Classification of Engines

Internal combustion engines are usually classified on:

1. Type of fuel used
2. The thermodynamic cycle operation
3. Method of charging the cylinder
4. Type of ignition
5. Type of cooling
6. The cylinder arrangement
7. etc
ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
• The parameters is used to measure the performance of an
engine .
• The most important parameters are
• Power :
1- Indicated power ( Pi).
2- Brake power ( Pb).
3- Frictional power ( Pf).
4- Specific power output (Ps)
• Efficiency Other parameters
1- Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith) 1-Mean effective pressure (pme)

2. Brake thermal efficiency (η bth) 2- Mean piston speed (Vm)

3. Mechanical efficiency (η m) 3- Inlet-valve Mach Index (Z)
4. Volumetric efficiency (η v)
5- Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (η rel)

• Fuel consumption

1-Indicated specific fuel consumption 𝑠𝑓𝑐𝑖

2-Brake specific fuel consumption 𝑠𝑓𝑐𝑏

3-Calorific value of the fuel or Specific heating value (The fuel power) (shv)

4- Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (A/F)

 THE FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF ENGINE CYCLE

• Before going to the detailed concepts of engine performance parameters

we must know the first law analysis of an engine .

• That means we will apply conservation of energy and how the energy
remains conserved during the function of and IC engine
 THE FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF ENGINE CYCLE

Energy in fuel (1)

Energy losses (2)
Heat losses Pi
-Radiation
-Coolant
-Exhaust gases
Indicated energy or power
or network Pi = (1)-(2)
Energy losses (3)
-Frictional losses Pb

(3) -Pumping losses Pb

Pi
-Unaccounted losses
(power required to
run auxiliary devices)
Useful energy or brake Energy Flow through the Reciprocating Engine
power Pb =(1)-(2)-(3)
 Indicated Power, Pi

• The fuel is fed into the combustion chamber where it burns in air
converting chemical energy of fuel into heat
• The liberated heat energy cannot be totally utilized for driving the piston
as there are losses through the engine exhaust, to the coolant and due to
radiation
• The heat energy which is converted to power at this stage is called the
indicated power, Pi and it is utilized to drive the piston
 The brake power, Pb
• The energy represented by the gas forces on the piston passes through
the connecting rod to the crankshaft
• there are energy losses due to : bearing friction, pumping losses etc.
Also, a part of the energy available is utilized in driving the auxiliary
devices like feed pump, valve mechanisms, Ignition systems etc.
• The sum of all these losses, expressed in units of power is termed as
frictional power, Pf.
• The remaining energy is the useful mechanical energy and is termed
as the brake power, Pb
Energy Balance

Pi =Pb +Pf
The diagrammatic representation of energy
distribution in an IC engine.
 Brake torque
• The most important engine performance parameters are power,
torque
• Brake torque ( T) is normally measured with a dynamometer

• The torque exerted by the engine is,

T =F . b
 Brake power (Pb)

• The pure power output of the drive shaft of an engine without the
power loss caused by gears, transmission, etc.
• The power delivered by engine is, product of torque and angular
speed

2∗𝜋 N = The number of crankshaft revolution

𝑃𝑏 = *N*T per minute (r.p.m)
60
Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith)
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖
η𝑖𝑡ℎ = =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚ሶ𝑓 × 𝑠ℎ𝑣
𝑚𝑓 = mass flow rate of the fuel (kg/s)
𝑠ℎ𝑣 = specific energy of the fuel (kJ/kg).

Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth)

𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑏
η𝑏𝑡ℎ = =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚𝑓 × 𝑠ℎ𝑣
 Mechanical Efficiency (ηm)
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑏 ηbth
η𝑚 = = = =
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑓 ηith

Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)

Basically Volumetric efficiency is “Breathing capacity” of an engine.
The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an engine's induction
process
 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)

It is one of the very important parameters which decide the

performance of four-stroke engines. Hence, an engine must be
able to take in as much air as possible.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the volume flow rate of air
into the intake system divided by the rate at which the volume is
displaced by the piston
≡ Volumetric efficiency is how much fresh air the engine
actually gets, divided by how much they should theoretically get
based on the cylinder volume.
 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)

2𝑚ሶ𝑎
η𝑣 =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑠 𝑁

𝑚𝑎 = mass flow rate of the inlet air (kg/s)

𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟= the inlet air density

• Typical maximum values of volumetric efficiency for naturally

aspirated engines are in the range 80 to 90 percent
• The volumetric efficiency for diesels is somewhat higher than
for SI engines. Gas engines have much lower volumetric
efficiency since gaseous fuel displaces air
 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (hrel)
Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (hrel) : is the ratio of thermal
efficiency of an actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle. Which indicates the
degree of development of the engine.
hrel = Actual thermal efficiency
Air - standard efficiency

Mean Effective Pressure (pme)

A more useful relative engine performance measure is obtained by
dividing the work per cycle by the cylinder volume displaced per cycle
𝑾𝒄 𝒊
𝒑𝒎𝒆 =
𝑽𝒔
Mean effective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an
internal combustion engine based on the calculated or measured power
output

It increased as manifold pressure increases. For any particular engine,

operating at a given speed and power output, there will be a specific
indicated mean effective pressure, pime and a corresponding break mean
effective pressure, pbme. They are derived from the indicated and brake
power respectively .
Since, the indicated power is related to the indicated work per cycle by
where nR is the number of crank revolutions for each power stroke per cylinder.
𝑊𝑐,𝑖 𝑁
𝑃𝑖 = 4- stroke cycles : nR = 2
𝑛𝑅 2-stroke cycles, nR = 1
So,
𝑃𝑖 𝑛𝑅
𝑝𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑁
𝑃𝑏 𝑛𝑅
𝑝𝑏𝑚𝑒 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑁
 Specifying pime from p-v diagram
pime = Area of the indicator diagram
Length of the indicator diagram

Where the length of the indicator diagram

is given by the difference between the
total volume and the clearance volume = Vs

pime = Wnet
Vs
Mean Piston Speed (Vm)
Mean piston speed : is the distance traveled by the piston per unit of time
2𝐿𝑁
𝑉𝑚 = 60

It is an important parameter in engine applications and it is often a more appropriate

than crank rotational speed for correlating engine behavior as function of speed

Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the moving parts
limit the maximum value of mean piston speed (Vm) to within 8 to 15 m/s
 Specific Power Output (Ps)
It is defined as the power output (brake power) per unit piston area and
is a measured of the engine designer’s success in using the available
piston area regardless of cylinder size.

𝑃𝑏
𝑃𝑠 = In general
𝐴 𝒅𝑾 𝒅 𝒅𝒓
𝑷 = 𝒅𝒕 =𝒅𝒕( F.r) = F. 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑭 . 𝒗

= constant x 𝑝𝑏𝑚𝑒 x 𝑉𝑚 F=p.A

If Vm 𝑃𝑠 but involve increase in the mechanical stresses of various

engine components

If 𝑝𝑏𝑚𝑒 better heat release from 𝑃𝑠 but involve more thermal load on
the fuel is required engine cylinder
 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)
It is a formula that is used to measure the fuel efficiency of a basic engine or
a shaft rotating engine. This formula in general, is the specific fuel
consumption in kilograms of fuel divided by the brake power in kilowatt-hour

This ratio is used to determine the amount of power provided by an

engine when compared to the consumption of fuel required to generate
that power
It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce
work.
It is an important parameter that reflects how good the engines performance is
It is inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine. In
general,

𝑚ሶ𝑓
𝑠𝑓𝑐 = ( kg/J)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑚ሶ𝑓
𝑠𝑓𝑐𝑏 = Brake specific fuel consumption
𝑃𝑏

𝑚ሶ𝑓
𝑠𝑓𝑐𝑖 = Indicated specific fuel consumption
𝑃𝑖
Fuel-Air or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)
The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from
the standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine
In the SI engine, the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant over a wide range of
operation
In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with load; it is the fuel flow
that varies directly with load. Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is generally used
instead of air-fuel ratio
A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in
the mixture is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.
Rich mixture : a mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct
mixture
Lean mixture : a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air)
 Equivalence ratio ϕ
The ratio of actual fuel-air to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio

f = Actual fuel - air ratio

Stoichiometric fuel - air ratio
f = 1 means stoichiometric (chemically correct) mixture,
f < 1 means lean mixture

f > 1 means rich mixture.

