders. Working pressure. Various types of riveted j ints, ni rivet and plate strengths. .... os - 11—BENDING OF BEAMS, Conditions of equilibrium. Simply sup- ported beams and cantilevers. Concen- trated and distributed loading. Shearing force and bending moment diagrams..... 12--STRESSES IN BEAMS. Neutral axis. Fundamental bending equation. Modulus of section. Deflec- tion. Combined bending and direct stress. sees PAGE 154—180 181—208 209—241 242—258 259—279 280—298 CHAPTER 13-—TORSION. Fundamental torsion equation. Rela- tionships between torque, stress and power. Torsional resilience. Maximum and mean torque. Coupling bolts. Reciprocating engine mechanism. De- flection of closely coiled helical spring. Hydraulic steering gear. CHAPTER 14—HYDRAULICS. Density, specific gravity. Volumetric expansion. Apparent loss of weight, floating bodies. Pressure head, pres- sures on immersed surfaces, centre of pressure. Flow through pipes and ori- fices. Bernouilli’s equation, venturi meter. Friction in pipes. Impact of water jet. Centrifugal pump. SOLUTIONS TO TEST EXAMPLES .... SECOND CLASS MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS TO SECOND CLASS PROBLEMS FIRST CLASS MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS... SOLUTIONS TO FIRST CLASS PROBLEMS .... ‘PAGE 299—322 323—356 357—500 501—SI5 516—5S74 575—590 591—660INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS SI is the abbreviation for Systéme International d’Unités, the metric system of measurement now in international use and adopted by British industry. itis a system in which the product or quotient of any two unit quantities produces the unit of the resultant quantity, that is, it isa coherent system and built upon the six basic units, the metre (length), kilogramme (mass), second (time), kelvin (temperature), ampere (electrical current), and the candela (luminous intensity). Thus, to give a few examples, unit length (1 metre) multiplied by unit length (1 metre) gives unit area (1 square metre). Unit length or distance (1 metre) divided by unit time (1 second) produces unit velocity (1 metre per second). When unit mass (1 kilogramme) is multiplied by unit acceleration.(1 metre per second?) the result is unit force (1 newton). If unit force (1 newton) acts through unit distance (1 metre), unit work (1 joule) is done. A list applicable to the subject of Mechanics within the scope of this book, consisting of the basic units, and derived units related by definition to the basic, is given on the next page but one. Note that the symbols representing units are in lower case letters except those named after famous persons when capital letters are used. The symbol is always in the singular and no full stops are used as in other abbreviated words. MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES. In order to keep the number of names of units to a minimum, multiples and sub- multiples of the fundamental units, in chosen powers of ten, represented in each case by a prefix, is combined with the symbol of the unit. STANDARD MULTIPLICATION FACTOR FORM PREFIX SYMBOL, 1.000 000 000 000 1912 tera T 1.000 000 000 10° giga G 1.000.000 106 mega M 1000 10 kilo k 100 10? hecto h 10 10! deca da oO 10" deci d 0-01 102 centi c 0-001 103 milli m 0-000 001 1oe micro u 0-000 000 001 109 nano n 0-000 000 000 001 107 pico P No more than one prefix is used with each symbol. When a prefix is attached to a unit, it becomes a new unit symbol on its own account and this can be raised to positive or negative powers of ten.Multiples of 103 are recommended but others are recognised because of convenient sizes and established usage and custom. For instance, although the cross-section dimensions of ships’ frames and beams are measured in millimetres, their second moments of areas are more conveniently expressed in centimetre* units. High pressures are commonly expressed in bars, one bar being equal to 105 N/m2, and low pressures in millibars [102 N/m2]. Some industries have already adopted the hectobar [107 N/m2]as the unit of stress in metals. In such cases as these, where the basic unit consists of a numerator and denominator (load area), any modification to the basic unit of N/m? should be made to the numerator. Imetre = 10’ millimetres Im? = (10?mmy = 106mm? For example, In square measure A force of one newton on one square millimetre is the same intensity as 106 N on 10 mm2, which is 10°N/m? or | MN/m?, Hence MN/m? = N/mm?, and GN/m? = kN/mmz2, of these alternatives, the former is usually preferred. COMPARATIVE VALUES. During the period of change-over, and until engineers begin to think in terms of SI, it may sometimes be useful to compare the magnitudes of the units with the corres- ponding imperial units, therefore a selection of imperial units in terms of SI is given below. LENGTH FORCE lin 25-4mm I Ibf 4:448N ft 0-3048 m Itonf 9-964 kN lyd 0-9144 m I mile 1-609 km PRESSURE Inauticalmile — 1-852km Vbf/in? 6895kN/m? (international) (0-06895 bar) latm 1-013 bar VOLUME STRESS fe 3 1 Ibf/in? 6-895 KN/m? teal em tonfjin? 15:44 MN/m? (Ilitre = 1dm3) ENERGY 1 ft Ibf 13563 MASS Btu 1-055 kJ IIb 0-4536kg Iton 1016 tonne POWER (1016 kg) I hp 0-7457 kW BASIC OR AND. | OTHER RECOMMENDED Quanity DERIVED UNIT SYMBOL UNITS Length metre[m] millimetre [mm], kilometre [km] Area square metre[m?] square millimetre [mm?] Volume cubic metre[m>] litre [1] Time second[s} day, hourfh}, minute [min] Linear velocity metre persecond[m/s] _ | kilometre perhour Angular velocity Linear acceleration Angular acceleration Mass Force Moment of force Work, Energy Power Stress Pressure Momentum Angular momentum Second moment of area Moment of inertia Mass flow Volume flow Density radian per second [rad/s] metre per second? [m/s?] radian per second? [rad/s] kilogramme[kg] newton[N} newton-metre[N m] joule[J = Nm] watt [W = J/s=N m/s] newton per metre? [N/m?] newton per metre? [N/m2] kilogramme metre per _second [kg m/s] kilogramme metre? per second [kg m?/s] metre* [m¢] kilogramme metre? kgm?) kilogramime per second Ike/s] cubic metre per second [m?/s] kilogramme per cubic metre [kg/m] [km/h] International knot megagramme [Mg] ortonne[t] kilonewton [kN] kilonewton-metre [kN m] kilojoule[kJ] kilowatt-hour [kW h] kilowatt [kW] hectobar[hbar]= 10MN/m? bar = 105N/m? millibar [mbar] mm of mercury [mm Hg] mm of water [mm water] centimetre [em*] kilogramme per hour kg/h] 8) tonne per hour[t/h] cubic metres per hour m3/h) tre per hour[1/h] gramme per centimetre? [g/om! gramme per millilitre [g/ml gramme per litre [g/l]CHAPTER 1 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS As stated in the introductory notes, the newton is the unit of force. This is explained in greater detail in Chapter 3 wherein it is stated that the newton is that force which, if applied to a body having unit mass (1 kg), it will give it unit acceleration (1 m/s*), The newton is represented by the symbol N, a prefix against the symbol represents the multiplication factor of the basic unit so that forces of large or small magnitudes can be more conveniently expressed. Thus, one kilonewton, written KN, is 1000 newtons (108 N); one meganewton, written MN, is 10° N, and so on. The weight of a body is the gravitational force on the mass of that body and therefore weight should be expressed in units of force, that is, in newtons or in multiples of the newton. Although the kilogramme is strictly the unit of mass, outside of design work such as in the home, in commerce, and in the loading of ships’ stores and cargo, normal weights may be expressed in kilo- grammes and heavy weights in tonnes (1 tonne = 1000 kilo- grammes). When loads are expressed in kilogrammes it is necessary to convert into newtons (1 kilogramme = 9-81 newtons) when deal- ing with calculations of forces in structures, loading of beams, etc., leading to the design of safe working dimensions. To describe a force completely, its magnitude and also its direction must be known. When two such facts are required to express a quantity it is called a vector quantity because it can be represented by a vector, A vector is a line drawn to scale, in the case of a force the length of the line represents the magnitude of the force and the direction in which the line is drawn with an arrow on it represents the direction of the line of action of the force.2 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Fig. 1 shows some vectors representing forces. 12.5 N FORCE OF 12.5 N ACTING DUE WEST FORCE OF 20 N FORCE OF ISN ACTING NE, ACTING DUE SOUTH Fig. | RESULTANT The resultant of a number of coplanar forces is that one force which would have the same effect if it replaced those forces. Fig, 2 shows three forces of 8, 10 and 5 N respectively alt pulling on a. body in the same direction; it is obvious that the resultant of these is a single force of 23 N in the same direction. This is a simple case of parallel forces involving only the addition of the forces. The “‘space diagram” is an illustration of the system of forces, The “vector diagram” is a diagram drawn to scale with the vectors joined end to end. Ny ION BN ION SN oN RESULTANT = 23N SPACE DIAGRAM VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 2 When the forces are not parallel the vector diagram is “bent” at the joints of the vectors so that each vector is drawn in the direction in which its respective force acts. Taking forces of the same magnitude as above but slightly different directions, Fig. 3 illustrates how the vector diagram is constructed. Note how the arrows of the vectors of the given forces form a continuous path in the vector diagram. The vector diagram is drawn to scale, the resultant is the “vector addition” of the given forces, it measures 21-9 N and its direction is 23 degrees to the VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 3 8 N force. This single force can replace the three given forces to have exactly the same effect. BN s ON Qa SPACE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM Fig. 3 EQUILIBRANT The equilibrant is a single force which, if added to a system of forces acting on a body, would place the body in equilibrium. In other words, the equilibrant will neutralise the other forces. Taking the last example again, if a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction as the resultant of the three given forces was added, it would neutralise the effect of those three forces and the body would be in equilibrium. Fig. 4 shows the equilibrant. Note the vector diagram. The equilibrant “closes the vector dia- gram” and the direction of its arrow forms a continuous path with the others, often referred to as being “nose to tail”. This gives us an introduction to the theorems of the triangle and polygon of forces to follow. SPACE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM Fig. 4 TRIANGLE OF FORCES Jf three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction, taken in order, forms a closed triangle,4 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS POLYGON OF FORCES If any number of forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction, taken in order, forms a closed polygon. The above theorems are therefore the same except that the triangle of forces refers only to three forces and the polygon of forces refers to any number greater than three. It is now obvious that the magnitude and direction of any one of a system of forces in equilibrium could be unknowns to be solved, The given forces are taken in order and their vectors are drawn to scale, the vector required to close the diagram represents the magnitude and direction of the unknown force, Alternatively, instead of the unknown quantities being the magnitude and direc- tion of one force, they could be the magnitudes of two forces if their directions were known, or the directions of two forces if their magnitudes were known. CONCURRENT AND PARALLEL FORCES The lines of action of three coplanar forces in equilibrium, or any number of forces in equilibrium which can be reduced to three, must either pass through a common point or be parallel to each other. Fig. 5 Fig. 5 shows three forces pulling on a plate. If this system of forces is balanced, i.e. the plate is in equilibrium, the lines of action of the three forces must pass through a common point because they are not parallel, VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 5 4n on ION Fig. 6 Fig. 6 shows parallel forces pulling on a plate, these forces can be in equilibrium without being concurrent because they are parallel, BOW’S NOTATION This is a method of lettering the spaces of the space diagram with capital letters, A, B, C, etc., so that each force can be referred to by the letters of the two spaces the force Separates, such as force AB, force BC, and so on. The vector of each force in the vector diagram is labelled with its Corresponding small letters on the two ends of the vector, ab, be, etc., in the direction of the arrow. Fig. 7 illustrates this method of notation, The spaces between the forces on the space diagram is lettered in a continuous (clock- wise or anticlockwise) direction, preferably commencing with a vertical or horizontal force for convenience of beginning the con- Struction of the vector diagram, The vector diagram is constructed by first drawing vector ab to represent the force AB, then vector be to represent force BC, and so on. Although the lettering of the Space diagram for one system of forces can be clockwise or anti- clockwise so long as it is continuous, it is advisable for the student to adopt one method, say clockwise, and adhere to this for all problems. This is essential when combining vector diagrams of More than one system of forces which we do in framed structures,6 REED'S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ¢ A by AB VECTOR ¢ DIAGRAM dt D SPACE a DIAGRAM Fig. 7 COMPONENTS OF A FORCE A force can be resolved into two components, these being two forces that could replace the given force on a body and have the same effect. It will be realised that to find the two components of a given force is the reverse process of finding the resultant of two given forces. Although components in any two directions can be found, the most useful are usually the rectangular components, that is, those which are at right angles to each other. 5 8 z Q ° = = 3 zy S 8 x 7 g S z QZ [al 4 J ron HORIZONTAL COMPONENT Fig. 8 Fig. 8 illustrates a force of 100 N inclined at 60 degrees to the horizontal pulling on a body. The rectangular components of this force are the horizontal and vertical pulling effects, for instance, the applied force of 100 N tends to (i) pull the body horizontally to the right, (ii) lift the body upwards. From the vector diagram the horizontal pull is 100 x cos 60° = 50 N, and the vertical lift is 100 x sin 60° = 86-6 N, therefore these horizontal and vertical components can take the place of the single inclined force of 100 N. VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 7 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS With the fundamental knowledge so far given, vector diagrams of forces for the solutions of various practical problems can now be demonstrated. In solving problems, either of two methods can be used: (i) By Graphical Solution, in which the vector diagram is drawn to scale and the unknown quantity measured off the diagram, the magnitude by a scale rule and the direction by a protractor. The accuracy of the drawing and the observation of measurement determines the accuracy of the answer, the drawings should there- fore always be made to the largest scale possible depending upon the size of the paper at hand. Gi) By Calculation, in which the vector diagram may be sketched only and need not be to scale, and the required quantities calculated by trigonometry. Solving by, calculation using four- figure mathematical tables produces more accurate results than by graphical means, and it is usual to solve by calculation unless stated definitely that a graphical solution is required or would be accepted. However, as a sketch is necessary when calculating results, it doesn’t take much longer to make a scale drawing instead of a rough sketch, and the student is advised at this stage to solve every problem by both methods, the graphical solution then serves as a check on his calculations and at the same time acquires skill by practice. Example. Two ropes are slung froma beam and their lower ends are connected by a shackle from which a load of 400 N hangs. If the ropes make angles of 50 and 60 degrees respectively to the vertical, find the pull in each rope. Firstly, the space diagram is drawn (Fig. 9) to illustrate the connections of the ropes and load. The shackle is the “node” where the three forces meet and arrows are inserted to indicate the directions in which the forces pull on this node. Using Bow’s notation the vector diagram is then constructed thus: Draw to scale the vector ab vertically downwards to repre- sent the force AB which is 400 N. From 6 draw a line parallel to BC (at 50° to the vertical), as the magnitude of this force is not yet known we do not know the length of be so it is drawn a little longer than we think it should be. Now ca is the vector represent- ing force CA but as point c has not yet been determined we cannot start here to draw the vector, however we know that ca finishes at point a because it is to form a closed figure, therefore draw back from point a in the direction of 60° to the vertical until it cuts the previous vector. This gives us point c.8 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ‘The forces in the ropes may now be found by measuring to scale the lengths of the vectors be and ca, & VECTOR DIAGRAM LOAD 400 N SPACE DIAGRAM Fig.9 To calculate the forces: Angle ach (opposite 400 N vector) = 180 — (60 + 50) = 70° By sine rule, a =—_ sin 50 sin 70 400 x 0-766 a0 = "9.9397 = 326N be 400 sin 60 sin 70 pg = 400 X 0866 ¢ = 99397 = 368-6 N «Force in rope AC = 326N 1 A so» ~~» BC=3686N f AMS , Example. Two rope slings, each 2 m long, are used to lift a small engine bedplate of mass 3-058 Mg. The attachments to the bedplate are 2-5 m apart horizontally and the top ends of the ropes ‘VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 9 are connected to a common ring on the crane hook. Find the tension in each rope sling. CRANE ROPE VECTOR J DIAGRAM — — AE SPACE DIAGRAM FORCE IN CRANE ROPE 3OkN Fig. 10 When the space diagram is sketched (Fig. 10) we see that the ring on the crane hook is a node where three forces meet. The erane rope pulls upwards on this ring, the force being equal to the total weight of the bedplate, and the top ends of each rope sling pull downwards on this ring. Note that the bottom ends of the slings pull upwards on the connections at the bedplate, but we chose to draw the vector diagram of the forces meeting at the crane hook because we know the magnitude and direction of one of these forces (the upward pull of the crane rope) and the directions of the two forces whose magnitudes are required to be found. Mass of bedplate = 3-058 x 10° kg Force applied by crane rope to overcome gravitational force on bedplate, i.e, the weight of the bedplate = 3-058 x 10° x 9-81 newtons = 30 x 10°N = 30kN By dropping a perpendicular from the crane hook to the bed- plate, the isosceles triangle is split into two equal right angled triangles: cos 8 = 135 = 0-625 2 oO = 51° 19°10 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Referring to the vector diagram, Angles bac and abc = 90° — 51° 19’ = 38° 41’ The vector diagram is also an isosceles triangle and can be divided into two (equal) right angled triangles by drawing a horizontal line as shown. The adjacent to the angle of 38° 41’ is half of 30:kN = 15 KN, and the hypotenuse ac (or bc) is the tension in the rope. b = cos 38° 41’ ac _ 15 2° * 07806 = 1922kN .".tension in each rope sling = 19-22kKN Ans. Example. Four forces pull on a point, the magnitudes and directions of three of them are, 12 N due North, 15 N at 30 degrees East of North, 20 N at 40 degrees East of South. Find the magnitude and direction of the fourth force so that the system will be in equilibrium, (@) by graphical means, (6) by calculation. VECTOR DIAGRAM SPACE DIAGRAM Fig. 11 () To construct the vector diagram (Fig. 11) choose a suitable scale and draw vertically upwards vector ab to represent the force 12 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ‘We now have to find the equilibrant of these two resultants. Fig. 13 Equilibrant = +/9-67? + 20-356? = 22:54N 20-356 tana = “oe = 2105 1a == 64° 36" «Force = 22-54 newtons at S 64° 36’ W. Ans. JIB CRANES A simple jib-crane consists of a post, a jib and a tie. The post is ‘usually vertical, the jib is hinged at its lower end to the bottom of the post, and the tie connects the top of the jib with the top of the post. The junction of the tie and jib is the crane head. In problems on jib cranes it is sometimes taken that the load is suspended directly from a fixture at the crane head and the problem then involves a simple triangle of forces. In other cases they are described as having a pulley at the crane head, the lifting rope passing over this pulley and down to a winch behind the crane. such cases involve more than three forces at the crane head. On board ship a similar structure to a jib crane is formed by a mast or samson post, derrick and topping lift. Example. The angle between the jib and the vertical post of a jib crane is 42 degrees, and between the tie and jib the angle is 36 degrees. Find the forces in the jib and tie when a mass of 3-822 X 10° kg is suspended from the crane head.VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS i of 12 N due North, from 6 draw bc to represent 15 N at 30° to the vertical, from c draw cd representing 20 N at 40° to the vertical, As the system is balanced the vector diagram must.form a closed figure, therefore the fourth force must be represented by the vector from d to a which closes the diagram. da measures 22} N and the angle at a measures 644 degrees. Referring to the compass, the direction of this force can be expressed as 64-5° West of South. ..Equilibrant = 224 newtons S64-S°W. ii) To calculate da from the vector diagram it may be done by dividing the figure into two triangles by drawing a line say from bto d, calculating first bd from the triangle bcd then calculating da from the triangle bda. However, an easier method of calculation is to resolve all forces into their North-South and East-West com- ponents and reducing the problem to a triangle of forces, wherein we find the equilibrant of those two resultants, as follows: OUTH ENT Se 22 a =e RE 2. zy Y LN3NOdHOD HENOS HLYON NOR i) EAST WEST EAST WEST COMPONENT COMPONENT Fig. 12 N.S. component of 15 = 15 cos 30° = 12-99 North E.W. 15 i 7-5 East NS. » 20 5-32 South EW. » 20 = 20 sin 40° = 12-856 East NS. . 12 2 North EW, > 12 =Nil Resultant of North-South components = 12:99 North + 12 North — 15-32 South = 9-67 newtons due North Resultant of East-West components = 1/5 East + 12-856 East = 20.356 newtons due East VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 13 Lite is VECTOR DIAGRAM Post SPACE DIAGRAM Fig. 14 Vertical downward force on crane head == 3-822 x 10° x 9-81N = 37-5 x 10°N = 37-5kN At the crane head (see space diagram of Fig. 14), three forces meet which are in equilibrium. It is obvious that the jib must push upwards on the crane head to support the hanging load and the tie must pull to the left to support the top of the jib. The arrows are inserted accordingly and the vector diagram is then constructed to represent these three forces at the crane head, It will be seen that in this case the vector diagram of the forces is a similar triangle to the framework of the crane. Referring to the vector diagram: Angle bac = 180 — (42 + 36) = 102° By sine rule, Force in jib 37-5 sin 102° ~~ sin 36° wee 37:5 x 09781 Force in jib = — 7588 = 62:38 KN Ans. (i) Force in tie 37:5 sin42° ~~ sin 36°14 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 37-5 x 0-6691 0-5878 = 42-69 KN Ans. (ii) Example. The lengths of the vertical post and jib of a jib crane are 6-5 and 7 m respectively, and the angle between the post and jib is 40 degrees. A mass of 2:854 Mg is suspended from a wire rope which passes over a pulley at the crane head and then led down at an angle of 50 degrees to the vertical to a winch behind the post. ‘Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head. and measure the forces in the jib and tie. Force in tie = 28kN REARRANGED. SPACE DIAGRAM SPACE, DIAGRAI a 28kN VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 15 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS, 15 Mass = 2:854 Mg = 2-854 x 10° kg Load in newtons = 2:854 x 10° x 984 = 28 x 10°N = 28kN The space diagram can be drawn to scale from the data given on the lengths of the post and jib and angle between them. The vector diagram can then be constructed by drawing the force vectors parallel to the wire ropes, jib and tie. Alternatively, the remaining angles of the space diagram could be measured and the vector diagram drawn by scale rule and protractor. Note that the force in the wire rope must be the same throughout its length, that is, in the hanging part and also in the portion leading down from crane head to winch. The student will find it much easier to construct the vector diagram when the two known forces are next to each other and not separated by an unknown. For instance, if we take the original space diagram as it is, we have the downward pull of 28 kN on the crane head by the hanging part of the wire rope, next to this there is the upward inclined thrust of the jib, the magnitude of which is unknown, next in turn is the pull of 28 KN in the wire which leads down to the winch, then we have the pull in the tie which is unknown. Therefore rearrange the space diagram by extending the line of action of the force of the jib and consider it as a pulling force on the opposite side of the crane head instead ofa pushing force under the head, the effect is the same and now we have the two known forces of the wire ropes together. The rearranged equivalent space diagram is drawn and lettered and the vector diagram constructed from this, as shown in Fig. 15. Measuring the unknown vectors: Force in jib = 55-4kN ‘Ans. Forceintie=146 ,, f° * RECIPROCATING ENGINE MECHANISM The connecting rod and crank ofa reciprocating engine converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotary motion at the crank shaft. Referring to Fig. 16 and considering the forces meeting at the crosshead, the lower end of the piston rod pushes vertically downwards on the crosshead, the thrust in the connecting rod appears as an upward resisting force at its top end inclined to the vertical, and the guide exerts a horizontal force to balance the horizontal component of the thrust in the connecting rod.16 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS, As the piston effort always acts vertically, and the guide force always horizontally, the vector diagram of the forces at the cross- head is always a right-angled triangle. Note that the angle between the centre-line of the engine and the connecting rod indicated by ¢ in the space diagram, is the same as the angle between the piston force and the force in the connecting rod in the vector diagram. PISTON EFFORT GUIDE FORCE b NECTOR DIAGRAM OF FORCES, AT CROSSHEAD Ss__-% SPACE DIAGRAM Fig. 16 Example. The piston of a reciprocating engine exerts a force of 160 KN on the crosshead when the crank is 35 degrees past top dead centre, If the stroke of the piston is 900 mm and the length of the connecting rod is 1-65 m, find the guide force and the force in the connecting rod. VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 17 Referring to the space diagram of Fig. 16, crank length = $ stroke = 045m length of connecting rod = 1-65m crank angle from T.D.C. = 0 = 35° By sine rule, 0-45 1-65 ‘sing sin35° sing = 0-45 x 0-5736 165 = 0:1564 Angle ¢ = 9° Referring now to the vector diagram, Angle $ = 9° Guide force _ Piston force ~ @# Guide force = 160 x tan 9° = 25:34 kN Ans. (i) Piston force Force in con.rod — °° $ 1 Force in con. rod = 160 cos 9 = 162 kN Ans. (ii) EFFECT OF CURRENT ON SHIP’S COURSE When a ship runs from still water into a current, the ship’s speed and course are changed, the resultant speed and direction is the resultant of the propeller and rudder effect“in' still water and the velocity of the current. The term velocity represents both speed and direction. As velocity represents two measurable things it is therefore a vector quantity and can be represented by a vector. The length of the vector is the speed to scale, the direction in which it is drawn and the arrow on it indicates the direction of movement. Vector diagrams of velocities are drawn in the same manner as vector diagrams of forces. Example. A ship travelling due North at 16 knots runs into a 4 knot current moving South East. Find the resultant speed and direction of the ship.18 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS > IGKNOTS. ORIGINAL SPEED OF SHIP. VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 17 Referring to the vector diagram (Fig. 17), given two sides ofa triangle and the angle between them, to find the other side we use the cosine rule. This is usually written: @ = b+ ch — 2becosA but we adapt this to suit the lettering of this particular vector diagram, thus: {ac}? = (aby? + (bc)? — 2 x ab x be X cos b 162+ 4 — 2 x 16 x 4 x cos 45° 256 + 16 — 90°51 ac = +/181-49 == 13-47 By sine rule, 4 13-47 sina sin 45° _ 4x 0-7071 sin = W347 = 0-2100 =12°7 «Resultant speed = 13-47 knots v Ans »» direction = 12° 7’ East of North f " VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 19 FRAMED STRUCTURES A framed structure is a framework of straight bars joined at their ends and, although they may be riveted or welded together, it is usually assumed in design that the end connections are pin- jointed or hinged so that the bars will be in either direct tension or direct compression. EXTERNAL. INTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL Fonce GRC FORCE Pe < FORCE STRUT IN COMPRESSION EXTERNAL SERNA LER EXTERNAL FORCE FORCE FORCE FORCE TIE IN TENSION Fig. 18 When the external force applied to the ends of a bar tends to shorten it, the bar is in compression. A bar in compression is referred to as a strut and the internal resisting force set up pushes towards its two ends. When the external force on a bar tends to stretch it, the bar is said to be in tension. A bar in tension is referred to as a tie and the internal resisting force pulls on its two ends. If we refer back to the framework of the jib crane and insert arrows indicating the directions of the forces in the jib and tie, not only at the crane head, but at both ends of these two members, the arrows on the jib will push at its two ends indicating that it is in compression, and the arrows on the tie will pull at its ends indicat- ing that it is in tension. In framed structures we consider not just one particular node where forces meet, as we did in the jib crane (at the crane head) and in the reciprocating engine mechanism (at the crosshead), but at every node where members of the structure meet. Consider the simple common symmetrical roof structure shown in Fig. 19. This consists of a horizontal bar and two sloping bars imagined to be pin-jointed at their ends. A load of W is carried at the apex. The framework rests on the two end supports and the upward reaction of each support will be equal to half the load W.20 RREED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ing Bow's notation the spaces between the external forces are lettend fist suck as A between the left hand support and the Joad W,, the letter B between W and the right-hand support, and C between the two supports. To enable each member to be repre- sented we insert another letter, D, in the centre. Now the arrows indicating the directions of the forces on each node are inserted. These are reasoned out and ase fairly straight- forward. At the left end node CAD, the support pushes upwards, therefore for equilibrium there must be adownward force, member Th d. Los 2 a | VECTOR DIAGRAM VECTOR DIAGRAM OF NODE 6CD OF NODE CAD Qa VECTOR DIAGRAM OF NODE A8D Fig. 20 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 21 DC is horizontal and cannot have a vertical component, member AD must therefore push down on this node. By reason of its slope, AD not only pushes down but also to the left, therefore DC must pull to the right to balance this horizontal thrust. Hence the arrows at that node appear as shown. The arrows indicating the directions of the forces at the other nodes are reasoned in a similar manner, also bearing in mind that the two arrows on any one member must be in opposite directions, A vector diagram for each separate node may be drawn as previously explained, these are illustrated in Fig. 20. These separate diagrams could now be combined together as shown in Fig, 21 by superimposing the first two on to the third, but note particularly that the arrows in the combined vector diagram have now to be omitted because any one member of the structure applies forces in opposite directions at its two ends. jg Oe njze >? <_< o <— J] After a little practice the combined vector diagram for the whole structure can be drawn without the aid of first drawing the vector diagram for each node and of course it is much quicker. To do this we could first draw the vector diagram of the external forces thus, beginning with the load AB draw a vertical line downwards to represent W to scale, mark this ab, from b measure 4W to scale vertically upwards to ¢ to represent the right-hand reaction BC, from ¢ vertically up to a we have }W which represents the left- hand reaction CA. This so far is only a straight line (this is a very simple example). Now the vector diagram for each node is quite easily added one at a time, as at least one of the vectors is now already in position from which to make a start.22 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Example. Fig. 22 is a sketch of a roof structure, the lower inclined members are at 15 degrees to the horizontal and the upper inclined members are at 45 degrees. It is simply supported at each end and the structure carries a load of 50 KN on the apex. Con- struct the vector diagram for the whole structure, measure off the force in each member and state whether they are in compression or tension. 5OkN Fig, 22 The structure is symmetrical therefore each reaction carries half the load, that is 25 KN at each end. The space diagram is drawn, external forces inserted, lettered by Bow’s notation, directions of forces at each node réasoned out and arrows inserted, as in Fig. 23, The vector diagram is now contructed to scale, ab representing the 50 KN load, bc and ca respectively 25 kN each for the reactions. The vector diagram of node CAD is added by drawing ad at 45° from point a, and cd at 15° to the horizontal from point c. The vector diagram of node BCE can be added next by drawing be at 45° from point b, and ce at 15° from point c. The vector diagram of node DEC is completed by drawing the vertical vector de, the other vectors ec and cd being already in place. The vector diagram of the remaining node ABED will be found to be already com- plete in position. VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 23 5OkN Cc SPACE DIAGRAM 25kN 2588 . Measuring the forces to scale on the vector diagram, and refer- zing to the arrows on the space diagram to determine whether the members are in compression or tension, the results are tabulated us:24 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS MEMBER FORCE NATURE OF FORCE AD 48-3 kN Compression BE 48:3 ,, Compression DC 35-4 ,, Tension EC 35-4 ,, Tension DE 18:3 ,, Tension NNON-COPLANAR FORCES A system of forces which are not in the same plane can be reduced to a coplanar system by substituting an imaginary mem- ber for each pair of straddled members of the structure. This is demonstrated in the following. Example. A set of sheer legs is illustrated in Fig. 24, the front legs are each 6 m long and they are straddled 5 m apart at their bases; the back stay is 1{ m fong and its base fixture is 7 m horizontally from the centre of the feet of the front legs, Find the force in each member when a mass of 15-29 tonnes hangs from the crane head, (i) by measurement of the vector diagram, (ii) by calculation. Load = 15:29 x 10°kg 5:29 x 108 x 981N = 150kN The two front legs can be replaced temporarily by one imaginary leg in the centre of the two and in the same plane as the back stay and the hanging load, as in Fig. 25. Length of imaginary leg = «/6? — 25° = 5-455 m VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 25 LOAD. ISOKN eo Ye, vector DIAGRAM __ The space diagram is now drawn to scale with the imaginary leg in position. Being now a simple system of coplanar forces the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head can be drawn to scale by constructing the vectors parallel to the forces indicated by the arrows on the space diagram. Measuring the vector diagram, the force in the back stay scales 157 KN, and the force in the imaginary leg scales 258 kN. Now the force in the imaginary leg is really the resultant of the forces in the two actual front legs, drawing this resultant force vector diagram as in Fig. 26, the force in each front leg scales 142 KN. Therefore by measurement, Force in back stay = 157kN \ Force in each front leg = 142kN f A®S @26 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS IMAGINARY, LEC. FORCE IN IMAGINARY LEG Fig. 26 By calculation. Referring to the space diagram of Fig. 25, and using the cosine rule: cn Ut 5452-7 COSC IRU K SES 101-76 = = 08480 oC = 32? By sine rule, 5455 __1 sin@ sin 32° . 5-455 x 05299 sin @ = — = 0-4130 0 = 24° 24" a = 180° — (32° + 24° 24") = 123° 36" Referring to the vector diagram of Fig. 25, angle c = 32° » @= 123° 36 — 90° = 33° 36’ vy b= 24° 24". 90° = 114°. 24" VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 27 By sine rule, Foree in back stay _ Load sina sine : 150 x sin 33° 36’ Force in back stay = ae = 1566kN Force inimaginaryleg _ Load sin b sine Force in imaginary leg = 150 x sin 114° 24" sin 32° = 257-8 kN Referring to Fig. 26, + 257:8 6 Force in each real front leg = TX Tass = 1418 kN Therefore, by calculation, Force in back stay = 156-6 kN ae Force in each front leg = 141-8 kN f° Ans. (ii)28 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS TEST EXAMPLES I ‘1. A vertical lifting effort of 90 N is applied to a body and at the same time a force of 120 N pulls on it in a horizontal direction. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of these two forces. 2. Two forces act on a body, one pulls horizontally to the right and jts magnitude is 20 N, the other pulls vertically downwards and its magnitude is 17 N. Find the magnitude and direction of a third force which would neutralise the effect of the other two. 3. Find the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant of two forces, one being a horizontal pull of 10 N and the other a pull of 20 N at 50 degrees to the 10 N force. 4. Three forces pulling on a body are in equilibrium. The direction of one is due South, the direction of another is 75° East of North, and the third force acts in the direction 40° West of North. If the magnitude of the Southerly force is 35 N, find the magnitudes of the other two. 5. A block of wood is pulled along a horizontal table by a force of 25 N inclined at 20° above the horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the force. 6. Two slings of equal length are slung from a horizontal beam and connected to a ring at their lower ends, the slings and beam forming an equilateral triangle. Find the force in each sling when a load of 30 KN hangs from the ring. 7. Two lifting ropes are connected at their lower ends to'a common shackle from which a load of 25 kN hangs. If the ropes make angles of 32 and 42 degrees respectively to the vertical, find the tension in each rope. 8. A shaft of mass 5-097 Mg is lifted by two chains from a crane hook, The length of each chain is 4 m and their connections to the shaft are 4 m apart, If the centre of gravity of the shaft is 1-25 m from one of the connections, find the tension in each chain, 9. A wire rope 25-5 m long is slung between two vertical bulk- heads which are 21 m apart, the end fixtures being at the same height. A freely running snatch block on the wire carries a hanging load of 30 KN. If the snatch block is pulled by a horizontal force until itis 8 m horizontally from one bulkhead, calculate the tension in the wire rope and the horizontal force applied, VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 29 10, The angie between the jib and vertical post of a jib crane is 40 degrees, and between the jib and tie the angle is 45 degrees. Find the force in the jib and tie when a load of 15 kN hangs from the crane head. 11. The lengths of the vertical post, jib and tie of a jib crane are 8, 13 and 9 m respectively. Find the forces in the jib and tie when a load of 20 kN hangs from the crane head, 12. A jib 6-6 m long is hinged at its foot to the base of a vertical post and connected at its top end by a 3-6 m long tie to a shackle on the post at 4-2 m up from the base. The lifting rope passes over a pulley at the jib head and is led back in the plane of the frame- work, at an angle of 45 degrees, to a winch, Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head when a load of 45 KN is being lifted at a uniform speed, and measure the forces in the jib and tie. 13. When the crank of a reciprocating engine is 60 degrees past top dead centre, the effective piston effort on the crosshead is 180 KN. If the stroke of the piston is 600 mm and the connecting rod length is 1:25 m, find the load on the guide and the thrust in the connecting rod. 14. The length of the stroke of a reciprocating engine is 350 mm. and the length of the connecting rod is 700 mm. Find the thrust in the connecting rod and the load on the guide when the crank is 110 degrees past T.D.C. if the piston effort at this instant is 60 KN. Find also the distance the piston has moved down its stroke when the crank is in this position, 15. A ship sailing due East at 18 knots runs into a 3 knot cur- rent moving 40° East of North. Find the resultant speed and direction of the ship. 16. The roof frame shown in Fig, 27 carries a load of 50 KN at the apex. Draw the vector diagram, calculate the forces in each member and state the nature of these forces, and also the magni- tudes of the two reactions.30 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS SOkN oii Fig. 27 17. In the framework shown in Fig. 28 aff inclined members are at 45 degrees. Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces in the members of this structure when carrying a load of 100 kN at the centre, measure their magnitudes and tabulate results, stating also the nature of the forces. tOOkN A 8 Cc Fig, 28 f18. Draw the vector diagram for the structure given in Fig. 29 when carrying a load of 30 KN at the end, and calculate the wall reactions at the top and bottom connections. 4m BOkN 2m Fig. 29 CHAPTER 2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION LINEAR MOTION SPEED is the rate at which a body moves through space and is therefore expressed as the distance travelled in a given time. The units in which speed are usually expressed are: kilometres per hour [km/h], knots (one international knot = 1-852 km/h), metres per second [m/s], and so on, Speed is therefore obtained by dividing distance by time. However, the speed may vary during a journey, for example, if a car travels 180 kilometres in 3 hours it is very improbable that it has been moving at an exact constant speed of 60 km/h during the 3 hours, it is more likely that the speed has been well below and above that figure at times, but the average speed is 60 km/h. VELOCITY indicates speed in a specified direction. Velocity therefore represents two facts about a moving body—its speed and also its direction, consequently it is a vector quantity and hence can be illustrated by drawing a vector to scale the length of which represents the speed of the body, and the direction in which it is drawn with an arrow represents its direction. See Fig. 30. N 2mjs DUE EAST32 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Change of velocity will therefore take place if the speed changes, or if the direction changes, or if both speed and direction change. In the first place, only those cases with no change of direction will be considered wherein velocity and speed can therefore be treated as being the same. Change of velocity due to change of direction will be dealt with later. LINEAR VELOCITY is expressed in the same units as those for speed, it is usually represented by the symbols u for initial velocity and y for final velocity. If a body travels at an average velocity of 40 metres per second for a time of 5 seconds, the total distance travelled will be 200 metres. Hence we have the simple but important rule: Distance travelled = average velocity x time ACCELERATION is rate of change of velocity, that is, change of velocity expressed as having taken place in a given time, If the velocity is increasing we speak of it as accelerating, if the velocity is decreasing we say it is retarding or that it has negative accelera~ tion. If a cyclist increases his speed uniformly from 2 metres per second to 12 metres per second in 5 seconds, his total increase in velocity is 12 —2= 10 metres per second. Having taken 5 seconds to increase his velocity by 10 m/s, then his increase in velocity in each one of these 5 seconds must have been 10 + 5 = 2 m/s, This acceleration is written 2 metres per second per second, the usual abbreviation being 2 m/s*. Hence we have: Increase in velocity Time to change Linear acceleration is usually represented either by a or f As a further example, if a train, starting from rest, increases its speed uniformly for 2 minutes and attains a speed of 108 kilo- metres per hour in that time, its acceleration could be stated as: 108 km/h in 2 minutes or 54 km/h per minute. ‘The conversion of the units of acceleration for this example from. increase of velocity of 108 kilometres per hour in 2 minutes, into metres per second per second, is shown below step by step, but it should be quite a simple matter to set it down in one line after a little practice. Acceleration = 108 km/h in 2 minutes = 108 x 10° m/h in 2 minutes Acceleration = VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 33 108 KIO in 2 ni =——a— M/s in 2 minutes 108 x 1O so 1 minut = 3600 x2 in 1 minute 108 x 10° ~~ 3600 x2 x 60 = 0:25 m/s® In effect, the above is simply: Increase in velocity [m/s] Time [s] At sea, distance is measured in nautical miles, one international nautical mile being 1-852 km, and speed is measured in knots, which are nautical miles per hour, thus one international knot = 1-852 km/h. Example. A ship’s engines are stopped when she is travelling at a speed of 18 knots and the ship comes to rest after 20 minutes, Assuming uniform retardation, find the retardation in metres per second per second and the distance travelled in nautical miles in that time, Retardation = 18 knots in 20 minutes 18 x 1-852 x 10% . . =— 360 in/s in 20 minutes 18 x 1-852 x 10% . = 3600 x 20 x 0 m/s in one second = 0007717 m/s? or 7-717 X 10- m/s? Ans, (i) Note again that the above is Change of velocity in m/s Time in seconds Distance = Average velocity x time 184-0 _ 20 = Xa = 3 nautical miles Ans. (ii) It is important to take particular care with the units. Since the speed is reduced uniformly from 18 knots to nil, the average speed is $ (18 + 0) = 9 knots, this is 9 nautical miles per hour. There- fore the average speed in nautical miles per hour must be multiplied by the time in hours, to obtain distance in nautical miles, m/s in 1 second Acceleration [m/s?] ==34 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Example. A motor car starting from rest attains a speed of 54 km/h over a distance of 90 m. Assuming that the rate of increase in speed is uniform, find the acceleration in metres per second per second. 54 x 10° 3000 = 15 m/s Average velocity = 4 (0 + 15) = 7-5 m/s Distance [m] = average velocity [m/s] x time [s] 90 = 7-5 X time Max. velocity = . 90 time = 73 = 12s Acceleration = 15 m/sin 12s == ms? =p m/s’ = 1-25 m/s* Ans. GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION The earth attracts all bodies towards itself so that if a body is allowed to fall freely, neglecting air resistances it will fall towards the earth with uniform acceleration. This particular acceleration, referred to as gravitational acceleration, varies slightly over different parts of the earth’s surface, in this country it is taken as 9-81 m/s? and this is represented by ‘g’. Thus, if a body falls from test, its velocity increases by 9-81 m/s every second it is falling: At end of Ist second, its velocity will be 9-81 m/s » » 2nd » » 1962, » 9» ards, » oe 29-43, and so on. It also follows that if a projectile is shot vertically upwards it will lose 9-81 m/s of velocity every second it is rising. Example. A body is allowed to fall from rest. Find the velocity after falling for 4 seconds and the distance fallen in that time. Increase in velocity = 9-81 m/s in each second == 9-81 X 4 m/s in 4 seconds = 39-24 m/s Since it had no velocity to start with, Final velocity = 0 + 39-24 = 39-24 m/s Ans, (i) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 35 Distance = average velocity x time 0 + 39:24 = 2 == 78-48 m Ans. (ii) Example. A projectile is fired vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 300 m/s, Find (i) its velocity after 20 seconds, (ii) the height above the ground after 20 seconds, (iii) the time taken to reach its maximum height, (iv) the maximum height attained, (v) the total time from leaving the ground to returning to ground. Retardation = 9-81 m/s* Loss of velocity in 20 seconds = 9-81 x 20 == 196-2 m/s Velocity after 20 seconds = Initial velocity — loss of velocity = 300 — 196-2 = 103-8 m/s Ans. (i) Distance = average velecity x time x4 103+ .. Height after 20 secs = Soe ss x 20 = 4038 m Ans. (ii) Maximum height is attained when the projectile loses all its upward velocity and ceases to rise. Every second of rising it loses 9-81 m/s of velocity, therefore the time to lose 300 m/s of velocity is the number of times 9-81 goes into 300, 300 9-18 = 30-58 seconds Ans. (iii) At the instant of reaching maximum height the velocity is nil, therefore the average velocity during its upward flight is 3300 ++ 0) = 150 m/s. Maximum height (distance) = average velocity x time 50 x 30-58 = 4587 m Ans. (iv) The time for the projectile to fall to the ground from maximum height is equal to the time it took to rise. ~.Total time up and down = 2 x 30-58 = 61-16 seconds Ans. (v) Time to reach max. height =36 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS CONSTANT VELOCITY OF 20 km/h 20} £ z/° > =DISTANCE TRAVELLED | reaked =20x4 \) 8 Fig. 31 g s sR a 8 VELOCITY IN m/s 6 Fig. 33 SPEED IN KNOTS o. TIME IN HOURS VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 37 VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS A graph of velocity or speed on a base of time can be a very useful method of solving some problems as well as providing a picture of the facts. The area of a velocity-time graph represents distance travelled and the slope of the curve represents acceleration. Fig. 31 represents a body travelling at a constant velocity of 20 km/h for 4 hours. The area enclosed by the graph is a rectangle of height 20 km/h and length 4 hours, the area of a rectangle is the product of height and length, this is the product of velocity and time which gives distance travelled. Therefore the area of the graph represents distance travelled, Area enclosed by graph = height x length Distance travelled = velocity x time 20 x4 = 80 km Fig. 32 represents a body starting from rest and reaching a velocity of 30 metres per second in 6 seconds, the rate of increase of velocity (i.e. its acceleration) being uniform. Area of graph = area of triangle = $x 30x6 = 90 units of distance also, Distance = average speed x time 40 + 30) x 6 = 90m Again we see that the area of a velocity-time graph represents distance travelled. Further, in each second the increase of velocity is 5 metres per second, this is the acceleration of 5 m/s* and is illustrated by the slope ot gradient of the graph. A greater accelera- tion would be a steeper slope, a retardation would be a slope in the opposite direction. Fig. 33 represents the slowing down of a ship from 16 knots to 10 knots in 12 minutes. Distance travelled during this time W+10 12 =z XO = 2-6 nautical miles38 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS The ship loses 6 knots of speed in 12 minutes, this is equivalent to 30 knots in 60 minutes, so we could express the retardation in the same units in which the graph is plotted, as: Retardation = 30 knots per hour or it could be expressed in units of m/s? thus: Taking 1 knot = 1-852 km/h Change of velocity [m/s] Time [seconds] _ 6 x 1852 x 108 ~~ 3600 x 12 x 60 = 0:004286 m/s* or 4-286 x 1073 m/s? Example. A locomotive starts from rest and reaches a speed of 90 km/h in 25 seconds, it runs at this speed for 1} minutes and then reduces speed to come to rest in 20 seconds. Assume accelera~ tion and retardation to be uniform, draw a speed-time graph, find the total distance travelled and express the acceleration and retardation in m/s?. Retardation {m/s*] CONSTANT SPEED. » & Fool is E10) 85 S25 38 0 a Fig. 34 90 km/h = PIO sas = 25 m/s Area under acceleration line = 4 x 25 x 25= 312:5m » 99, Constant speed ,, = 25 x 90 = 2250 ,, » 9 fetardation ,,=4*25xX20= 250 ,, Total = 28125 m Total distance travelled = 2:8125 km Ans. (i) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 39 Increase in velocity _ 25 Acceleration = Time = Ems Ans. (ii) . Decrease in velocity 25 see Retardation = “Time 5 = 125 im/s? Ans. (iii) FORMULAE | Although all problems can be worked out from first principles it is sometimes more expedient to solve by formula. There are four common formulae connecting linear velocity, acceleration, time and distance, and the usual symbols used in these are: 4 = initial velocity in m/s v = final velocity in m/s a= acceleration in m/s* t = time in seconds S = space passed through (distance) in metres, From the examples already given, the following should be readily understood. @ = increase in velocity for each second, t= 5 sss ny E SeCOndS, Final velocity = initial velocity +- increase in velocity “=U + at... Distance travelled = average velocity x time — EP) Xt ee @ Substituting value of v from (i) into (ii), s~ (ota s=(u+4at)xt Sut dat? ae saan il) ‘Transposing (ji) to make r the subject, s= fs xt 2s tT40 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Substituting this value of ¢ into (i), y=u-+at veut uty Multiplying throughout by (4 + ¥) uy + P= w+ uv + 2as Pawt as ee Civ) In any of the above, the acceleration a can be positive or negative; the positive sign is used when the acceleration is positive and the velocity is increasing, the negative sign is used when the acceleration is negative, that is retardation, and the velocity is decreasing. These formulae can therefore be written with the “plus-or- minus” sign when the acceleration is included. v=utat s= }ut+y)t s= ut + fat? v= w+ 2as The units for each symbol were stated above as all in metre- seconds, but any appropriate units can be used provided they are of the same kind throughout the formula. Example. A body is allowed to fall from rest from the top of a precipice and takes 4-5 seconds to hit the ground. Find the height of the precipice. In this problem the initial velocity w is nil, the acceleration a is known (= 9-81 m/s*), the time ¢ is given and the height s is required. Therefore we choose a formula connecting u, a, t and s, insert the values and work it out, thus, s=ut-+ tat? =0+4 x 981 x 45% = 99-33 metres Example. A projectile is fired vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 256 m/s, find the velocity as it passes a point 700 m above the ground. In this case we have a negative acceleration of 9-81 m/s®, there- fore the minus sign is used. The formula chosen should contain the required final velocity y and the given quantities which are initial velocity u, acceleration a, and distance s, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 4. v= uw ~ 2as v® = 2507 — 2 x 9-81 x 700 = 62500 — 13730 v= /48770 = 220-8 m/s Ans. Example. A bullet is fired vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 70 m/s. Two seconds later another bullet is fired upwards with an initial velocity of 100 m/s. After what time and at what height above the ground will the second bullet overtake the first? Let t= time for first bullet to reach overtaking point, then (¢ — 2) = time for second bullet to get there. For the first bullet: s=ut — far? = 710t-4 x 981 x =~ 49572 | For the second bullet: 5 = 100¢ — 2) — } x 981 (0 — 2)% = 100 — 200 — 4-905 (1? ~ 41 + 4) = 100 t — 200 — 4.905 1? + 19-62 ¢ — 19-62 = 119-62 t — 4-905 #2 — 219-62 ve (ii) Height s of the overtaking point is the same for each bullet, therefore s in (i) is equal to s in (ii), 70 t — 4-905 t? = 119-621 — 4-905 £2 — 219-62 Collecting terms and simplifying, — 4905 t? + 4-905 # + 70 ~ 119-62 t = — 219-62 ~ 49-62 t= — 219-62 t = 4-425 seconds Ans. (i) Substituting value of ¢ into equation (i) above, 5 = 70t — 4-905 1? = 70 x 4-425 ~ 4905 x 4.425% = 309-75 — 96:03 = 213-72 m Ans. (ii) In all cases of gravitational acceleration (or retardation) the symbol g may be used instead of a, and, of course, h for height may be used instead of s. A common case of these symbols being used42 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS is that where the velocity is required of a body falling from rest from a given height, thus, v =u? + 2as u=0,a=g,ands=A, J = Qgh ory =/2gh ANGULAR MOTION ANGULAR VELOCITY is the rate of change of angular displacement and is expressed in radians per second. The abbreviation for radians per second is rad/s and represented by the symbol . One radian is the angle subtended by a circular arc of length equal to the radius therefore, since the circumference of a circle is equal to 2x x radius, there are 27 radians in one circle, . Rotational speeds of engines are commonly expressed in revolutions per minute [rev/min] hence, to express rev/min in terms of rad/s, multiply by 2x to convert it into radians per minute, and divide by 60 to obtain radians per second, thus, _ 2n x revimin rad/s ANGULAR ACCELERATION is the rate of change of angular velocity and is usually expressed in radians per second per second, the abbreviation for these units is rad/s? and is usually represented by the symbol «. Example. A flywheel is increased in speed from 150 to 350 revolutions per minute in half-a-minute. Express the acceleration jn radians per second per second and calculate the number of revolutions turned during that time. Acceleration = 200 rev/min in 30 seconds 200 x 2x © rad/s in 30 seconds 200 x 2x =" X30 = 0-6982 rad/s? Ans. (i) Distance = average velocity x time 150+ 350 1 2 2 = 125 revolutions Ans. (ii) rad/s in 1 second VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 43 Note the units, average velocity in revolutions per minute is multiplied by the time in minutes, to obtain distance in revolutions, RELATION BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOTION Length of arc for one radian = radius of circle » » two radians = 2 x radius ” » three radians = 3 x radius, and so on. Consider a point moved around on a circular path, if 8 repre- sents the angular displacement in radians, r the radius, and s the length of the arc or linear distance moved, then: s=Or i ee Similarly, if a point is travelling in a circular path, the linear distance travelled in one second is the number of radians moved through in one second multiplied by the radius. If v represents the linear velocity, « the angular velocity in radians per second, andr the radius, then: Peoria we ii) Further, if the point is accelerating at the rate of « radians per second per second and the linear acceleration is represented by a, then: GSO eee iii) In words, the above conversion rules are, Linear distance = angular distance x radius Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius Linear acceleration = angular acceleration x radius In all cases, it is a simple matter of multiplying the angular quantity by the radius, to obtain the corresponding linear quantity. Example. A wheel 240 mm diameter is keyed to a shaft 40 mm diameter mounted in bearings which carry the shaft horizontally. A cord is wrapped around the shaft, one end of the cord being fixed to the shaft and the other end carrying a load. When the load. is allowed to fall from rest, it falls a distance of 2 m in 5 seconds. Neglecting the thickness of the cord, find (i) the linear velocity of the load after 5 seconds, (ii) the angular velocity of the wheel and shaft after 5 seconds, (iii) the linear velocity of the rim of the wheel after 5 seconds, (iv) the linear acceleration of the load, (v) the angular acceleration of the wheel and shaft.44 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS [= | | Gown) KT Fig. 35 ‘The load moves through 2 metres in 5 seconds, distance time =2=04mi/s average velocity = } (initial vel. -+ final vel.) Initial velocity is nil because it started from rest, .'.Final velocity = 2 x average velocity =2x04 = 0-8 m/s Ans. (i) Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius vy 08 =P 002 = 40 rad/s Ans. (ii) (Note r must be in metres because v is in m/s) Linear velocity of rim of wheel: «average velocity = v=or = 40 x 012 = 4:8 m/s Ans. (iii) Note the radius of the wheel rim is 6 times the radius of the shaft, they both rotate at the same angular velocity, therefore the linear VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 45 velocity of the wheel rim is 6 times that of the surface of the shaft, 6 x 0-8 = 4-8 m/s. Linear acceleration of load = . change of velocity _ 08 time _ = 0-16 m/s? Ans, (iv) Angular acceleration of shaft: a=or a _ 016 r 0-02 = 8 rad/s* Ans. (v) CHANGE OF VELOCITY DUE TO CHANGE OF DIRECTION It was stated at the beginning of this chapter that velocity is a vector quantity representing speed and direction and therefore a change of velocity takes place if the speed changes without any change of direction, or if the direction changes while the speed remains the same, or if there is a change in both speed and direction, y SPACE DIAGRAMS ! VECTOR DIAGRAMS AS... tan/t eS a ed es B opis $F —., 42e—— 9 > ~—— x —— 2 g int 8 = sin’ . 0 2g Total time. above ground = time to go up + time to go down usin ® = 2 x —— seconds & Horizontal component = u cos 6 Horizontal distance = horizontal velocity x time 2u sin & = ucos 6 xX ——— __ 2u* sin 6 cos 6 7 g in 20 Since sin 6 cos 6 = = 3 ? sin 20 se .. Horizontal range = s Zz ww. (ii) For a given value of the initial velocity u, the horizontal range will be greatest when sin 20 is greatest. The maximum value of the sine of an angle is unity and this is for an angle of 90 degrees, therefore if 20 = 90° then 8 = 45°. Therefore maximum horizontal range is when the angle ‘of elevation is 45 degrees, and its value is, 2 Maximum range = : RELATIVE VELOCITY Up to the present only velocities of moving objects as they pass fixed points on the Earth have been considered, these are termed absolute velocities. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 51 When the velocity of a moving object A is expressed as the rate at which it passes another moving object B, it is termed the relative velocity of A with respect to B. In effect it is the velocity of A as it appears by a person moving with object B and is therefore some- times called the apparent velocity. SQke/h Ac B: SQiemihy Fig. 41 If two objects are moving on parallel courses at the same velocity such as A and B in Fig. 41, the relative velocity of one to the other is nil. A typical example is two persons sitting in the same railway carriage of a moving train, in the eyes of one the other is not moving, the apparent or relative velocity of one to the other is nil. If, however, one object is moving exactly in the opposite direc- tion to the other such as two trains on outward and inward parallel tracks, each travelling at 50 km/h as illustrated in Fig. 42, one appears to pass the other at 100 km/h, therefore the relative velocity of one to the other is 100 km/h. SQ km/h A 50 km/h B Fig. 42 The relative velocities of objects moving on parallel courses are obvious and simple to understand, but when the courses are not parallel it is necessary to draw vector diagrams. Consider a body A moving at 30 m/s due East and another body B moving at 35 m/s 20 degrees North of East. A space diagram can be first sketched to show the absolute velocity of each, as these velocities are “relative to earth” they are marked A or B at the end behind the arrow, and E (for earth) at the point end, See Fig. 43.52 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS N A 30m: E te : { apts poe. 2Om/s E < “oO VECTOR or DIAGRAM ey oe oF gel ve a Re, BI Fig, 43 The vector diagram is now drawn with E a common point for the two absolute velocities, the relative velocity of A to B, or B to A, is the vector connecting the two free ends. If the velocity of B telative to A is required, the arrow is put on pointing from B to A and shows how B appears to be moving in the eyes of A. If the velocity of A relative to B is required, the arrow is inserted in the direction A to B. Example. Rain is falling vertically at a velocity of 5 m/s. Find the velocity of the rain as it appears to a cyclist moving horizontally at 4 m/s. R RAIN Smis oO PS m/s on VECTOR DIAGRAM cYcuist c Anis E Cc Pan & VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 53 ss Relative velocity of rain = 4/5* +- 4? = 6-403 m/s 4 tan@= 37 0:8 ..8 = 38° 40’ Velocity of rain appears to the cyclist to be: 6-403 m/s at 38° 40’ to the vertical. Ans. Example, If the wind is blowing from South 30° East at 15 km/h, at what speed and direction will the wind appear to blow to a cyclist travelling at 22 km/h due North? E E a W — ae "NS gla a rat Ww c EX vector Q] otacram Cc Fig. 45 By cosine rule, Vp = 22? + 15% — 2 x 22 x 15 X cos 30° = 484 + 225 — 571-6 be = V3T4 = 1-72 km/h By sine rule, 15 11-72 sin sin 3054 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 15 x 0-5 11-72 0 = 39° 48° Apparent velocity of wind to cyclist = 11-72 km/h from North 39° 48’ East. Ans. Example. One ship A is steaming due West at 19 knots and another ship B which is 5 nautical miles South West of A is steam- ing North 30° East at 17 knots. Find the distance between the two ships when they are nearest together and the time for them to get there. sin 0 == == 0-6400 sip A 7 Ww € 4 ‘ f IS¥e is Be Fig. 46 By cosine rule, Va = 17 + 192 — 2 X 17 x 19 x cos 120 = 289 + 361 + 323 Ve = 973 = 31-19 knots. By sine rule, 17 3119 sin6~ sin 120 . 17 x 0-866 sin@ = “ar = 0-4720 0 = 28° 10’ Velocity of B relative to A is 31-19 knots on the course 28° 10’ North of East. We can now imagine that we are on ship A apparently stationary and we see ship B, which is 5 nautical miles away in a S.W. direction, moving at an apparent speed of 31-19 knots in the direction 28° 10’ North of East. A space diagram of distances is now drawn to represent these apparent conditions as in Fig. 47. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 55 SHIP _A APPARENTLY SPACE DIAGRAM OF DISTANCES Fig. 47 Angle « = 45° — 28° 10’ = 16° 50’ AB, = nearest approach = 5 x sin 16° 50’ == 1-448 naut. miles. Ans. (i) Apparent distance to travel by B to get to the position of nearest. approach = B, B, = 5 x cos 16° 50’ = 4-7855 naut. miles. To travel 4-7855 naut. miles at an apparent speed of 31-19 knots, time taken = Distance 4-7855 Speed ~~ 31g POUr 4-7855 x 60 . Sa = 9-2 minutes, Ans, (ii) Jf INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE OF ROTATION Consider Fig. 48, this represents a ladder resting on a horizontal ground and leaning against a vertical wall. It could also represent alink of a mechanism whose two extreme ends move in directions at right angles to each other.56 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS If the bottom end of the ladder is moved horizontally away from the wall, the top end will slide down vertically. For a very small movement of the bottom end B we could imagine that the motion is along a very small length of the arc of a circle which has its centre anywhere in the direction By, this line By being per- pendicular to the direction of motion of B. The motion of the top end T is imagined to be a very small length of the arc of a circle whose centre is anywhere in the direction Tx, the line Tx being perpendicular to the direction of motion of T. Hence for the instant that the ladder passes this particular position, the inter- section of these two perpendiculars, denoted by I, is a common centre for the movements of both ends. This point js termed the instantaneous centre of rotation because we can now imagine the whole ladder, just for an instant, swinging about the common centre I. Since the linear velocity of a rotating body is proportional to its radius from the centre of rotation, then the velocities of B and T are in the same ratio as their respective distances from I, thus, Velocity of B_ IB Velocity of T ~ IT VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 37 This provides a useful method of determining the velocity of one Point on a moving link in relation to another point. A typical example is the motions of the crosshead (or piston) and crank pin of a reciprocating engine as illustrated in Fig. 49, In BOS t ~~ 1 ~y s I >. oe i X as 1 TE 1 T ! Xv 1 | \ TON ‘ P iC \ VELOCITY I } OF PISTON Fig. 49 The instantaneous linear velocity of the crank pin Q is tangential to the crank pin circle and perpendicular to the crank. Cl is there- fore drawn by extending the crank line CQ. PI is drawn per- pendicular to the direction of motion of the crosshead. We there- fore have the ratio: Linear velocity of PIP Linear velocity of Q ~TQ Further, if the line of connecting rod is produced to cut the diameter of the crank pin circle at T, it can be seen that triangle QPI is similar to triangle QTC, therefore the ratio of the lengths IP and IQ can be substituted by the ratio of the lengths of CT and QC, thus; Linear velocity of P__ CT Linear velocity of Qs r being the length of the crank which is QC. +. Velocity of Piston = Linear velocity of crank pin x a58 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS i i rtional to the Since the lengths of the sides of a triangle are propo! sines of their opposite angles (sine rule) then distances CT and r can be replaced by the sines of their opposite angles. 0 i i i ke runs at Example. A reciprocating engine of 750 mm strol rev/min. If the length of the connecting rod is 1500 mm, find fhe piston speed when the crank is 45 degrees past top dead centre. Referring to Fig. 49, Length of crank = By sine rule, troke=0-375m 0=45° 15 _ 0375 sin 45 sing 0-375 x 0-7071 sin p= SOR ORE = 01768 g= 10°11 a= 90 — 10° 11’ = 79° 49" g=0+¢=551V Linear velocity of crank pin, v= or 120 x 2% = 2 x 0:375 m/s = Zi) x | sin 8 Velocity of piston = linear velocity of crank pin une 120 x 2m x 0-375 _ sin 55°11" = 0 x Gn 79 4" = 3-93 m/s Ans. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 59 ‘SEST EXAMPLES 2 1. A motorist travels from one town to another, a distance of 135 km, in 3 hours, On the return journey the same distance is covered in 2} hours, Find the average speed in each direction and the average speed for the double journey there and back. 2. From a ship sailing due North, a light is sighted on the shore at a distance of 15 nautical miles in the direction North 50° West, and 40 minutes later the light is directly abeam, Find the speed of the ship. 3. Two ships leave at the same time from one port, bound for another port 180 nautical miles away, and one ship arrives at her destination 2 hours before the other. If the difference between the speeds of the ships is 3 knots, find their speeds. 4, A body with an initial velocity of 10 m/s is given uniform acceleration of 2 m/s* for 6 seconds. Find the velocity at the end of the 6 seconds and the distance travelled during this time, 5. A motor car increases speed from 20 to 74 km/h in 12 seconds. Find the acceleration in metres per second per second, and the distance travelled in metres during that time. 6. An aeroplane increases its speed from 400 km/h to 500 km/h while it travels a distance of 14 km. Find the time taken, in seconds, over this distance, and the acceleration in m/s*, 7. A ship’s speed is increased from 9 to 21 knots in 6 minutes, Find the average acceleration in m/s? and the nautical miles of distance travelled during this time, 1 nautical mile = 1-852 km, 8. A ship’s propellers are stopped when she is travelling at 25 knots and the ship travels 4 km from then until it comes to rest. Find the time taken to come to rest in minutes, and the average retardation in m/s*. One knot = 1-852 km/h. 9. The speed of a generator is increased from 1000 to 1400 revolutions per minute in 8 seconds. Find the angular acceleration in radians per second per second and the number of revolutions turned during that time. 10. A turbine is increased in speed from 2000 to 3600 rev/min while it turns 5500 revolutions. Assuming that the rate of increase of speed is uniform, find the acceleration in rad/s’, 11, A flywheel is brought to rest from a speed of 300 rev/min. If the retardation is uniform at 0-25 rad/s®, find the time to come to rest and the number of revolutions turned during this period.60 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 12. An electric motor comes to rest from operational speed in 14 minutes and turns 1800 revolutions whilst slowing down. Find the operational speed in rev/min and the retardation in rad/s*. 13. A disc flywheel is running at a speed of 100 rev/min. Find (a) its angular velocity in radians per second, (b) the linear velocity in metres per second of points on the face of the wheel at radii of 100 mm, 200 mm and 400 mm respectively. 14. A wheel and axle is carried in horizontal bearings. A cord which is fixed to and wrapped around the axle carries a load on its free end. When the load is allowed to fall from rest, it falls 3 metres in 8 seconds. If the diameter of the axle is 50 mm, find the linear acceleration of the load in m/s? and the angular acceleration of the wheel and axle in rad/s*. 15. A piece of rock is dropped from a high tower and hits the ground after 4 seconds. Find the height of the tower. 16. Astone is thrown vertically upwards from ground level with an initial velocity of 16 m/s. Find the maximum height the stone will reach and the total time taken from leaving the ground to returning to ground. 17. A body is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 36 m/s. At what height on its upward journey will its velocity be 24 m/s and what time will it take to reach this point? 18. A body is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 165 m/s and three seconds later another body is pro- jected up from the same spot with an initial velocity of 225 m/s. ‘When and where will one pass the other? 19. An object is allowed to fall from rest from a height of 70m and at exactly the same time of release a projectile is fired upwards from the ground with an initial velocity of 35 m/s. When and where will they pass each other? 20, A locomotive, starting from rost, is uniformly accelerated ‘up to maximum speed, taking one minute and travelling a distance of 0-5 km. It then runs at maximum speed for 2 minutes and finally uniformly retarded for 30 seconds to bring it to rest. Find the maximum speed, sketch a velocity-time graph and find the total distance travelied. 21. The speed and direction of a motor launch is changed from 9 knots due North to 11 knots due West in 30 seconds. Find the average acceleration in m/s. One knot = 1-852 km/h. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 61 Jf 22. A stone is thrown horizontally at 12 m/s from a 60 m high cliff. Find the time it takes for the stone to reach the the horizontal distance covered. ground and Jf 23. A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 600 m/s at an angle of elevation of 30 degrees to the horizontal. Find the range on horizontal ground. 24. Two trains, one 20 m long and the other 40 m long, approach each other in opposite directions on parallel tracks, the speed of the short train is 50 km/h and that of the longer train is 100 km/h. Find the time taken to pass each other. 25. Two ships leave at the same time from the same po! travels South East at 22 knots and the other due East at Te Koots, Find the apparent speed and direction of the fast ship to the slow ship and the distance apart after 5 hours. J 26. A tanker is steaming due South at 16 knots. At i2 noon a passenger ship is 7-5 nautical miles due West of the tanker and steaming South East at 18 knots. At what time will the two ships be closest together and what is then their distance apart?CHAPTER 3 MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE ass is the quantity of matter possessed by a body and is pro- portional to the volume and the density of the body. It is 4 constant quantity, that is, the mass of a body can only be changed by adding more matter to it or taking matter away from it. ‘The abbreviation for mass is m and the unit is the kilogramme [kg]. For very large or small quantities, multiples or submultiples of the gramme [g] are used. Large masses are common in marine work and these are measured in megagrammes [Mg]. One mega- gramme is equal to 10® kilogrammes and called a tonne {t]. Mass is proportionally accelerated or retarded by an applied force. To maintain a coherent system of units, a unit of force is chosen which will give unit acceleration to unit mass. This unit, of force is called the newton [N]. Hence, one newton of force acting ‘on one kilogramme of mass will give it an acceleration of one metre per second per second, therefore: Accelerating force [N] = mass [kg] x acceleration [m/s*] In symbols: F=ma FORCE OF GRAVITY. All bodies are attracted towards each other, the force of attraction depending upon the masses of the bodies and their distances apart. Newton’s law of gravitation states that this force of attraction is proportional to the product of the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance apart. ‘An important example of this is the huge mass of the earth which attracts all comparatively smaller earthly bodies towards it, the’attractive force by which a body tends to be drawn towards the centre of the earth is the force of gravity and is called the weight of the body. . . | Ifa body is allowed to fall freely, it will fall with an acceleration of 9-81 m/s®, this is termed gravitational acceleration and repre- sented by g. Since one newton is the force which will give one kg of mass an acceleration of one m/s®, then the force in newtons to give m kg of mass an acceleration of 9-81 m/s*ism x 9-81. Hence, MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE 63 at the earth’s surface, the gravitational force on a mass of m kg is mg newtons, or in other words: weight [N] == mass [kg] x g [m/s] The further the distance between the centre of gravity of the mass and the centre of gravity of the earth, the less is the attractive force between them, Thus, the weight of a mass measured by a spring balance (not a pair of scales which is merely a means of comparing the weight of one mass with another) will vary slightly at different parts of the earth’s surface due to the earth not being a perfect sphere. If a body is projected in a space-rocket, the attractive force of the earth on the body becomes less as its distance from the earth increases until, in complete outer-space, it becomes nil, that is, it is then weightless. The mass of the body of course remains un- changed. INERTIA is the property possessed by matter by which it resists change of motion, and depends upon its mass. Broadly speaking, it may be regarded as a kind of sluggishness or laziness. If the mass is at rest it requires a force to give it motion, the greater the mass the greater the force required. If the mass is already moving it requires a force to change its velocity or to change its direction, again the force required being proportional to the mass. MOMENTUM is the term given to the product of mass and velocity and therefore can be defined as the quantity of motion possessed by a moving body. This is dealt with later in greater detail. The Jaws which connect motion and force are summarised in ‘Newton’s laws of motion: (i) Every body continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by an external force. (ii) Rate of change of momentum is proportional to the force applied and takes place in the direction in which the force acts. (iii) To every action there is a reaction, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Example. Find the accelerating force required to increase the velocity of a body which has a mass of 20 kg from 30 m/s to 70 m/s in 4 seconds. Cha: f velocit; Acceleration = <7 78° 0 YEOCNY ie to change 70 — 3064 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS = 10 m/s* Accelerating force [N] = mass [kg} x acceleration [m/s*] =20 x 10 = 200 N Ans. Example. A lift is supported by a steel wire rope, the total mass of the lift and contents is 750 kg. Find the tension in the wire rope, in newtons, when the lift is (i) moving at constant velocity, (ii) moving upwards and accelerating at 1-2 m/s*, (iii) moving up- wards and retarding at 1-2 m/s*. Accelerating force = mass x acceleration = 750 x 12 = 900 N Weight on wire = 750 x 9-81 = 7358 N When the lift is at rest, or moving at constant velocity, the tension in the wire is due only to the upward force exerted to sup- port the downward weight: Tension in wire = supporting force = 7358 N Ans. (i) When the lift is increasing velocity upwards an additional up- ward force is required to give the lift acceleration: Tension in wire = supporting force + accelerating force = 7358 + 900 == 8258 N Ans. (ii) When the lift is decreasing velocity upwards, the accelerating force is negative, that is, it is acting downwards and opposite in direction to the upward supporting force: Tension in wire = supporting force — accelerating force = 7358 — 900 = 6458 N Ans. (iii) Example. A light flexible cord is hung over a light pulley carried in frictionless bearings. A mass of 2 kg is hung from one end of the cord and another of 2-1 kg is hung from the other end, as illustrated in Fig. 50, and the system allowed to move from rest. Find (i) the acceleration of the masses, (ii) distance moved in 4 seconds, (iii) the tension in the cord. MASS-—ACCELERATING FORCE 65 — | [2\ 24 ' Y Fig. 50 Total mass accelerated = 2:1 4+ 2 = 4-1 kg Force [N] causing acceleration = (2:1 -- 2) x 9-81 = 0981 N Accelerating force = mass x acceleration accelerating force ~“thass «Acceleration = = 0:2393 m/s? Ans. (i) 0:2393 x 4 = 0:9572 m/s Average velocity = 3(0 + 0-9572) = 0-4786 m/s Velocity after 4 secs,66 ‘(REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Distance = average velocity x time = 04786 x 4 -9144.m Ans. (ii) (This could be obtained from s = $at*) Consider the part of the cord carrying the 2 kg mass. In addition to the force to support the weight of the 2 kg mass there is the force to accelerate it. Force to accelerate = mass x acceleration = 2 x 0-2393 = 0-4786 N Tension in cord == supporting force ++- accelerating force = 2 X 9:81 + 0:4786 = 20-0986 N Ans. (iii) Jf the other side of the cord is considered, the same result should be obtained because the tension in the cord must be uni- form throughout its length (Newton’s 3rd law of motion). On this side the cord applies an upward force of 2-1 x 9-81 N to support the weight of the mass, but acceleration is downwards, therefore the tension in the cord is the difference between the upward sup- porting force and the downward accelerating force. Tension in cord = supporting force —- accelerating force = 21 x 981 — 21 x 0-2393 = 20-601 — 0-5025 = 20-0985 N ATWOOD’S MACHINE. The above example is based upon the principle of Atwood’s machine which is used for demonstrating Newton’s laws of motion. The machine consists of a grooved pulley of lightweight material so that its inertia is negligible, mounted on a spindle which runs in bearings as near frictionless as possible, This assembly is mounted on the top of a tall graduated pillar to which is attached a starting platform near the top and an adjustable stopping buffer near the bottom. A fine flexible cord hung over the pulley carries a mass on each end, these masses are usually of equal magnitude and a small rider is added to one of them to cause motion. A series of experiments can be performed by varying the masses, rider and the distance moved. FLETCHER’S TROLLEY. This is another machine for illustrating the laws of motion and consists of a trolley on wheels which runs along a horizontal table. The pull on the trolley to accelerate itis ‘MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE, 67 exerted by a cord fastened to the trolley, running parallel with the table, over a guide pulley and then hanging down with a load hooked on the end, as shown in Fig. 51. The wheels of the trolley and the spindle of the guide pulley are mounted in bearings which are near frictionless. If, however, friction is not sufficiently small as to be negligible, the force required to overcome friction could be found by hanging small loads on the hook untif the trolley just keeps moving without acceleration, the force causing acceleration is then due to any added loads on the hook over and above the friction force. The trolley is usually of considerable length, nearly half the length of the table, so that a smoked strip of material can be fixed along it for the needle of a vibrating arm to record oscillating waves for accurate measurement of time. Additional tmasses can be added to the trolley so that a series of experiments can be performed. VIBRATING ARM. NEEDLE HOLES FOR INSERTION ‘OF MASSES Fig. 51 Example. In an experiment on Fletcher’s Trolley the total mass of the loaded trolley was 2:9 kg and the mass of the load sus- pended on the end of the cord was 0-1 kg. Friction was negligible and measurements taken showed that the trolley moved with uni- form acceleration and, from rest, moved a distance of 654 mm in 2 seconds. Find the value of g from this experimental data and. alculate the tension in the cord. From s = ut + 4at® : 2s Acceleration a = x (because ut = 0) 2 x 0-654 =“ = 0-327 m/s?68 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Total mass accelerated == 2:9 + 0-1 = 3 kg Accelerating force = 0-1 x g newtons Accelerating force = mass x acceleration OL x g=3 x 0327 3 x 0327 “Or = 981 m/s? Ans. (i) Consider horizontal portion of the cord, Tension in cord = Force to accelerate the trolley = mass X acceleration = 2:9 x 0:327 = 0:9483N Ans. (ii) Asa check we can consider the hanging part of the cord and we should get the same result. The hanging part of the cord supplies an upward force to support the mass of 0-1 kg but, as the mass accelerates downwards, the accelerating force on the 0-1 kg mass acts in a downward direction. Tension in cord = upward supporting force — downward accel. force =O1 x 9-81 — 01 x 0-327 = 0-981 — 0-0327 = 09483 N MOMENTUM Momentum is the term given to the product of mass and velocity and is therefore usually defined as the quantity of motion possessed by a moving body. From the expression: Accelerating force = mass x acceleration If we substitute for acceleration its value, change of velocity divided by time, we get: mass x change of velocity time Momentum being the product of mass and velocity, then change of momentum takes place if there is a change of velocity, therefore Accelerating Force = MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE 69 mass multiplied by change of velocity is change of momentum, and accelerating force is the force to cause that change, hence, change of momentum Force = ————__— time or Force = change of momentum per sec. This could also be written: Force x time = change of momentum, For a given change of momentum of a body free to move, the applied force varies inversely as the time taken. For instance, a force of 2 N acting for 10 seconds would have the same effect as 10 N acting for 2 seconds, or 5 N acting for 4 seconds, and so on. The product of force and time is referred to as the impulse of the force. Example. The mass of the head of a hand hammer is 0-8 kg. ‘When moving at 9 m/s it strikes a chisel and is brought to rest in ats second. What is the average force of the blow? change of momentum Force = ————_____—_ time _ 08 x9 xo = 08 x9 x 250 = 1800N Ans, Example. A jet of fresh water, 20 mm diameter, issues from a horizontal nozzle at a velocity of 21 m/s, and strikes a stationary vertical plate. Find the mass flow of water leaving the nozzle every second and, assuming no splash back, find the force of the jet on the plate. Density of fresh water = 10° kg/m?. Volume fiow [m/s] = area [m*] x velocity [m/s] 07854 x 0-02? x 21 0-006598 m*/s vol. flow [m/s] x density [kg/m*] 0-006598 x 10° = 6-598 kg/s Ans. (i) Assuming no splash back infers that the water has no velocity after striking the plate, therefore the change of velocity is 21 m/s. Force = Change of momentum per second mass x change of velocity, per second = 6-598 x 21 = 1386N Ans. (ii) Mass flow [kg/s]70 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM. When two bodies collide, the force of one body on the other is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and the time during which the force acts is the same, hence each body receives the same change of momentum. This means that the gain of momentum by one body is equal to the momentum lost by the other, therefore the sum of momentum of the two bodies after impact is the same as that before impact. Momentum is neither created nor destroyed by the collision. This is known as the law of the conservation of momentum. Example. A railway truck of mass 3 tonne moving at 64 km/h collides with another of 2 tonne mass moving at 34 km/h in the same direction, and then move on together as one unit. Find the velocity of the trucks after impact. Ukmsh 64 kenfh —> — Stone 34 kmfh—> Ln 2: 2 —O Fig, 52 Momentum before impact == Momentum after impact GB x 64) + 2x34) = 642 x7 192 + 68 y= 52km/h Ans, Note that in such an equation, momentum can be expressed in any convenient units of mass and velocity provided the same kind are used throughout the whole equation. Further, if the smaller truck had been travelling initially in the opposite direction, its velocity would be regarded as a negative quantity in relation to the direction of the larger truck, we would then have: Momentum before impact = Momentum after impact GB x 64) +(x -34)=3+2)x¥ 192 — 68 = 5y v= 248 km/h Being a positive answer, the direction is the same as the initial direction of the larger truck which was taken as positive. Example. A bullet of mass 0-04 kg is fired into a freely sus- dended and stationary block of wood whose mass is 13-6 kg and caused the wood to start moving at 1-9 m/s. Find the initial velocity of the bullet. MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE nT Let v = initial velocity of bullet. Momentum before impact = Momentum after impact Mom. of bullet-+Mom. of wood = Mom. of (wood and bullet) 0:04 x v+ 13-6 x 0 = (004 + 13-6) x 1:9 r= 13-64 x 19 0.04 = 647-9 m/s Ans, TURNING MOMENT The moment of a force about a given point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to that point. The perpendicular distance is the leverage of the force. The units of moments of forces are therefore the product of force and length of leverage, such as newtons x metres = N m. When the moment has a tendency to twist or rotate a body, such as turning a shaft in its bearings, it is usually called a turning moment or torque. ION SON 2m 4m 1 Fig. 53 Consider Fig. 53. The first sketch illustrates a turning moment of 100 N x Z m= 200 N m applied to a shaft to turn it. The second sketch shows half as much force (50 N) with twice as much leverage (4 m), this will have the same turning or twisting effect because the turning moment of 50 N x 4 m is the same (200 Nm) as before, F newtons Fig. 5472 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Consider now a thin rim of a flywheel of mean radius r metres. If a tangential force of F N is applied to the rim, neglecting frictional resistances, the rim will accelerate and the acccleration can be found from: Accelerating force = mass x acceleration This acceleration, however, is the linear acceleration of the rim. It can be converted into terms of angular acceleration as explained in the previous chapter, thus: Linear acceleratio: angular acceleration x radius a=or Substituting this value of linear acceleration into the accelera- tion equation above we have: Force = mass x acceleration (linear) Force = m X ar Tf, as it will be more likely, the force is not applied on the rim itself, but at a greater or less leverage, say L from the centre, the effective force on the rim causing it to accelerate will be greater or less accordingly and in the ratio of L to r, thus: L Fx =m X or Multiplying both sides by r: FxbL=mxaxr Now F X L is the torque applied, therefore, Accelerating torque = m x r? x « For a rotating mass which is not a thin rim, such as a solid disc wheel, we can imagine the whofe mass of the wheel to be con- densed into a heavy thin rim of such a radius that the whole rotating mass could be considered as concentrated there to have the same effect. This is called the radius of gyration and is repre- sented by the letter k to avoid confusion with the radius of the wheel. The above expression is therefore written: Accelerating torque = mk? « ‘The mass of a body multiplied by the square of its distance from a given point is the moment of inertia of the mass about that point, and is represented by the letter I. m x k? is therefore the moment of inertia of a rotating mass about the centre, hence: ‘MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE 3 T=Ia where T = accelerating torque [N m] = moment of inertia = mk? [kg m™} « = angular acceleration [rad/s*] Example. The mass of a flywheel is 175 kg and its radius of gyration is 380 mm. Find the torque required to attain a speed of 500 rev/min from rest in 30 seconds. 500 x 2n 60 x 30 1-746 rad/s? Accelerating torque = I« = mk aw » = 175 x 6-38? x 1-746 =4412Nm Ans, Example. The torque to overcome frictional and other resist- ances of a turbine is 317 N m and may be considered as constant for all speeds. The mass of the rotating parts is 1-59 Mg and the radius of gyration is 686 mm. If the steam is cut off when the turbine is running free of load at 1920 rev/min, find the time it will take to come to rest and the number of revolutions turned during that time. Angular acceleration = Change of velocity = 1920 3s = 64 x rad/s Torque to overcome friction acts as a retarding torque to bring the turbine to rest when the steam is shut off, T= mi « T & ink _ 317 ~~ 159X108 x 0-6862 = 0-4237 rad/s* change of velocity retardation _ 4X & ~~ 04237 = 474-5 seconds =Tmin 545s Ans. (i) Time =4 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS. Average speed while coming to rest = $ (1920 + 0) = 960 rev/min Distance == average velocity x time 474-5 = 960 x Ey = 7592 revolutions Ans. (ii) MASS—ACCELERATING FORCE 15 TEST EXAMPLES 3 1, Calculate the accelerating force required to increase the velocity of a body of mass 50 kg, from 3 m/s to 9 m/s in 5 seconds. 2. A force of 9 N in excess of that required to overcome friction is applied to a machine part of 18 kg mass when it is moving at a velocity of 0-36 m/s. Find (i) the acceleration produced, (ii) the velocity after 3 seconds, (iii) the distance travelled during this time. 3. Find the extra thrust, in kilonewtons, required to increase the speed of a ship of 10 000 tonnes displacement, from 15 to 20 knots in 10 minutes, neglecting the increase of resistance due to increased speed. One knot = 1-852 km/h. 4, The tractive resistance of a vehicle of 2 tonnes mass is 155 N per tonne. If a total pull of 1 KN is applied to the vehicle, find (i) the acceleration, (ii) the speed, in kilometres per hour, after travelling for one minute from rest. 5. Find the average accelerating force required to change the speed and direction of a motor-boat of 5 tonnes mass from 9 knots North-East to 12 knots South-East in 2 minutes. One knot = 1-852 km/h. f 6. The total mass of the reciprocating parts of a vertical ILC. engine is 317-5 kg. At a certain position on the downward stroke the effective pressure on the piston is 6 bar and the acceleration of the piston is 21 m/s*. If the piston diameter is 250 mm, find, neglecting friction, the thrust on the crosshead. One bar = 10° N/m’, 7. The mass of the loaded carriage of a Fletcher’s Trolley apparatus is 5-44 kg and the mass of the load on the hook at the hanging end of the cord is 0:22 kg. If friction is negligible, find the acceleration of the carriage and the tension in the cord. 8. A block of wood of 9 kg mass stands on a horizontal table. A cord is connected at one end to the block, is led parallel with the table, over a guide pulley, and hangs down over the side of the table. It is found that 0-9 kg hung on the end of the cord is just sufficient to overcome friction between the block and the table. If an additional 0-45 kg is hung on the end, find, (i) the acceleration of the block, Gi) its velocity after 2:5 seconds from rest, iii) the distance travelled in the above time, Gy) the tension in the cord.76 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 9, The total mass of a lift and its contents amount to 1134 kg and is suspended by a single wire rope. Find the tension in the wire when the lift is going down and (i) accelerating at 2 m/s*, (ii) moving at a steady speed, (iii) retarding at 1 m/s*. 10, The masses on the two ends of the cord around the pulley of an Atwood’s machine are each 2:5 kg. If the mass of the pulley is negligible and the bearings considered frictionless, find (i) the acceleration of the system when a rider of 0-25 kg is added to one end, (ii) the velocity of the system after 3 seconds from starting. J 11. A light flexible cord is hung over a pulley of negligible mass in frictionless bearings. Masses of 1-8 kg and 1-9 kg respectively are hung on the two ends of the cord and the system allowed to move from rest. Find, (i) the acceleration of the system, (ii) the velocity after 4 seconds, (iii) distance moved in this time, (iv) the tension in the cord, (v) the total load on the pulley bearings when the system is moving under the above conditions. 12. A 3 kg hammer head moving at a velocity of 7 m/s strikes the head of a wedge and is brought to rest in ;$5 second. Find the average force of the blow. 13. A rail-truck of 2 tonne mass moving at 10 km/h is overtaken on the same lines by a locomotive of 10 tonne mass moving at 16 km/h, and after colliding, the locomotive and truck move on locked together. Find the speed of the two immediately after impact. 14. Find the accelerating torque required to increase the speed of a flywheel from 470 to 700 rev/min in 10 seconds if the mass of the flywheel is 544 kg and its radius of gyration is 0-5 m. 15. A rotor of 68 kg mass has a radius of gyration of 229 mm. Ifa retarding torque of 24 N mis applied when the rotor is running at 2800 rev/min, find the retardation and the time taken to come to rest, F16. The winding drum of an electric hoist is 1-5 m diameter, the tnass of the rotating parts of the drive and drum is 1225 kg and the radius of gyration is 0-53 m. The wire rope from the drum carries a load of 450 kg, Find the total torque required to raise the load with an acceleration of 0-6 m/s* when 190 N m of torque are Tequired to overcome friction. CHAPTER 4 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY ‘work is done when a force applied on a body causes it to move and is measured by the product of the force and the distance through which the force moves. The unit of work is the joule [J] and is defined as the work done when the point of application of a force of one newton moves through a distance of one metre in the direction in which the force is applied. Hence, one joule is equal to one newton-metre of work, in symbols 1J = 1 Nm. When a body is being moved, the force applied may vary while it is moved from one position to another. To cover all cases the general rule for the quantity of work done is therefore: Work done [J] = average force [N] x distance moved [m] GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION. If a graph is plotted to represent force and distance, the area under the graph represents work done. Fig. 55 illustrates a constant force of 5 newtons acting through a distance of 6 metres, the work done is 5 [N] x 6 [m] = 30 [J]. CONSTANT FORCE a 34 2 AREA REPRESENTS WORK z 23 = 5X6 “ = 30 joules ge = ° 4 5 6 2 3 DISTANCE metres Fig. 55 The extension or compression of a spring is proportional to the force applied. For example, if the stiffness of a spring, or the spring rate, is stated to be 100 newtons per millimetre, it means that 100 N will compress the spring the first mm, another 100 N78 ‘[REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS (making 200 N) is required to compress it a further mm (making 2 mm) and so on. Suppose it is required to compress this spring 40 mm, then: Final force = 100 x 40 = 4000 N Average force applied (from zero up to 4000 N) = 4 + 4000) = 2000N Work done [J] = average force [N] x distance [m} = 2000 x 0:04 = 805 The graph shown in Fig. 56 represents the relationship between the compression from zero to 40 mm and the force applied from zero to 4000 N. O01 0.02 COMPRESSION meters Fig. 56 LIFTING LOADS. The weight of a mass is the gravitational force on it. Weight is therefore a force and must be expressed in force ‘units in scientific calculations, that is, in newtons or in multiples of the newton. In practical operational work on board ship, such as loading cargo and stores, or hoisting ship components, the load lifted may be expressed in kilogrammes or tonnes, in such cases it is necessary to convert to the fundamental force units of newtons before proceeding with calculations. . As explained in Chapter 3, the gravitational force on one kilo- gramme is 9-81 newtons, therefore the weight of | kgis 9°81.N and, since one tonne is 1000 kg then 1 tonne = 10% x 9-81 newtons or 9-81 KN. When a mass is lifted at a steady speed, the direct force applied to raise the mass is simply the upward force to overcome the ‘WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 719 downward gravitational pull on the mass, which is its weight. The effective distance through which the mass is raised against gravity is the vertical height through which the centre of gravity of the mass moves, therefore: Work done [J] = weight [N] x vert. height its c.g. is lifted [m] In calculating the total weight of a body from its volumetric dimensions, the specific weight of the material may be expressed in force units per unit volume, such as N/m’, the total weight in newtons is then simply the product of the volume [m*] and the specific weight [N/m*]. Alternatively, the density of the material may be expressed in mass units per unit volume, such as kg/m’, in which case conversion from kilogrammes to newtons will be necessary to obtain the weight in newtons. Example. A rectangular block of steel of 150 mm square section and 600 mm long lies lengthwise on a horizontal ground. Find the work done in lifting it about one end (i) until the base makes an angle of 60 degrees to the horizontal, (ii) until it will begin to topple over on to its end. Take the density of steel as 7-85 g/cm’, S | fll ° x ° Fig. 57 Referring to Fig. 57 the procedure is (a) to find the weight of the block, (6) to find the vertical height the centre of gravity is raised, (c) to multiply the two to obtain work done. Density == 7:85 g/cm? = 7:85 x 10° kg/m? Volume of block = 0-15? x 0-6 m? Mass = 0-15? x 06 x 7:85 x 10° kg Weight = 0-15? x 0-6 x 7:85 x 10° x 9:81 N = 1040N80 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Centre of gravity is at the geometrical centre of the block, indicated by G. Initial height of G above ground = GA = 75 mm GO = (GA)? + (OA)? = VTS + 300® = 309-2 mm tan of angle GOA = SA = zee = 0:25 angle GOA = 14° 2’ angle GOB = 14° 2' + 60° = 74° 2’ GB = GO x sin 74° 2’ == 309-2 x 0-9615 = 297-3 mm Vertical height G is raised = GB — GA = 297-3 — 75 = 222-3 mm = 0-2223m Work done = weight x vertical lift of G = 1040 x 0:2223 = 231-2 J Ans. (i) To lift until it would fall over on to its end, the block is to be raised until its centre of gravity is vertically above the point about which the block swings, that is, G is to be vertically above O, it will then fall over on its own accord. Vertical height G is raised = GO — GA = 309-2 — 75 234-2 mm = 0:2342 m Work done = weight x vertical lift of G = 1040 x 0-2342 = 243-5 J Ans. (ii) POWER Power is the rate of doing work, that is, the quantity of work done in a given time. The unit of power is the watt [W] which is equal to the rate of one joule of work being done every second, Power [W = J/s = Nm/s] = force [N] x velocity [m/s] WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 8h The watt is a small unit and only suitable for small powers. For normal powers in marine work, mechanical, electrical or hydraulic, the kilowatt [kW] is usually a more convenient size. The familiar unit of horse-power is now gradually becoming obsolete, powers of marine engines will be measured in kilowatts (one horse-power is equal to 0-7457 kW or 745-7 W). As an example, an engine previously rated as 20115 hp is now ex- pressed as 15 000 kw. Example. A pump lifts fresh water from one tank to another through an effective height of 12 m. If the mass flow of the water is 40 tonne/h, find the output power of the pump. 40 tonne = 40 x 10° kg Weight of water lifted per second 0X10 x 981 = 600 newtons Power [W = J/s = N m/s] = weight lifted per second [N/s] x height [m] 40 x 10° x 9-81 x 12 = 73600 Weatts == 1308 W or 1-308 kW Ans. MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY. No machine is perfect, of the power supplied to it some is used up in overcoming friction and other resistances, and the remainder is available for doing useful work. The ratio of the power got out of a machine to the power put in is -the mechanical efficiency of the machine, thus, output power input power This gives a fraction less than unity. It is common practice to multiply this by 100 and express the efficiency as a percentage, For example, if the input power of the above pump was 1:75 kW then the efficiency would be: Mechanical efficiency = output power input power 1-308 = 775 = 0-7474 or 74-74% PRESSURE is force per unit area, the basic unit of pressure is therefore newtons per square metre [N/m?], High pressures (of steam, gas, compressed air, etc.) are more conveniently measured in units of 10° N/m?, this unit is roughly one atmosphere, and82. REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS called the bar. One atmosphere = 1-013 bar. For small pressures such as barometric measurements, the recommended unit is the millibar [mbar] which is 10? N/m?. POWER OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES. When a fluid such as a gas or a liquid acts on a piston in a cylinder, the pressure in newtons per square metre multiplied by the piston area on which the pressure acts, in square metres, gives the total force on the piston in newtons. If the motive power is liquid, such as in a hydraulic cylinder, the pressure exerted on the piston is constant during the whole stroke but, in steam and internal-combustion engines, the pressure of the steam or gas varies throughout the stroke. There is also a back pressure on the other side of the piston which may or may not vary. Therefore, to obtain the work done during one stroke, the average effective pressure on the piston throughout the complete stroke must be used, this is termed the mean effective pressure. Let P,, = mean effective pressure [N/m?] A = area of piston [m?] L = length of stroke [m] N = number of power strokes per second then, Average force.on piston = Pi, X Anewtons Work done in one power stroke = P,, X A X Lnewton-metres = joules Work per second =P, X AX L X N joules per second = watts The value of N in the above, which represents the number of power strokes per second, depends upon the cycle of operations on which the engine works. Steam reciprocating engines all work on a double-acting two- stroke cycle, therefore, power strokes per second = 2 xX rev/s Internal combustion engines may work on the four-stroke or two-stroke cycle and may be single-acting or double-acting. For a single-acting four-stroke cycle, power strokes per second = rev/s +2 For a single-acting two-stroke cycle, power strokes per second = rev/s ‘WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 83 For a double-acting internal combustion engine, the number of power strokes per second is double the value of that for the cor- responding single-acting engine. Example. In a 6-cylinder 2-stroke single-acting diesel engine, the mean effective pressure in each cylinder is 11 bar when run- ning at 120 rev/min. If the diameter of the cylinders is 700 mm and the stroke 1050 mm, calculate the power developed in the cylinders. Power = P,,ALN where, P= I] bar = 11 x 10®N/m?= 11 x 108 KN/m? A = 07854 x 0-7? m? £=105m N = 482 = 2 power strokes per second. . Note that by inserting the value of the mean effective pressure in kN/m? instead of N/m?, the result of the calculation for power will be kilowatts instead of watts. Power of 6 cylinders = 6 x power of one cylinder = 11 x 10° x 07854 x 0-77 x 105 X2 x6 = 5334 kW Ans. PV viaGraMs. If a graph is drawn to represent the variation of pressure on the piston of a cylinder in units of newtons per square metre, on a base of volume in cubic metres, the area under the graph represents work done in newton-metres = joules, thus: Force [N] = pressure [N/m] x area of piston [m?] Work done = force x distance pressure [N/m?] x piston area [m®} x stroke [m] = pressure {N/m*] x stroke volume [m*] =PxXV In a hydraulic cylinder the pressure of the liquid is usually constant throughout the whole stroke of the piston and the quantity of liquid supplied per stroke is equal to the full stroke volume. The power supplied in watts is therefore the product of the supply pressure in N/m? and the volume flow in m/s, Example. The rate of water supply to a hydraulic crane is 90 litres per minute at a steady pressure of 70 bar. Find the input power and its efficiency if the output is 7-5 kW.84 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 1 litre = 1 dm? = 107? m? . + 90 a Volume flow of 90 litre/min = Tr xa™ 1s 7 x 10° x 90 Input power = "x0 = 10500 W or 10-5 kW Ans. (i) . __ output Efficiency = input -J5 = 105 = 0-7143 or 71-43% Ans. (ii) ROTARY POWER \ 4 NL << Fig. 58 Consider a force of F newtons at a radius of r metres on a rotat- ing mechanism. ‘Work done [J] in one revolution = force [N] x circumference [m] =F xX2nr If it is running at n revolutions per second, Power [W] = F x 2nr Xn but F X.r = torque [N m], let this be represented by 7, then, Power = 2xTn WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 85 If the speed of rotation is expressed in radians per second, which is represented by « and equal to 2r 7, we have, Power [W] = Torque [N m] x o [rad/s] or, Power [kW] = Torque [KN m] x [rad/s] Example. The mean torque in a propeller shaft is 2-26 x 10° Nm when running at 140 rev/min. Find the power transmitted. Rotational speed = 140 rev/min = We x 2x rad/s Power [kW] = 2:26 x 10®[kNm] x “9? x 2z [rad/s] = 3313 KW Ans. BRAKE POWER. The output power at the shaft of the engine is referred to as the shaft power or brake power. It is measured by coupling the shaft to some form of brake which can absorb and measure the power output. On large engines, water or electric dynamometers are used, but for small powers a rope brake is a simple and reliable arrangement for this purpose. A rope is hung over a flanged flywheel, one end of the rope is anchored to a spring balance fixed to the bedplate and the other end carries suitable loads. The power is absorbed by the friction between the rope and wheel tim, this generates heat which is carried away by running water led into and out of a trough formed around the inside of the periphery of the wheel. If W newtons is the load hung on one end, and S newtons is the reading of the spring balance, then the effective tangential braking force at the rim of the wheel is (W — S) newtons. This multiplied by the radius in metres from shaft centre to rope centre is the braking torque in newton-metres. The brake power is then calculated by the expression previously given connecting torque, speed and power, thus: Power [W] = T[N nm] x © [rad/s] or, Power [kW] = T [KN m] x © [rad/s] TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY CHAIN, BELT OR GEARS. When driving one pulley (the follower) from another pulley (the driver) by means of a chain, or a belt, if there is no slipping the linear velocity of the rim of each pulley is the same and are equal to the linear velocity of the chain or belt, therefore, rotational speed x circumference is constant for each pulley. Circumference can be represented by diameter or radius when equating because the constants x or 2x will cancel; in the case of chain drive or gear86 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS wheels in mesh, circumference can be represented by the number of sprockets or teeth in the wheel because the pitch is common. = Fig. 59 Consider a belt driven pulley (Fig. 59), there is tension in all Parts of the belt but more in one part than the other. To dis- tinguish between the two parts, that which has the greatest pull is referred to as the tight side and the pull (tension or force) in it can be represented by F,. The other not-so-tight part is referred to as the slack side and the pull in this part can be represented by Fy. The effective driving force acting at the rim of the pulley is the difference between the pull on one side and the pull on the other, that is, F, — F, therefore the driving torque in newton-metres is the product of F, — F, newtons and the radius in metres. Hence, if » represents the rotational speed in rev/s and r the radius in metres: Work done per rev. = (F, — F,) X 2nr newton-metres or joules Work done per second = joules per second = watts of power .. Power transmitted = (F, — F,) x 2xr xn Since 2nrn is the linear speed of the belt in metres per second, then, Power transmitted [W] = (F; — Fz) [N] x speed of belt [m/s] Example. A pulley 270 mm diameter is driven at 300 rev/min by a belt 12 mm thick. The tensions in the tight and slack sides of the belt are 1560 and 490 N respectively. Find the power transmitted. Effective radius, from shaft centre to mid-thickness of belt = 135-+6= 141mm =0-141m Speed of pulley = 300 + 60 = 5 rev/s Speed of belt = 2x x 0141 x 5S m/s Power = (F, — F,) x speed of belt WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 87 = (1560 ~ 490) x 2m x O-141 x 5 = 4741 W or 4-741 KW Ans. Example. One gear wheel with 100 teeth of 6 mm pitch running at 250 rev/min drives another which has 50 teeth. If the power transmitted is 0-5 kW, find the driving force on the teeth and the speed of the driven wheel. Power [W] = Torque [N m] x « [rad/s] 250 X 2x 500 = T x a . 500 x 60 .. Torque = 550 xan NM Circumference of wheel = no. of teeth x pitch = 100 x 6 = 600 mm = 06m Radius = Sircumference _ 06 Qn “On Torque = force x radius .. Force between teeth = torque c radius 500 x 60 X 27 ~ 250 X De x 06 = 200N Ans. (i) speed of driver x tecthindriver= speed of follower x teeth in follower ..speed of follower = 250% 100 = 500 rev/min Ans. (ii) ENERGY Energy is the quantity of work stored up in a solid, liquid or gas which is capable of doing work and is consequently measured. in units of work, The unit of energy is therefore the joule [J]. There are different means of storing work, two kinds of mechanical energy will be dealt with here. POTENTIAL ENERGY is the work stored up in a stationary body by virtue of its position or condition. For example, if a body of weight 50 newtons is lifted 20 metres, the amount of work done to lift it is 50 x 20 = 1000 Nm and at this height the body88 JREED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS has stored up in it 1000 joules of potential energy by virtue of its elevated position, it could give out this amount of work, usefully or otherwise, if allowed to fall back to its original level. A wound- up spring is another example of stored up energy. Compressed air stored in a reservoir contains potential energy by virtue of its condition and can do useful work in starting diesel engines or driving turbines, etc. KINETIC ENERGY is the energy stored up in a moving body and we shall see that it depends upon the mass of the body and the square of its linear velocity, One of the best examples is the flywheel, its function is to store up and give out kinetic energy. For instance in a shipyard type of shearing or punching machine, the speed is built up during the idle stroke and work from the driving motor is absorbed into the flywheel as kinetic energy, during the working stroke this energy is given out again in doing most of the work of shearing or punching. KINETIC ENERGY OF TRANSLATION. Consider 2 body being pushed along, the force over and above that required to overcome frictional and other resistances causes acceleration of the body and is therefore increasing its velocity. Thus the kinetic energy put into the body is the whole of the work done to increase its velocity. Starting from rest, neglecting friction, Work done = force x distance and, Accelerating force = mass X acceleration Let v = final velocity change of velocity then, Acceleration = 7 time Distance = average velocity x time O+¥ “2 vt xt Work done = force x distance my vt ays t 2 = bm ‘WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 89 As the kinetic energy in the body when moving at y must be equal to the work done to attain that velocity (because no work is lost here in friction), then: Kinetic Energy = 4 mv? We could also consider this from the point of view of a falling body. Let a body of mass m kg be at rest at a height of h metres. Its weight is mg newtons and it contains potential energy equal to mgh N m but no kinetic energy because it is not moving. If the mass is allowed to fall it gains kinetic energy as it increases velocity, the gain in kinetic energy being equal to the loss of potential energy. Just before the body reaches the ground it has fallen through h metres, lost all its potential energy and gained an equal amount of kinetic energy. kinetic energy gained = potential energy lost =mgexh From the formula, 4 = u* + 2as in this case, u = 0,a = g,ands=h 2. = 2gh ye and, h = y .. kinetic energy = mg xh y = mg xX 5, = pv? Example. A body of mass 30 kg is moving at a velocity of 100 km/h. Find the kinetic energy in the body and tke loss of Kinetic energy when the speed falls to 25 km/h. Kinetic energy = }mv* =4% 30x 2 0 = 11 570 joules == 11-57 kJ Ans. (i) Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity, «KE, at 25 km/h = 11570 x (3% = 11570 x (4) = 723-13 “Loss of KE. = 11 570 — 723-1 = 10846-9 J == 10-8469 kJ Ans. (ii)90 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS, As the kinetic energy is increased by increasing the velocity of a body due to applying an accelerating force then so is the kinetic energy reduced when the velocity is diminished by the application of a retarding force, the work done being equal to the average force multiplied by the distance through which the force is applied. If a bullet is fired from a gun into a block of wood which arrests the bullet, then the work donc to stop it is the average force applied by the wood multiplied by the distance through which the force acts, that is the distance the bullet penetrates into the wood. Example. A bullet of mass 42-5 grammes is fired at a veiocity of 530 m/s into a fixed block of wood, If the bullet penctrates 230 mm into the wood, find the average resisting force of the wood on the bullet. K.E. of bullet inv? + x 0:0425 x 530? = 59705 Loss of K.E. [J] = average force [N] x distance [m] change in K.E. distance 5970 ~ 023 = 25960 N = 25-96 kN Ans. Note the above expression thus, Average force = change in kinetic energy distance Compare it with the expression previously derived connecting average force and change of momentum, thus, change of momentum time IMPACT TESTING MACHINE. This is a machine which measures the energy required to break a specimen of material by one single blow. To enable the resistance to shock offered by one material to be compared with that of another, standard sized notched test pieces are used. The machine consists of a rigid frame on a sub- stantial base which supports a heavy swinging pendulum. The pendulum of known mass is pulled to one side until it is a definite vertical height h, above the bottom of its travel, and held there by a trigger-release catch. The specimen is then placed in a vice in the base of the machine, set by a gauge, and firmly gripped. The pendulum is now released and it gains kinetic energy equal to Average force = Average force = WORK, POWER AND ENERGY a1 the Joss of potential energy as it falls in its swing, a striking edge in the bottom of the pendulum strikes the specimen and breaks it. The height to which the pendulum rises on the other side of its swing after impact, f,, is measured, and the energy to break the specimen is derived thus: Energy in pendulum before impact = mgh, ” ” after » = Ingh, «Energy to break specimen = mg (hy — ha) A pointer, catch-operated by the pendulum suspension to move across a scale of energy may be fitted to indicate automatically the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen, Example. The mass of the pendulum of an impact testing machine is 40 kg and the effective length of the arm is one metre. The arm is raised so that it makes an angle of 60 degrees to the vertical and then released to strike the test piece, Calculate (i) the kinetic energy and velocity of the mass just before impact, and (ii) the kinetic energy lost in breaking the specimen if the pendulum Swings to an angle of 35 degrees to the vertical after impact. Fig. 60 hy=1—1cos60? =1-05=05m K.E, just before impact = loss of potential energy = 40 x 9:81 x 05 = 196-2 J Ans. (ja)92 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Velocity just before impact = +/2gh = V2 xX 981 X05 = 3-132 m/s Ans. (ib) fAy= 1 — Leos 35° = 1 — 08192 = 06-1808 m K.E. after impact = 40 x 9-81 x 01808 = 70-96) Energy to break specimen = 196-2 — 70-96 == 125-24J Ans. (ii) KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION. We have seen that K.E. = 4mv* where » is the linear velocity of the body in m/s. For a rotating body, the effective linear velocity is that at the radius of gyration because, as mentioned before, this is the radius at which the whole mass of the rotating body can be considered as acting. It is, of course, more convenient to express the velocity of a rotating body in angular measurement, that is in radians per second, rather than in linear measurement of metres per second. We can, therefore, convert the formula into these terms. Let k = radius of gyration in metres « == angular velocity in radians per second Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius v=oxk Substituting v? = «wk? into the formula: K.E. = 4my* = bak? o% It has been previously stated (last chapter) that the product of the mass and the square of the radius of gyration is the moment of inertia which is represented by J, therefore: KE. =Hot Example. The radius of gyration of the flywheel of a shearing machine is 0-46 m and its mass is 750 kg. Find the kinetic energy stored in it when running at 120 rev/min. If the speed falls to 100 rev/min during the cutting stroke, find the kinetic energy given out by the wheel. At 120 rev/min, 120 x 2 oe 6 Kinetic energy = 4 mk? w? = 4r rad/s WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 93 TO = $ X 750 x 0-467 x 42 x x? = 12530J or 12:53 kJ Ans. (i) Kinetic energy varies as (speed)? ~ Kinetic energy at 100 rev/min = 12-53 x 498)" 8-704 kT Kinetic energy given out = 12-53 — 8-704 = 3-826 kJ Ans. (ji) Example. The torque required to turn a fiywheel and shaft against friction at the bearings is 34 N m. The mass of the wheel and shaft is 907 kg and the radius of gyration is 381 mm, Assum- ing frictional resistance to be constant at all speeds, find the number of revolutions the system will turn whilst coming to rest from a speed of 450 rev/min when the driving power is cut out, and also the time taken in coming to rest. At 450 rev/min, o= “0 X2e = 15x rad/s Kinetic energy stored in flywheel = dnl? a? = 4 x 907 x 0-381? x 15? x x? = 146 2003 Work [J] = Torque [N m] x Angle turned [radians] Work done against friction to turn the wheel and shaft through one revolution (i.e. 2x radians) =34Xx 20 = 213-63 As 213-6 joules of energy is lost every revolution, then the number of revolutions it will take to lose 146 200 joules (and bring the system to rest) will be: Loss of KE. KE. lost per rev. 146 200 ~ 2136 = 684-4 revolutions Ans, (i) Distance = average velocity x time 684-4 = $ (450 + 0) x time 684-4 Bs = 3-042 minutes Ans. (ii) No. of revolutions = time =REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ‘A similar type of problem was dealt with in the last chapter and an alternative solution to the above, based upon the relationship between retarding torque and angular retardation, is given below as revision. Accelerating or retarding torque = Ja or mk* « change of angular velocity time 490K 2n 1Se *= 60x time ~ time Torque = mk* « 907 x 0:3812 x 15x Ma time 907 x 0381? x 15x 34 = 182-5 seconds = 3-042 minutes Ans. (ii) Distance = average velocity x time = 4450 + 0) x 3-042 = 684-4 revolutions Ans. (i) f Example. The total mass of a wheel and axle is 27:2 kg. The axle is 76 mm diameter and is supported in horizontal bearings. ‘A cord is wrapped around the axle, one end being fixed to it and the other end with a hook attached hangs freely. In an experiment to determine the radius of gyration of the wheel and axle it was found that a force of 6-8 newtons on the cord was just sufficient to overcome friction. When this force is removed and a mass of 3 kg is suspended from the hook, it falls through 1:25 metres in 10 seconds from rest. Calculate the radius of gyration from this experiment. Angular retardation = time = Average velocity of falling mass distance 1:25 =“tme o = O58 Since it started from rest, then, Final velocity = 2 x 0-125 = 0:25 m/s Radius of axle = 38 mm = 0-038 m ‘Final angular velocity, vy 025 = 7 = pgag — 6579 rad/s WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 95 Total loss of potential energy by falling mass =3 xX 981 X125Nm = 36-79J Energy used up in overcoming friction = 68 X 125= 85) Potential energy converted into kinetic energy = 36-79 — 8-5 = 28-293 Total kinetic energy gained is the sum of that gained by the falling mass as its linear velocity is increased and the energy gained by the wheel and axle as its angular velocity is increased, = my rt-+ dm Kk wt x 3X 0-257 + & K 27-2 x kK? x 6579? 1875 -+ 1178 k? j 563925" 1178 = 0:2189 m = 218-9 mm Ans, 28:29 28:29 xX 2= KINETIC ENERGY OF TRANSLATION AND ROTATION. Wheels of moving vehicles and rolling bodies possess kinetic energy of trans- lation by virtue of their linear velocity along the ground and also kinetic energy of rotation by virtue of their angular velocity about their own centres. Example. A sphere of 4-5 kg mass is rolling along the ground at a velocity of 1-2 m/s. Given that for a solid sphere, k? = 2r?, find the total kinetic energy. s v=12m/s v 12 o= p= > Mads Total K.E. = KE. of translation + K.E. of rotation = bn + dk? o* 2 8 =Ex45x1244x45 xe ye 2r*) . 22 a = EX45.x 12 {1+3} =$xX45 x 12? xX 14 = 4:536 J Ans.96 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS J FLUCTUATION OF SPEED AND ENERGY FLUCTUATION OF SPEED is the difference between the maximum and the minimum rotational speed of a machine during its normal working conditions. If n, represents the maximum speed and nm, the minimum speed, then, Fluctuation of speed = ny — ny ‘This can be expressed as a fraction or percentage of the mean. speed. For normal practical purposes the mean speed may be taken as the arithmetical mean of n, and n, that is 4 (#1, + m,). When expressed in fraction form it is usual to refer to it as the coefficient of fluctuation of speed, thus, if » represents the mean speed, ny — My Coefficient of fiuctuation of speed = 7 FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY. We have seen that turning moment or torque in Nm multiplied by the angle turned in radians, is work done in joules. Therefore if a graph is drawn representing the torque trans~ mitted to an engine shaft, on a base of angle turned in radians, the area under the graph represents work. The energy produced in one revolution is the work done in 2x radians. The torque at the shaft of a turbine is steady and the graph for a turbine is therefore a straight line. For a reciprocating engine, however, the torque varies considerably throughout one cycle, depending upon the piston effort and the effective leverage of the crank. As the torque required to overcome external loading, friction and other resistances. will be approximately constant, then at some parts of the cycle a reciprocating engine is supplying more torque than that required, in these brief periods the engine increases speed and the excess energy is absorbed by the flywheel; at the other parts of the cycle the engine is supplying less torque than that needed, resulting in a brief reduction of speed so that the flywheel gives out energy to the shaft. Over one cycle the total energy supplied by the engine must be equal to the energy required to overcome the load, therefore the amount of engine energy which is momentarily surplus to require- ments and is absorbed by the flywheel, is equal to the energy given. out by the flywheel during the period the engine energy is deficient. The size of the flywheel therefore decides the amount by which the speed will vary during one cycle, the greater the moment of inertia the less will be this variation. ‘WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 7 The fluctuation of energy of a flywheel is expressed as the differ- ence between its kinetic energy at maximum speed and its kinetic energy at minimum speed during its normal running conditions, thus, KE. — K.Eq = Imi? of — dn? o2 = dmk (02 — of) or H (0 — wf) The fluctuation of energy may be given as a coefficient by expressing it as a fraction or ratio of the work done by the engine in one revolution or in one cycle.98 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS TEST EXAMPLES 4 1, The stiffness of a spring is 88 newtons per mm of axial compression. Find the joules of work to increase the compression from 50 mm to 80 mm. 2. Find the joules of work to pull a roller of mass 50 kg a distance of 8 m up a gradient inclined at 6 degrees to the horizontal neglecting frictional resistances, 3. A double-bottom tank is 6 m long by 4:5 m broad and is full of fresh water. A deck tank is 3-6 m long by 3 m broad by 1-5 m deep and is empty, the height from the double-bottom tank-top to the base of the deck tank is 12 m. If the deck tank is filled by pumping water from the double-bottom tank, find (i) the quantity of water moved, in tonnes, (ii) by what depth the level in the double-bottom tank is lowered, (iii) the effective work done in kilojoules. Density of fresh water = 10% kg/m®. 4, 18 m of chain, of mass 22-3 kg per metre length, hangs freely from a crane winding drum. Find the work done in winding the chain up until only 6 m hangs down. 5. A solid steel cone, 450 mm diameter at the base and of 600 mm perpendicular height, stands on its base on a level ground. Calculate the joules of work to tilt it until it is on the point of toppling over on to its side. The density of steel is 7-86 g/cm’, the position of the centre of gravity of a cone is at one-quarter of its height from the base. 6. A mass of 544 kg is lifted out of a hold by a wire rope from a winch drum of 380 mm effective diameter. If the mechanical efficiency is 70%, find the power of the driving motor when the winding drum is rotating at a steady speed of 40 rev/min. 7, Sea water is pumped through a 50 mm diameter pipe to a height of 9 m. If the velocity of water through the pipe is constant at 1-5 m/s, find the equivalent output power. Find also the input power to the pump if the efficiency of the system is 0-6. Take the density of sea water as 1-024 g/ml. 8. In a single-cylinder four-stroke single-acting internal com- ustion engine the diameter of the cylinder is 90 millimetres and the length of the stroke is 100 millimetres. Calculate the indicated ‘power when the mean effective pressure is 6-067 bar and the engine is running at 1800 rev/min. If the brake power is 4-5 kW, calculate the mechanical efficiency. Note: 1 bar = 10° N/m. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 99 9, A hydraulic machine is supplied with 9000 litres of water per hour at a pressure of 80 bar. Calculate the power supplied to the machine and the output power assuming an efficiency of 75%. 10, Find the power transmitted by a shaft running at 100 rev/min when the torque is constant at 76 KN m. 11. A rope brake is used to measure the brake power of a small engine, the diameter of the flywheel is 1220 mm and the diameter of the rope is 25 mm. Find the power when the engine is running at 420 rev/min, the load on one end of the rope being 267 N and the reading of the spring balance 44-5 N. 12. A pulley 610 mm diameter is driven at 300 rev/min by a belt, the tensions in the tight and slack sides of the belt being 676 and 270 N respectively. Find the power transmitted. 13. Find the width of a belt of 8 mm thickness required to drive a pulley 500 mm diameter at 450 rev/min and transmit 4-5 kW of power, the maximum tension in the belt is not to exceed 7 N per mm of width and the tension in the tight side is to be taken as 2} times the tension in the slack side. 14. Calculate the kinetic energy in a body of 240 kg mass when it is moving at a speed of 36 km/h, and the change in kinetic energy when it slows down to 18 km/h. 15. A 28 gramme bullet is fired at 450 m/s into a fixed block of wood 100 mm thick and comes out of the other side at a velo- city of 250 m/s. Find (i) the average resisting force of the wood, and (ji) the minimum thickness of similar wood required to bring the bullet to rest. 16. The mass of a flywheel is 109 kg and its radius of gyration is 380 mm. Calculate the kinetic energy stored in it when rotating at 100, 200 and 300 rev/min respectively, f 17. The radius of gyration of a solid disc wheel of uniform thickness is at r/,/2 from the centre, where r is the radius of the wheel. Calculate the change in kinetic energy, in kilojoules, in a solid disc flywheel of 1400 mm diameter and 1:25 tonne mass when its speed changes from 8x to 107 rad/s. F18,. The mass of the flywheel of a shearing machine is 1220 kg and its radius of gyration is 0-58 m. @ Find the accelerating torque required to attain a speed of 200 rev/min from rest in 60 seconds,100 REED'S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Gi) If the speed falls from 200 to 180 rev/min during the cutting stroke of 150 mm, find the average cutting force exerted assuming the whole of the work done during the cutting stroke is due to the kinetic energy given out by the flywheel. 19. The total mass of a flywheel and shaft is 2:54 tonne, the radius of gyration is 686 mm and it is running at 150 rev/min. The torque required to overcome friction at the bearings is 27 N m. Find (i) the kinetic energy stored in the wheel and shaft, (ii) the energy lost per revolution due to friction, (iii) the number of revolutions made in coming to rest when uncoupled from the driving motor, (iv) the time to come to rest. £20. A solid cylindrical roller starts from rest and rolls a distance of 2:286 m down an incline in 3 seconds. Calculate the angle of the incline given that k = r//2. f 21, An engine is designed to develop 10 kW of power at a mean speed of 1000 rev/min. Find the moment of inertia, in kg m?, ofa suitable flywheel, assuming a speed variation of + 1:5% of the mean speed and an energy fluctuation equal to 0-9 of the work done per revolution, CHAPTER 5 CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Newton’s first law of motion states that every body will con- ‘tinue in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force. If a stone is fastened to the end of a piece of string and whirled around in a circular path, an inward pull must be continuously exerted to keep it travelling in a Circle, the stone itself is exerting an outward radial pull trying to get away. If the speed is increased the pull becomes greater until the string snaps, the stone then flies off in a straight line at a tan- gent to the circle. The outward radial force created by a body travelling in a cir- cular path due to its natural tendency to fly off and travel in a straight line is termed the centrifugal force. The inward pull applied to counteract this and keep it on its circular path is termed the centripetal force, it is equal in magnitude to the centri- fugal force and opposite in direction (Newton’s third law of motion). Consider a body moving at a constant speed of v around a circle of radius r, Referring to Fig. 61, at the instant it is passing point a its instantaneous velocity is y in the direction tangential to the circle at a; a little further around it is passing point 5 and its velocity is now v tangential to the circle at 6, Although the speed. is constant, the velocity has changed because there is a change of direction. Let the movement from a to b be through a small angle 0. To find the change of velocity the vector diagram of velocities is drawn as previously explained in Chapter 2. If 6 is considered a small angle then the base angles of the triangle are almost 90 degrees and the change of velocity can be taken as vsin® or ytan@, it is more usual however in such cases to express @ in radians and imagine the base of the triangle of the vector diagram to be an arc of the circle of radius y, this is practically the same length as a flat base when 6 is small. The length of a circular arc is the product of the radius and the angle in radians, therefore,102 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS CHANGE OF VELOCITY Fig. 61 Change in velocity = v0 Note before leaving this that, for small angles, sin 6 = tan 6 = 6 radians The student should look up the tables for small angies like one ‘or two degrees and see this for himself. | If there is a change of velocity there is acceleration because acceleration is defined as change of velocity with respect to time. Time for body to move from a to b __ distance _ 76 ~ “speed ~~ ¥ Acceleration = change of velocity + time 0 =0ee _ vex ~~ 78 re) =— This is a special form of acceleration. The body is travelling at aconstant speed, the acceleration is due to the constantly changing velocity (by changing direction) as the body travels around its circular path, and the acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle. It is therefore distinguished from the more common cases by referring to it as centripetal acceleration. Being circular motion, the velocity of the body may be more conveniently expressed in angular measurement radians per CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 103 second instead of in linear units of y, The relation between these we have seen is py = or. Substituting this value of y we have, . . v .", Centripetal acceleration = — or or The force required to produce this acceleration is the centripetal accelerating force usually abbreviated to “centripetal force”. Accelerating force = mass x acceleration - . me Centripetal accelerating force = — orm or This centripetal force which is applied radially inwards to maintain the body on its circular path is to counterbalance the centrifugal force acting radially outwards. The magnitude of these forces is the same, therefore, . my? Centrifugal force = = OF mor Being accelerating force, the units of centrifugal and centripetal force are newtons, when mass m is in kilogrammes, v the velocity in metres per second, and r the radius in metres. Example. Calculate the pull on the root of a turbine blade due to centrifugal force when the rotor is rotating at 3000 rev/min, the mass of the blade is 0-2 kg and the radius from the axis of the rotor to the centre of gravity of the blade is 460 mm. 3000 revimin x 2n 100% rad/s Centrifugal force = mu*r = 0-2 x (100)? x 0-46 = 9080 N = 9-08 KN Ans, Example. A body of 2 kg mass is attached to the end of a cord and swung around in a vertical plane of 0-75 m radius at a speed of 100 rev/min. Find (i) the centrifugal force set up; (ii) the tension in the cord when passing (a) top centre, (b) bottom centre, (c) a point 30 degrees from bottom centre, (d) a point 60 degrees from top centre.104 (REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Fig. 62 100 rev/min X 27 60 Centrifugal force = mw*r = 2 x 10-478 x 0-75 = 164-4 N Ans. (i) Force of gravity on 2 kg mass (weight) =2 x 9-81 = 19-62N When passing top centre, centrifugal force pulls directly up- wards (always radially outwards) and the force of gravity acts vertically downwards, therefore, Tension in cord = centrifugal force — weight == 164-4 — 19-62 = 144-78 N Ans. (iia) When passing bottom centre, centrifugal force pulls directly downwards, the force of gravity also acts downwards, therefore, Tension in cord = centrifugal force + weight = 164-4 + 19-62 == 184-02 N Ans. (ib) = 10-47 rad/s CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 105 When passing the point 30° to the bottom centre, the effect of the weight of the mass on the cord is its component in the direction of the cord, see Fig. 62, this is W cos 30° and acts in the same direction as the centrifugal force, therefore, Tension in cord = centrifugal force + W cos 30° = 164-4 + 19-62 x 0866 = 181-39 N Ans. (iic) At 60° from top centre the component of the weight is W cos 60° in the direction of the cord, but is in the opposite direction in which the centrifugal force acts, hence, Tension in cord = centrifugal force — W cos 60° = 164-4 — 19-62 x 05 = 15459 N Ans. (iid) SIDE SKIDDING AND OVERTURNING OF VEHICLES When a car or lorry takes a bend in the road, around a corner or road island, it moves around a circular path and centrifugal force is created which tends to cause the vehicle to skid or overturn. SIDE SKID. Treaded rubber tyres provide a good grip on the ground and, within limits, prevent broadside skidding. To slide a vehicle sideways, the force required to overcome friction depends upon the coeflicient of friction between the tyres and the ground, the coefficient of friction is the ratio between the force required to overcome friction and the normal force between the surfaces. Thus if a vehicle weighing W ncwtons stands on 2 hori- zontal ground (Fig. 63) the force between the surfaces is simply the weight W. If the coefficient of friction is represented by the Greek letter y, the force in newtons to drag it sideways is. x W. Fig, 63106 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS, For example, if the mass of a motor car is 1000 kg and the coefficient of friction between the tyres and ground is 0-6, the force to overcome friction is 0-6 x 1000 x 9-81 = 5886N. This force could be reached and exceeded by the centrifugal force created when the car travels around a bend at an excessive speed. Example. Calculate the speed at which a car will begin to skid sideways when turning a bend of 25 m radius, taking the coeffi- cient of friction between tyres and ground as 0-7. If the coefficient of friction is halved due to worn tyres and wet road, what will now be the danger speed? Let m = mass of car, in kg then force between surfaces = m x 9-81 N Force to overcome friction to push the car sideways = 0-7 x m X 981 N, and when the centrifugal force reaches this value skidding will occur. me =07 Xm xX 981 m cancels, v= V07 x 981 x 25 = 13-1 m/s 13-1 x 10-8 x 3600 = 47:17 km/h Ans. (i) Velocity varies directly as the square root of the coefficient of friction. If the coefficient of friction is halved, then, New danger speed == 47:17 « Vos 5 = 33:35 km/h Ans. (ii) OVERTURNING. If friction provides sufficient grip to prevent side-skid, there is the other danger of overturning when turning corners at excessive speeds, especially with vehicles which have a high centre of gravity. Referring to Fig. 64, the vehicle tilts about the point of contact of the ground and those wheels which are furthest from the centre of the circular path, marked 0. The centrifugal force acts horizontally through the centre of gravity and the force of gravity acts vertically downwards through this point. If the centre of gravity is i above the ground, this is the leverage or perpendicular distance from the line of action of the centrifugal force to point 0, the overturning moment is therefore C.F. X h. The moment maintaining the vehicle on its four wheels CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 107 is the weight multiplied by its perpendicular distance, this distance being half the track of the wheels. When the overturning moment becomes equal to the stabilising moment, overturning will com- mence, HALF. ° TRACK y Fig. 64 Example. The track between the wheels of a lorry is 1-52 mand its centre of gravity is 0-9 m above the ground. Find the speed at which it. will overturn when travelling around a bend of 25 m radius. Overturning moment = Stabilising moment Centrifugal force [NJ] x A [m] = Weight [N] x } track [m] 12 = Xx h= mg x } track m cancels, ve {eS 81 Xx os x 25 = 1439 m/s 14-39 x 10-® x 3600 = 51-81 km/h Ans. BANKED TRACKS. Bends of roadways and railways are often banked, the incline to the horizontal being calculated on the average speed of vehicles passing around the bends. By inclining the road, the reaction of the ground which is normal (i.e. at right angles) to its surface, is inclined, and its two components are (i) an upward force to support the downward weight of the vehicle, and (ii) a horizontal force to counteract the centrifugal force of the vehicle, This is iflustrated in Fig. 65.108 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS AHDI2M L¥Odans OL 3D¥Os GUYMEN 7% HORIZONTAL COMPONENT TO COUNTERACT C.F, Fig. 65 The magnitude of the horizontal component to counteract the centrifugal force depends upon the tangent of the incline to which the road is banked and hence can be designed to completely balance the centrifugal force at any pre-determined speed. Example. Find the angle to the horizontal to which a bend in the road should be banked so that there will be no tendency to skid when a vehicle is travelling at a speed of 72 km/h, the radius of the bend being 180 metres. Neglect friction between tyres and ground, 72 km/h X 10° 3600 ‘Upward force to support weight of mass of m kg =m X 9-81 newtons centrifugal force [N] weight [N] _ mvt “7X 98lm = 20 m/s tan of angle of incline = CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 109 20? = TO x Say = 07266 ~. Angle of incline = 12° 46’ Ans. In railway lines the same effect is obtained by raising the outer rail, in this case it is done to prevent an excessive side thrust on the flanges of the wheels, Example. Calculate the height of the outer rail above the level of the inner rail around a curvature of 800 m radius of a railway of 1435 mm track so that there will be no side thrust on the wheel flanges when the train is travelling at 80 km/h, Let 6 = angle of inclination of outer rail above inner rail h = super-clevation of outer rail 80 kmh > 108 3600 == 22:22 m/s __ centrifugal force mv* tan 0 = Tight rx mg 22-22% = B00 x SBT = 006292 0 = 3°36’ h = 1435 x sin 3° 36" == 1435 x 00628 = 90-12 mm Ans. Note that the sine of this small angle is very little different to the tangent, therefore we could use tan 6 as calculated without making much difference to the value of h. BALANCING If the centre of gravity of a rotating piece of machinery does not coincide with the centre of rotation, centrifugal force is set up which causes vibration as well as putting an extra load on the bearings. To balance an eccentric load in its own plane it can be done by a counter-balance placed diametrically opposite, of such110 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS mass and radius from the centre so that it will create a centri- fugal force of equal magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the eccentric load. CFOF TH, Fig. 66 Referring to Fig. 66, let m, be the mass to be balanced, and let r, be the distance from centre of rotation to the centre of gravity of the mass. Let m be the mass of the counter-balance placed diametrically opposite at a radius r. For balance, the centrifugal force of m must be equal to the centrifugal force of m, thus, mor= mor, Since they both rotate at the same velocity, «? cancels, therefore, mxr=mXry Note that if moments are taken about the centre of rotation, the turning moment of one mass is equal to the turning moment of the other and therefore the system is statically balanced. The centre of gravity of the above masses must lie in the same plane (see side elevation in Fig. 67), otherwise an unbalanced couple will be set up when the system rotates, which will cause a rocking action. Taking moments about the line of action of one force, the unbalanced moment is C.F. x arm (or leverage) between the two forces. CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION, iit Cr cr aay a3Dvs Biyi43v4 1 Fig. 67 Example. A valve-box casting of mass 27 kg is secured to the faceplate of a lathe in such a position that its centre of gravity is 90 mm radially from the centre of rotation and 114 mm axially from the surface of the faceplate. Calculate the radius at which to fix a counter-balance of 12-75 kg. If the centre of gravity of this counter-balance is 76 mm axially from the faceplate surface, calculate the unbalanced couple when rotating at 200 rev/min. C.F. of counter-balance = C.F, of casting m, Or, = m, 0 ry © cancels, Sm XT = Mg X Ma 12°75 x ry = 27 x 90 r, = 190-5 mm Ans. ‘Thus, counter-balance should be fixed at a radius of 190-5 mm diametrically opposite the direction in which the centre of gravity of the casting lies. 200 rev/min x 2x oO 27 __ 20.94 rad/s Unbalanced couple = C.F. of casting (or counter balance) x Arm. of couple =mo?'r[N] x arm {m] = 27 x 20-94? x 0:09 x (0-114 — 0-076) = 40-48 Nm Ans,112 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS BALANCING A NUMBER OF ROTATING MASSES Fig. 68 It is explained in Chapter | that if the vector diagram represent- ing a number of coplanar forces meeting at a point forms a closed. figure, the system is in equilibrium. Centrifugal forces can be dealt with in the same manner. A number of rotating masses can be balanced if they are all in the same plane either by displacing them at such angular positions that their vector diagram forms a closed figure, or, if the positions of the existing masses cannot be arranged in this way, an additional mass can be included in such a position that the vector of its centri- fugal force will close the vector diagram, (see Fig. 68). Example. Two masses are fixed at right angles to each other on. a disc which is to rotate, one is 3 kg at a radius of 125 mm from the centre of rotation, and the other is 4 kg at 150 mm radius. Find the position to fix a balance mass of 7 kg to equalise the centrifugal forces. OG CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 113 Vector ab is drawn to represent force AB, represented by 3 x 0-125 = 0-375 Vector bc is drawn to represent force BC, represented by 4 x 0:15 = 0-6 By Pythagoras, ac = 0373 + 08 1x r= 0-075 r= 0-101 m = 10mm 0375 tan a = 57> = 00625 a = 32° 6 = 32 + 90 = 122° Therefore the 7 kg counter-balance should be placed at a radius of 101 mm, at 122° to the 3 kg mass. Ans. Again note carefully that the actual forces are centrifugal forces, each of value mw’r, but since all rotate at the same angular velocity, each force can be represented by m X r. CONICAL PENDULUM If a mass is suspended at the end of a cord and set in motion in a circular path in a horizontal plane, the system sweeps out the shape of a cone and therefore it is referred to as a “conical pendulum” to distinguish it from the simple pendulum which swings backwards and forwards. Fig. 7014 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Referring to Fig. 70, if the mass travels at a constant angular yelocity, the angle between the cord and the vertical centre-line remains constant because the system is in equilibrium, that is, the moment of the centrifugal force which tends to increase this angle is balanced by the moment of the weight of the mass which tends to close the angle. The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and its effective leverage. The effective leverage is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the point about which moments are taken. The centrifugal force acts radially out- wards from the centre through the centre of gravity of the moving mass, this line of action is horizontal and, if we take moments about the point of suspension o, the perpendicular distance from. the line of action of the centrifugal force to o is the vertical height h, The weight of the mass acts vertically downwards through its centre of gravity, the perpendicular distance from the line of action of this force to point o is the radius of the circular path 7, therefore: Let 0 = angle between cord and vertical centre-line, taking moments about point 0: Moment tending to increase @ = moment tending to reduce 6 centrifugal force x h = weight x r If m represents the mass in kilogrammes, then the downward force of gravity on this mass, i.c. its weight in newtons is mg where g=981 hence, mor Xh=mgxr _mxXgxr hx eo XE h= = metres o Note that the height is inversely proportional to the square of the velocity and is independent of the mass. SIMPLE UNLOADED GOVERNOR The simple unloaded governor, often referred to as the Watt governor, works on the principle of the conical pendulum. This is illustrated in Fig. 71 and consists of a pair of bob masses sus- pended on arms from a centre spindle so that an increase in speed will cause the bobs to swing outward and upward; by connecting CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 5 through a pair of links to a sliding sleeve on the spindle, the sleeve is pulled up when the speed increases, and lowered when the speed decreases. This motion can be transmitted to an engine control valve by levers to close or open the valve, thus governing the engine speed within pre-determined limits. The height h from. the plane of rotation of the bobs to the point of suspension, is referred to as “the height of the governor.” Example. Find the height of a Watt governor when rotating at. speeds of 50 and 75 revolutions per minute. 50 rev/min x 20 1) = 5-236 rad/s _ gs _ 981 he Oe 50368 = 0-3579 m or 357-9 mm Ans. (i) 75 rev/min x 20 a 7-854 rad/s na £8 ~ ot” 7854? = 0-159] m or 159-1 mm Ans. (ii)16 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Alternatively the latter could be calculated by ratio, the height being inversely proportional to the square of the speed, thus, height at 75 rev/min = height at 50 rev/min x (#9)* = 357-9 x (3% = 3579 x $= 159-1 mm f PORTER GOVERNOR The Porter governor is similar in its operation to the Watt governor but carries a central load on the sliding sleeve. The mass of this central load in relation to the mass of each bob deter- mines the amount of movement of the sleeve for a given change of speed, and can be designed to suit engine control requirements. Fig. 72 Referring to Fig. 72 and considering the equilibrium of one bob. Let the links be all of equal length and take moments about the instantaneous centre (i) of the movement of the central load and CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 117 the bob so that the effect of the weight of the central load is xeadily taken into account. A is the height from the plane of rotation of the bobs to point of suspension, and r is the radius of the circular path, therefore, since the links are of the same length, the height from the connection of the lower links and sleeve to plane of rotation is equal to f, and the distance from this con- nection to the instantaneous centre is 2r (by similar triangles), Let M represent the mass of the central load and sleeve in kilo- grammes, then its weight is Mg newtons, where g = 9-81. ‘Let m represent the mass of each bob in kilogrammes, then the weight of each bob is mg newtons. Taking moments (in newton-metres) about f:— Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments CF. xX h=mg Xx r+ 4Mg x 2r Note that half the weight of the central mass is taken as being the effect on one bob, C.F. X A= er (m+ M) ha Shen + M) = emt MW) mor nas fees) metres a m Sf Example. The links of a Porter governor are each 230 mm long. The mass of the central load and sleeve is 14 kg and the mass of each bob is 2 kg. When the governor rotates at maximum speed the links make an angle of 60° to the vertical. Calculate (i) the maximum speed and, (ii) the change in height when the speed falls to 200 rev/min. h = 230 X cos 60°) = 115mm=0-115m h= & [(m+M ~ ot m 981 (2+ 14 ous = ~8t E+ 1x8 bead o= Os = 26-12 rad/s 2612 radls x @ = 249-4 rev/min Ans. (i) .4)2 height at 200 rev/min = 115 x fac}118 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS = 178-8 mm Change in height = 178-8 — 115 = 63-8 mm Ans. (ii) EFFECT OF FRICTION. All frictional resistances in a governor, such as between the sleeve and spindle, at the various joints and in the operating gear can be reduced to one single friction force F acting at the sleeve. Friction always opposes motion, therefore when the speed of the governor is increasing and the sleeve rising, the friction force will act downwards, thus being equivalent to in- creasing the central load. When the speed of the governor is decreasing and the sleeve is descending, the friction force will act upwards and have the effect of reducing the central load. Hence, referring again to Fig. 72, considering the equilibrium of one bob, taking moments about #, let + F represent the friction force in newtons at the central sleeve when the governor is increasing speed, and — F newtons when the governor speed. is decreasing then: CF. x h= mg xr+4(Mg + F) X2r he rimg + Mg + F) = er gat MA ae o m Example. The mass of each bob of a Porter governor is 2 kg and the mass of the central load and sleeve is 19-2 kg. If the friction force at the sleeve is 7-85 N find the maximum and mini- mum governor speeds when the height is 250 mm. hn £ PAE h= ~ ot m For maximum speed, 025 = 28h 2 +192 + 7859981) a o= PER = 20°78 rad/s nx = 198-4 rev/min Ans. (i) For minimum speed, 025 = 281 f2 +192 =7 ssp sty oF 2 CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 119 9-81 x 20-4 0-25 x 2 = 191 rev/min Ans, (ii) o= 20 x 60 2a == 20 rad/s Jf HARTNELL GOVERNOR The Hartnell governor is a type of spring-loaded governor which is operated by a pair of bell-crank levers, the vertical arm of each lever carries a bob at its top end, the horizontal arm engages with the sleeve, and a central spring in compression exerts a controlling force on the sleeve, as diagrammatically shown in Fig. 73. The force of gravity on each bob, i.e. its weight, has no effect on the sleeve when the arm carrying the bob is purely vertical. These arms lie slightly inward at minimum speed, move outward due to centrifugal force until they Jie slightly outward from the vertical at maximum speed. CF Fig. 73120 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Considering the equilibrium of each bob, Let m = mass [kg] of each bob w = weight [N] of each bob == mg r= radius [m] of rotation of bobs S = force [N} exerted by spring on sleeve y = length [m] of vertical arm x = length [m] of horizontal arm Taking moments, in newton-metres, about crank fulcrum, At mean position: CE. xX y= 4S x x At high speeds: CF. x ycosa + w X ysing = 4S X x cosa At low speeds: CF. X peosx=w X ysina + 4S X xcosa In most cases the angularity of the arms from the vertical and horizontal is small and therefore the moment of the weight of the bob about the crank fulcrum can usually be neglected. If the weight of the sleeve is to be taken into consideration, it would be added to the spring force. If the force to overcome sliding friction between the sleeve and the spindle is to be taken into account, it would be added to the spring force wheri the speed is increasing, and subtracted when the speed is decreasing, as previously shown. JS Example. In a Hartnell governor the mass of each bob is 1-5 kg. From the bell-crank lever fulcrum the length of the vertical arms to the centre of the bob is 120 mm and the length of the horizontal arms is 60 mm. When running at 300 rev/min the radius of rota- tion of the bobs is 80 mm, and at 320 rev/min the radius is 115 mm. Find the stiffness of the spring in newtons per millimetre of compression. Neglect the effect of angularity of the arms from their respective vertical and horizontal positions. 300 rev/min x 22 30 = 31-42 rad/s 320 revimin x 2n 33°52 rad/s Let S = force of spring on sleeve, in newtons, 4S = downward force on end of each horizontal arm. Considering equilibrium of each bob, taking moments about crank fulcrum, in newton-metres, CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 121 At 300 rev/min: CF. xX y=4S, xx 1:5 x 31-422 x 0-08 x 0-12 = 45, x 0-06 Sy =479N At 320 rev/min: 1:5 X 33-52% x O-115 x 0-12 = 4S, x 0-06 Sy = 715-2N Increase in compression, 7152 — 473-9 = 3013N Horizontal movement at top of vertical arm = difference in radius of rotation = 115 — 80 = 35mm Ratio of lengths of vertical arm to horizontal arm = 1200+ 60=2 «'. Vertical movement at end of horizontal arm = 35-+2 = 175mm this is the distance the sleeve moves up and therefore the amount the spring is compressed. 301-3 Ts = 17-22 N/mm Ans. STRESS IN FLYWHEEL RIMS DUE TO CENTRIFUGAL FORCE «Stiffness of spring = V Fig. 74122 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Stress is the load or force carried by a material per unit area of cross-section, thus, total load area of cross section The basic units of stress is newtons per square metre {N/m%], commonly used multiples of the basic unit are: kilonewtons per square metre [kN/m*] = 10* N/m* meganewtons per square metre [MN/m*] = 10° N/m? hectobar [hbar] = 10’ N/m* i i 2 ‘The bar is an accepted unit of pressure and is equal to 10° N/m*. The hectobar is therefore 10% X 10° N/m? = 10’ N/m* and this ‘unit is adopted by some industries for stress in metals. Referring to Fig. 74, considering the equilibrium of a small piece of the flywheel rim it can be seen from the vector diagram of forces that the outward radial centrifugal force is balanced by the circumferential tensile force in the rim. This tension tends to snap the material, the stress, expressed by dividing the total tensile force by the area, is therefore termed the tensile stress or hoop stress. Let r == radius of rim [m] a= axial thickness of rim [m] adial thickness of rim [m] fensity of material [kg/m*] Stress = mean length of piece = r0 area of cross-section = ab Mass of piece [kg] = volume [m*] x density [kg/m*] =1r0 xab xe C.F. of piece = mo? r =r0 xabxep xo xr newtons From vector diagram, cr Tensile force = —¢- tensile force area of cross section ra xabxexoxr 8 x ab pot? = pv N/m? Tensile stress = i] ‘CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 123 Example, Calculate the stress set up in a thin flywheel rim, one metre diameter, made of steel of density 7-86 g/cm®, when rotating at 1500 rev/min. 1500 sevimin x 2n 157-1 rads 7-86 g/cm? = 7-86 X 10° kg/m* Stress due to centrifugal force = pv* = pw*r? = 786 x 10° x 157-12 x 0-5? 4:85 x 107 N/m? = 48-5 MN/m? or 4°85 hbar Ans. Jf SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Simple harmonic motion is a particular form of reciprocating or ‘to and fro’ motion in which the acceleration and the velocity of the body varies as it moves from one end of its travel to the other, the important characteristic of this motion is that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement from mid-travel. Note how this differs from anything which has been dealt with so far, previous to this, cases of uniform acceleration only have been explained. When a body moves forwards and backwards with simple har- monic motion, at one end of its oscillation and the body is momentarily at rest, it receives maximum acceleration and causes it to move with increasing velocity. The acceleration, which is proportional to the displacement from mid-travel, decreases, and its velocity increases as the body approaches mid-travel. As it passes its mid-position the acceleration is zero and the velocity is maximum. From mid-travel onwards the acceleration is negative and increasing in magnitude while the velocity decreases until, at the other end of its travel, the velocity is momentarily nil and the acceleration is maximum to return the body in the opposite direction. If we had a particle travelling around a circular path in a vertical plane at a constant speed and its shadow could be seen on a horizontal table, the shadow would move forwards and back- wards with simple harmonic motion. From a practical point of view, if we neglect the effect of the angularity of the connecting rod of a reciprocating engine, the piston moves with simple harmonic motion when the crank pin ! travels at a constant angular velocity.124 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ACCELERATION DIAGRAM vetocity DIAGRAM VELOCITY OF P Fig. 75 Referring to Fig. 75, the circle represents the circular path of a particle Q moving at constant velocity, this could be the crank pin of an engine. The projection of Q on to the plane of the diameter is point P, this could represent the relative position and motion of the piston (neglecting angularity of the connecting rod), Q is moving at a constant angular velocity of » radians per second around the circular path of r metres radius, its linear velocity is therefore wr metres per second. The velocity vector diagram is drawn to represent the linear velocity of Q when passing the point at © degrees past dead centre, the horizontal component represents the velocity of P at that instant. Thus: Velocity of P = Velocity of Q x sin 9 = or sin 6 [m/s] If x represents the displacement of P (in metres) from the middle of its travel, sin 8 can be expressed in terms of r and x:— Velocity of P = or sin 0 vr r = or — x* [m/s] The acceleration of a body moving around a circular path at constant velocity is centripetal. acceleration, it has been shown to be «x and directed towards the centre. The acceleration of P is the horizontal component of the acceleration of Q, therefore: =or X 126 REED'S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS f Example, The stroke of a reciprocating engine is 500 mm. Neglecting the effect of the angularity of the connecting rod, find the velocity and acceleration of the piston when the crank is 30 degrees past top dead centre and the engine is running at 750 rev/min. Angular velocity of crank _ 150 2x ~ 60 Radius of crank pin circle = } stroke = 0-25m Velocity of piston = or sin 6 = 78:54 x 0-25 x sin 30° = 9817 m/s Ans. (i) Acceleration of piston = w*r cos 6 78-54? x 0:25 x cos 30° = 1336 m/s? Ans. (ii) Ff Example. A machine component of 2:25 kg mass moves with simple harmonic motion, the amplitude being 380 mm. If it makes 120 oscillations per minute, find (i) the maximum accelerating force, (ii) the accelerating force when the displacement is 250 mm from mid-travel. 120 oscillations per min. == 2 per second ..Periodic time of one oscillation = 4 second Maximum displacement = 380 mm = 0:38 m. t=2n (a displacement ‘acceleration 0:38 bade A acceleration Squaring both sides and transposing, = 78°54 rad/s 2 x nt x 038 (O° = ~Feceleration Acceleration = 2? x 2? x x? x 0:38 = 60-01 m/s? Accelerating force = mass x acceleration = 2:25 x 60-01 == 135 N Ans. (i)CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 125 Acceleration of P = Acceleration of Q x cos 0 = wr cos 6 [m/s*] Of, expressing cos 0 in terms of x, Acceleration of P = w*r x = = ox = «* X displacement from mid- travel The angular velocity « is constant, therefore she acceleration ofa body moving with simple harmonic motion is Proportional to its displacement from mid-travel. The AMPLITUDE is the maximum displacement to either side of its mid-travel. The PERIODIC TimE is the time taken to make onz complete oscillation, that is, to move completely across from one end to the other end and back again. The time for P to make one complete oscillation is the same time that Q takes to move around one complete revolution, as follows, distance velocity 2x [radians] [rad/s] The value of w can be substituted into terms of displacement and acceleration:— Acceleration = w? x displacement Time = Time [s] = . acceleration displacement eae oe 2n Periodic time = — @ =n acceleration =<" ~ AJ displacement displacement =2n acceleration The above expression gives the periodic time for any body moving with simple harmonic motion. ‘The FREQUENCY is the number of oscillations made per second. If t = periodic time in seconds 1 then, Frequency = 7 oscillations pet second, CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 127 Acceleration is proportional to displacement, therefore when the displacement is 0-25 m:— 0.25 Accelerating force = 135 x 038. = 88:82 N Ans. (ii) THE SIMPLE PENDULUM A simple pendulum consists of a heavy bob swinging forwards and backwards suspended by a light cord. VECTOR VECTOR DIAGRAM DIAGRAM OF OF FORCES ACCELERATIONS, gsine Fig. 76 Referring to Fig. 76, let m represent the mass of the bob, ® the angle made by the cord to the vertical centre line, and / the length of the cord. In the position shown, the effect of the force of gravity on the bob is to cause it to accelerate in the direction tangential to the arc of movement. The downward force of gravity on the bob is mg. From the vector diagram of the forces acting on the bob, the accelerating force causing it to move down the inclined plane is the component in that direction of the force of gravity which is mg sin 6. accelerating force Acceleration = mass128 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS or this can be obtained direct from the vector diagram of accelera- tions, the acceleration down the plane being the component in that direction of the gravitational acceleration g. The displacement of the bob from mid-travel of its swing is the length of the arc from the centre of swing to centre of bob, Displacement =/6 = we wey (ii) From (i), acceleration is proportional to sin 8 because g is constant. From (ii), displacement is proportional to @ radians because / is constant. For small angles, sin 6 has the same value as 0 radians, therefore for small angles of swing, acceleration is proportional to displace- ment and the motion is simple harmonic. Hence we can apply the expression for the periodic time of a body moving with simple harmonic motion:— eg ae ‘displacement Periodic time = 2 “aeceleration™ 10 =r Fein 0 radians cancels with sin § for a small angle, therefore, = 2n | seconds & Example. Find the length of a simple pendulum to make (i) one complete oscillation per second, (ii) half an oscillation (i.e. one swing) per second. In the first case the periodic time is one second, 1x 9-81 “Bx 02485 m = 248-5 mm Ans. (i) In the second case, the periodic time for one complete oscillation is 2 seconds, CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION: 129 varies as4/T wT varies as t? l= 2485 x (DP = 994 mm Ans. (ji) {VIBRATIONS OF A SPRING When a mass is placed on the hook of a helical spring and lowered gently so that the spring takes the weight of the mass gradually, it will stretch to its normal amount of static deflection and remain motionless. If it is now disturbed from rest by pushing the mass up or down, the spring and mass will vibrate in a vertical direction and we shall see that the motion is simple harmonic. SUDDENLY APPLIED, VIBRATIONS ~~ a “LOAD CARRIED ‘BY SPRING Fig. 77 Instead of allowing the spring to take up the load gradually, imagine the mass to be placed on the hook and released suddenly, At the very instant it is released, the spring is carrying none of the load, and the mass begins to fall with an acceleration of g because the accelerating force is the weight of the mass. At any instantane- ‘ous position of the mass between the beginning of its fall and the position of static deflection, the spring carries a portion of the load proportional to its stretch, the remainder of the load is causing acceleration and this is proportional to displacement from mid- travel.130 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS This is illustrated in Fig. 77. Note that at the position of normal deflection, the spring carries the whole weight of the mass, there is none ayailaole to produce acceleration, therefore it passes this point with no acceleration and with maximum velocity. Up to this point the work done to stretch the spring, or the energy absorbed, is equal to the average force on the spring multiplied by distance = 4mng x deflection, but the potential energy lost by the mass in falling this distance is mg x deflection. The difference between the potential energy lost and the energy absorbed by the spring is converted into kinetic energy which carties the mass to an equal distance beyond normal static deflection until, at the bottom of its travel, the spring is stretched. to twice its normal amount. The instantaneous effect of a suddenly applied load on any body, spring, or solid bar, is to strain the material to twice what it would be if the same load were gradually applied, causing twice the normal stress. Let the normal static deflection = 3 metres At the instant the mass is first placed on the hook: displacement from mid-travel = 8 metres acceleration = g m/s? Applying the expression, ogee ngs displacement Periodic time of oscillation= 27 al aeceleration ps t=2n al seconds, & Compare this with the expression for the periodic time of oscillation for a simple pendulum and we see that 5 which is the normal static deflection in metres takes the place of / which is the length of the pendulum in metres, Hence the periodic time of a helical spring is the same as a simple pendulum whose length is equal to the static deflection of the spring. f Example. A helical spring stretches one millimetre for every 1-4 newtons of axial force. If a mass of 10 kg is hung on the end and set vibrating, find the periodic time of one oscillation and the number of oscillations made per minute. CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 131 Weight of mass = 10 x 9-81 = 98-1N Static deflection = 92 — 70.07 mm js (0-0707 t= 2nq/> = 25/9 = 0-531 second Ans. (i) 60 Frequency = oi 113 oscillations/min Ans. (ii) EFFECT OF THE MASS OF THE SPRING. The end coil of the spring next to the load hook moves at the same velocity as the load, but the velocity of the other coils is less, being in proportion to their distance from the fixed end. It can be shown that the effect of the mass of the spring is equivalent to one-third of its mass on the hook which carries the load. This is taken into account when the mass of the spring is such as not to be negligible in comparison with the load it carries. Jf Example. The mass of a helical spring is 0-7 kg and it deflects one millimetre for every 0-35 N of axial force. Calculate the value of the mass to be hung on the end of the spring so that it will make 90 oscillations per minute. Let m = equivalent mass [kg] on end of spring to give 90 oscil« lations per minute. Weight of mass = mg newtons m X 981 0-35 x 108 Frequency = 90 oscillations/min. «' Periodic time = §g = % second t=2n 4/2 & a= 2n Static deflection = metre m XxX 981 0:35 x 10° x 981 2 x 0:35 x 108 FX X = 3-941 kg Mass to hang on end = 3-941 — } of 0-7 941 — 0-233 = 3-708 kg Ans,132 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS TEST EXAMPLES 5 1. The mass of a propeller is 4-5 tonne and its centre of gravity is 3-5 mm from the centre of rotation. Find the pull due to centri- fugal force when it is rotating at 120 rev/min. 2. A mass of 1-2 kg is connected to the end of a cord and rotated in a vertical plane, the radius of the circular path being 600 mm. Find (i) the maximum tension in the cord when the speed of rotation is 75 rev/min, (ii) the speed of rotation when the minimum tension is nil. 3. A hole is bored in a circular disc of uniform thickness. The centre of the hole is 38 mm from the centre of the disc and the mass of material removed is 0-8 kg. Calculate the centrifugal force set up when the bored disc rotates about its geometrical centre at 240 rev/min, 4, A motor car is on the verge of skidding when travelling at 48 km/h on a level road around a curvature of 30 m radius, Find the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground. 5. The wheel track of a motor van is 1-68 m and its centre of gravity when fully loaded is 0-98 m above the ground. Calculate the speed at which the van will overturn when travelling around a bend of 23 m radius, assuming the road to be level, 6. Calculate the super-elevation of the outer rail of a curved railroad of 250 m radius so that there will be no side thrust when a train is travelling at 75 km/h, the track being 1435 mm. 7. Three masses, x, y and z, are to rotate in the same plane at the same angular velocity. Their masses and radii from centre of rotation are, respectively 9 kg at 400 mm radius, 10 kg at 350 mm, and 12 kg at 250 mm. Calculate the angles between them so that they will balance. 8, Find the change in height of a simple unloaded governor when it changes speed from 60 to 80 rev/min. J9. The two balls of a Porter governor each have a mass of 2:25 kg. Assuming all links to be the same length, find the mass of the central load so that the change in height will be 25 mm when. the speed changes from 240 to 270 rev/min. 10. A thin flywheel rim, 1-2 m diameter, is made of cast iron of density 7-21 g/cm®. Find the speed in rev/min at which the stress due to centrifugal force will be 15 MN/m®. CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION 133 11. A push-rod moves with simple harmonic motion driven by an eccentric sheave running at 90 rev/min, the full travel of the rod being 50 mm. Calculate its velocity and acceleration when it is 6 mm from the beginning of its travel. F 12. The effective force on the piston of a vertical diesel engine when passing top dead centre is 800 KN, the mass of the recipro- cating parts is 1524 kg, the length of the stroke is 1100 mm, and the engine is running at 120 rev/min, Assuming the motion of the reciprocating parts to be simple harmonic, find the effective thrust on the crosshead at the beginning of the down stroke. f 13. Find the number of complete oscillations a simple pendu- Jum one metre long will make in one minute. Jf 14. Calculate the length of a simple pendulum to make 120 complete oscillations per minute, J 15. The stiffness of a helical spring is such that it stretches one millimetre for every 1-5 N of load. Find the number of vibrations it will make per minute if it is disturbed from rest when carrying a mass of 6:5 kg.CHAPTER 6 SLIDING FRICTION When one body slides over another, a certain amount of resist- ance is set up between the surfaces in contact which tends to oppose motion. This is termed the frictional resistance between the surfaces of the pair of bodies and the force required to overcome this resistance and thereby cause motion is usually referred to as the friction force. SUIDER BLOCK. HORIZONTAL BOARD WEIGHT CARRIER———> SMALL WEIGHTS ——>| Fig. 78 Fig. 78 shows a simple piece of apparatus for investigating frictional resistance. It consists of a flat board of wood or metal which is set horizontally by a spirit level on a table; a slider block is connected to a cord running parallel to the board and passing over a guide pulley at the end of the board, a weight carrier is attached to the hanging end of the cord. The slider is usually a rectangular block with sides of different surface areas, loads can be placed on top of it to increase the pressure between the surfaces of the block and board. Small weights are added to the hanging carrier or hook until the pull in the cord is just sufficient to cause the block to slide without acceleration. | Firstly it will be found that the force to start the block moving from rest is a little greater than the force required to maintain movement at a steady speed after it has begun to move. The friction at rest is referred to as static friction, the friction of move- SLIDING FRICTION 135 ment is termed sliding friction. It is the latter which is to be studied here, therefore in any experiment with the above apparatus, the block is tapped lightly with the fingers to overcome static friction while small weights are added to the carrier until the block moves at steady speed along the board. Ifa series of trials are performed with various pressures between the surfaces of the block and board (by adding loads on top of the block) and adjusting the effort in each case to obtain steady movement, it will be found that the friction force is always pro- portional to the pressure between the surfaces. For example, if the pressure between the surfaces is doubled then the force required to slide the block along must be doubled, treble the pressure between the surfaces and the force to overcome friction must be trebled, and so on. Therefore for any given pair of surface inateriais the friction force divided by the pressure between the sarfaces is a constant, this constant is termed the coefficient of friction and is represented by the Greek letter 2 (Mu). It will also be seen that if the block is given an extra push at the beginning to start it off at a faster speed, the force applied to over- come friction will be the same, that is, the same force will keep the block moving at the greater speed as that which was required at the lower speed. Jt can therefore be stated that the frictional resist- ance is independent of the speed of sliding. This however, is only true within moderate speeds. Now with the same loading in each case, trials can be made with the block resting on its different sides which have different surface areas. It will be noted that the force required to slide the block is the same in each case, demonstrating that friction is independent of the areas in contact. Further experiments can be performed with smooth and rough surfaces, and with various different materials in contact, and it will be found that friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces and the nature of the materials. ‘THE LAWS OF SLIDING FRICTION summarise the above observations as follows: (i) Frictional resistance is proportional to the total pressure between the surfaces. (ii) It depends upon the nature and roughness of the surfaces. (iii) It is independent of the areas in contact. (iv) It is independent of the speed of sliding at low speeds. (v) It opposes motion.136 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS The total pressure between the surfaces is the total pressure pressing normal to the surfaces, the word normal meaning “at right angles to”, For a straightforward case of a block resting on a horizontal plane pulled along by a horizontal force, the normal pressure between the surfaces is simply the weight of the block plus of course the loads on top of it if there are any. THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION is the ratio of the force required to overcome friction to the normal pressure between the surfaces, thus, friction force normal pressure between surfaces If p represents the coefficient of friction, F represents the friction force, N represents the normal pressure betwesn surfaces, then, Coefficient of friction = F e= HW or, F=4 XN Fig. 79 shows the forces acting on a body of weight W when a force Fis applied horizontally to overcome friction on a horizontal plane. Note the reaction R of the plane, when the body is at rest the plane applies a vertical upward force equal to the magnitude of W to support the weight, but when the body is moving the unseen frictional resisting force comes into action at the surface of the plane; R is the resultant of these two and swings over in the direction which opposes motion. The magnitude of the angle ¢ between R and N depends upon the magnitude of the force required to overcome friction, it is therefore termed the friction angle, FORCE TO. OVERCOME FRICTION mM: SaDV4UNS N33M130 DYNSSI¥d IVWYON SLIDING FRICTION 137 From the vector diagram, tan ¢ = ¥ Also, as stated above, = fe therefore, tang=p Stating this in words, the tangent of the friction angle is equal to the coefficient of friction. Example. If a block of wood weighing 28 newtons requires a horizontal force of 9-8 newtons to pull it along a horizontal plane, what is the coefficient of friction between the block and plane? Ifthe block is moved a distance of Smetres, what is the work done? Normal pressure between surfaces = weight of block = 28 N Force to overcome friction = 9-8 N Coefficient of friction, p = W 98 = 35 = 0-35 Ans. (i) Work done = force applied x distance moved 9-8 [N] x 5 [m] = 49 joules Ans. (ii) FORCE NOY PARALLEL TO PLANE. Instead of the force applied being parallel to the. horizontal plane over which the body is sliding, let it be inclined upward at 0 degrees, This is illustrated in Fig. 80, ¢ is the friction angle (whose tangent is equal to the coefficient of friction), and the angle between F and R in the vector diagram of forces is 90 — $ + 0. By sine rule, a Ww sing sin 00 — 6 + 0) from which any one unknown can be calculated. 90-$+8.138 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Example. A body of 40 N weight is to be pulled along a hori- zontal plane, the coefficient of friction between the body and the plane being 0:3. If the line of action of the applied force is inclined upwards at 26 degrees to the horizontal, find the magnitude of the force to slide the body at steady speed. Find also the magnitude and direction of the /east force that will move the body. Referring to Fig. 80, tang=p=03 «Friction angle ¢ = 16° 42’ Angle opposite W = 90 — $+ 6 = 90° — 16° 42’ + 26° = 99° 18" By sine rule, F440 sin 16° 42’ ~ sin 99° 18” 40 x 0:2874 0-9869 >= 11-65 N Ans. (i) The force to cause motion will be least when the vector F connecting W and 2 is as short as possible, that is, when the angle opposite W is 90 degrees, and reference to Fig. 81 shows that this force will then be inclined upwards at an angle equal to the friction angle ¢. F= Fig. 84 The vector diagram is now a right angled triangle with W the hypotenuse, and F the opposite side to ¢, therefore: SLIDING FRICTION 139 Least force = Wsin ¢ == 40 x sin 16° 42’ = 11-5 N Ans. (fig) Angle of least force = 16° 42’ to horizontal Ans, (ib) INCLINED PLANES FORCES PARALLEL TO THE PLANE ‘We now consider sliding bodies on planes which are not hori- zontal. To begin with, imagine a body which has negligible friction on a plane inclined at « degrees to the horizontal, see Fig. 82. HORIZONTAL, Fig. 82 The body would run down the plane on its own accord if allowed to do so, and this is due to the com ponent in this direction of the weight W of the body. The other component of W is the Pressure applied on the surface of the plane. Thus the effect of W is seen in its two components; one which acts down the slope of the plane, its value being W sin a, the other Which 1s at right angles to the surface of the plane, its value being COS &