Note
The air fuel ratio changes as per the loading and speed of the vehicle
For gasoline engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.7:1
For diesel Engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 18:1
Calorific Value of the Fuel or Specific Heating
Value (The Fuel Power) (shv)
Specific heating value (shv) or specific energy content and sometimes called the
heat of combustion or calorific value of the fuel is an important property of fuels
It is the amount of heat produced by the burning of 1 gram of a substance, and is
measured in joules per gram (J/g, kJ/kg or kcal/kg) . In Gaseous fuels ,it is given in
terms of energy content per unit volume (kJ/liter or kJ/m3, kcal/m3)

Determining the specific heating value (shv) of a fuel by burning an amount of the
fuel and capturing the heat released in a known mass of water in a calorimeter. If
you measure the initial and final temperatures, the energy released can be calculated
using the equation
 H = m Cp ∆t

where H = heat energy absorbed (J),

∆t = change in temperature (°C),
m = mass (g),
Cp = specific heat capacity for water (4.18 J/g °C).

Dividing the resulting energy value by grams of fuel burned ( m f ) gives the specific
heating value (shv) (J/g)
𝐻
shv=𝑚
𝑓
The combustion process generates water vapor and certain techniques may be used to
recover the quantity of heat contained in this water vapor by condensing it.
•Higher Calorific Value = Gross Calorific Value ( GCV) = Higher Heating Value ( HHV)
- the water of combustion is entirely condensed and the heat contained in the water vapor
is recovered
•Lower Calorific Value = Net Calorific Value ( NCV) = Lower Heating Value ( LHV)
- the products of combustion contains the water vapor and the heat in the water vapor is
not recovered.

The formula for calculating the fuel power is the amount of fuel multiplied by the
specific heating value (thermal energy of fuel),

Fuel Power = m&f  shv

Inlet-Valve Mach Index (Z)
where
𝐴
𝑢= 𝑉𝑚 u = gas velocity through the inlet valve at smallest flow area
𝐶𝑖 𝐴𝑖
A: piston area
Ai: nominal intake valve opening area
Ci: inlet valve flow coefficient
𝑢 𝐴 𝑉𝑚
𝑍= =
𝛼 𝐴𝑖 𝐶𝑖 𝛼
d: cylinder diameter
2
Di : inlet valve diameter
𝑑 𝑉𝑚 α: inlet sonic velocity
𝑍= 𝐷𝑖 𝐶𝑖 𝛼 Z: inlet valve Mach index.
 Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine
Large numbers of experiments have been conducted on single cylinder Cooperative
Fuel Research (CFR) engine with gaseous mixtures and short induction pipe lengths,
at fixed valve timing and fixed compression ratio, but varying inlet valve diameter and
lift.
The results are quite revealing as regards the relationship
of volumetric efficiency versus Mach index are
concerned
From the figure, it could be seen that the maximum
volumetric efficiency is obtained for an inlet Mach
number of 0.55.
Therefore, engine designers must take care of this
factor to get the maximum volumetric efficiency for
their engines.
Design and Performance Data
Engine ratings usually indicate the highest power at which manufacturers expect
their products to give satisfactory economy, reliability, and durability under service
conditions
Maximum torque, and the speed at which it is achieved, is also usually given. Since
both of these quantities depend on displaced volume therefore for comparative
analysis between engines of different displacements in a given engine category
normalized performance parameters are more useful.
Typical design and performance data for SI and CI engines used in different
applications are summarized in the table .

• The four-stroke cycle dominates except in the smallest and largest engines
• The maximum rated engine speed decreases as engine size increases, maintaining
the maximum mean piston speed in the range of about 8 to 15 m/s
• The larger engines are turbocharged or supercharged and the maximum brake
mean effective pressure for turbocharged and supercharged engines is higher
than for naturally aspirated engines
• Because the maximum fuel-air ratio for SI engines is higher than for CI engines,
their naturally aspirated maximum brake mean effective pressure levels are higher
• As the engine size increases, brake specific fuel consumption decreases and fuel
conversion efficiency increases due to the reduced heat losses and friction
• For the large CI engines, brake thermal efficiencies of about 40 % and
indicated thermal efficiencies of about 50 % can be obtained in modern engines.
Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine