Time dilation

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Time dilation explains why two working clocks will report different times after different accelerations. For
example, at the ISS time goes slower, lagging approximately 0.01 seconds behind for every 12 earth months
passed. For GPS satellites to work, they must adjust for similar bending of spacetime to coordinate properly
with systems on Earth.[1]

Time dilation is a difference in the elapsed time measured by two clocks, either due to

them having a velocity relative to each other, or by there being a gravitational
potential difference between their locations. After compensating for varying signal
delays due to the changing distance between an observer and a moving clock
(i.e. Doppler effect), the observer will measure the moving clock as ticking slower than a
clock that is at rest in the observer's own reference frame. A clock that is close to a
massive body (and which therefore is at lower gravitational potential) will record less
elapsed time than a clock situated further from the said massive body (and which is at a
higher gravitational potential).
These predictions of the theory of relativity have been repeatedly confirmed by
experiment, and they are of practical concern, for instance in the operation of satellite
navigation systems such as GPS and Galileo.[1] Time dilation has also been the subject
of science fiction works, as it technically provides the means for forward time travel.[2]

Contents

 1History
 2Velocity time dilation
o 2.1Simple inference of velocity time dilation
o 2.2Reciprocity
o 2.3Experimental testing
 2.3.1Doppler effect
 2.3.2Moving particles
o 2.4Proper time and Minkowski diagram
o 2.5Derivation and formulation
 o 2.6Hyperbolic motion
o 2.7Clock hypothesis
 3Gravitational time dilation
o 3.1Experimental testing
 4Combined effect of velocity and gravitational time dilation
o 4.1Experimental testing
 5See also
 6Footnotes
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of special relativity
Time dilation by the Lorentz factor was predicted by several authors at the turn of the
20th century.[3][4] Joseph Larmor (1897), at least for electrons orbiting a nucleus, wrote "...
individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the
[rest] system in the ratio :".[5] Emil Cohn (1904) specifically related this formula to the
rate of clocks.[6] In the context of special relativity it was shown by Albert Einstein (1905)
that this effect concerns the nature of time itself, and he was also the first to point out its
reciprocity or symmetry.[7] Subsequently, Hermann Minkowski (1907) introduced the
concept of proper time which further clarified the meaning of time dilation. [8]

Velocity time dilation[edit]

From the local frame of reference of the blue clock, the red clock, being in motion, is perceived as ticking
slower[9] (exaggerated).

Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in an inertial frame of reference, a clock

that is moving relative to them will be measured to tick slower than a clock that is at rest
in their frame of reference. This case is sometimes called special relativistic time
dilation. The faster the relative velocity, the greater the time dilation between one
another, with the rate of time reaching zero as one approaches the speed of
light (299,792,458 m/s). This causes massless particles that travel at the speed of light
to be unaffected by the passage of time.
Theoretically, time dilation would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving
vehicle to advance further into the future in a short period of their own time. For
sufficiently high speeds, the effect is dramatic. For example, one year of travel might
correspond to ten years on Earth. Indeed, a constant 1 g acceleration would permit
humans to travel through the entire known Universe in one human lifetime.[10]
With current technology severely limiting the velocity of space travel, however, the
differences experienced in practice are minuscule: after 6 months on the International
Space Station (ISS), orbiting Earth at a speed of about 7,700 m/s, an astronaut would
have aged about 0.005 seconds less than those on Earth. [11] The cosmonauts Sergei
Krikalev and Sergei Avdeyev both experienced time dilation of about 20 milliseconds
compared to time that passed on Earth. [12][13]
Simple inference of velocity time dilation[edit]

Left: Observer at rest measures time 2L/c between co-local events of light signal generation at A and arrival at
A.
Right: Events according to an observer moving to the left of the setup: bottom mirror A when signal is
generated at time t'=0, top mirror B when signal gets reflected at time t'=D/c, bottom mirror A when signal
returns at time t'=2D/c

Time dilation can be inferred from the observed constancy of the speed of light in all
reference frames dictated by the second postulate of special relativity.[14][15][16][17]
This constancy of the speed of light means that, counter to intuition, speeds of material
objects and light are not additive. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear
greater by moving towards or away from the light source.
Consider then, a simple clock consisting of two mirrors A and B, between which a light
pulse is bouncing. The separation of the mirrors is L and the clock ticks once each time
the light pulse hits either of the mirrors.
In the frame in which the clock is at rest (diagram on the left), the light pulse traces out a
path of length 2L and the period of the clock is 2L divided by the speed of light:
From the frame of reference of a moving observer traveling at the speed v relative to
the resting frame of the clock (diagram at right), the light pulse is seen as tracing out
a longer, angled path. Keeping the speed of light constant for all inertial observers,
requires a lengthening of the period of this clock from the moving observer's
perspective. That is to say, in a frame moving relative to the local clock, this clock
will appear to be running more slowly. Straightforward application of
the Pythagorean theorem leads to the well-known prediction of special relativity:
The total time for the light pulse to trace its path is given by
The length of the half path can be calculated as a function of known quantities
as
Elimination of the variables D and L from these three equations results in
which expresses the fact that the moving observer's period of the
clock  is longer than the period  in the frame of the clock itself.
Reciprocity[edit]

Time UV of a clock in S is shorter compared to Ux′ in S′, and time UW of a clock in S′ is

shorter compared to Ux in S
 Transversal time dilation. The blue dots represent a pulse of light. Each pair of dots with
light "bouncing" between them is a clock. For each group of clocks, the other group
appears to be ticking more slowly, because the moving clock's light pulse has to travel a
larger distance than the stationary clock's light pulse. That is so, even though the clocks
are identical and their relative motion is perfectly reciprocal.

Given a certain frame of reference, and the "stationary" observer

described earlier, if a second observer accompanied the "moving" clock,
each of the observers would perceive the other's clock as ticking at
a slower rate than their own local clock, due to them both perceiving the
other to be the one that is in motion relative to their own stationary frame
of reference.
Common sense would dictate that, if the passage of time has slowed for
a moving object, said object would observe the external world's time to
be correspondingly sped up. Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts
the opposite. When two observers are in motion relative to each other,
each will measure the other's clock slowing down, in concordance with
them being in motion relative to the observer's frame of reference.
While this seems self-contradictory, a similar oddity occurs in everyday
life. If two persons A and B observe each other from a distance, B will
appear small to A, but at the same time A will appear small to B. Being
familiar with the effects of perspective, there is no contradiction or
paradox in this situation.[18]
The reciprocity of the phenomenon also leads to the so-called twin
paradox where the aging of twins, one staying on Earth and the other
embarking on a space travel, is compared, and where the reciprocity
suggests that both persons should have the same age when they reunite.
On the contrary, at the end of the round-trip, the traveling twin will be
younger than their sibling on Earth. The dilemma posed by the paradox,
 however, can be explained by the fact that the traveling twin must
markedly accelerate in at least three phases of the trip (beginning,
direction change, and end), while the other will only experience negligible
acceleration, due to rotation and revolution of Earth. During the
acceleration phases of the space travel, time dilation is not symmetric.
Experimental testing[edit]
See also: Tests of special relativity
Doppler effect[edit]
Main article: Ives–Stilwell experiment

 The stated purpose by Ives and Stilwell (1938, 1941) of these

experiments was to verify the time dilation effect, predicted by
Larmor–Lorentz ether theory, due to motion through the ether using
Einstein's suggestion that Doppler effect in canal rays would provide a
suitable experiment. These experiments measured the Doppler
shift of the radiation emitted from cathode rays, when viewed from
directly in front and from directly behind. The high and low
frequencies detected were not the classically predicted values
The high and low frequencies of the radiation from the moving sources were
measured as[19]
as deduced by Einstein (1905) from the Lorentz transformation, when the source
is running slow by the Lorentz factor.

 Hasselkamp, Mondry, and Scharmann[20] (1979) measured

the Doppler shift from a source moving at right angles to
the line of sight. The most general relationship between
frequencies of the radiation from the moving sources is
given by:
as deduced by Einstein (1905).[21] For ϕ = 90° (cos ϕ = 0) this reduces
to fdetected = frestγ. This lower frequency from the moving source can be attributed to
the time dilation effect and is often called the transverse Doppler effect and was
predicted by relativity.


In 2010 time dilation was observed at speeds of
less than 10 meters per second using optical
atomic clocks connected by 75 meters of optical
fiber.[22]
Moving particles[edit]
Main article: Experimental testing of time dilation

 A comparison of muon lifetimes at different speeds

is possible. In the laboratory, slow muons are
produced; and in the atmosphere, very fast moving
muons are introduced by cosmic rays. Taking the
 muon lifetime at rest as the laboratory value of
2.197 μs, the lifetime of a cosmic ray produced
muon traveling at 98% of the speed of light is about
five times longer, in agreement with observations.
An example is Rossi and Hall (1941), who
compared the population of cosmic-ray-
produced muons at the top of a mountain to that
observed at sea level.[23]

 The lifetime of particles produced in particle

accelerators appears longer due to time dilation. In
such experiments the "clock" is the time taken by
processes leading to muon decay, and these
processes take place in the moving muon at its own
"clock rate", which is much slower than the
laboratory clock. This is routinely taken into account
in particle physics, and many dedicated
measurements have been performed. For instance,
in the muon storage ring at CERN the lifetime of
muons circulating with γ = 29.327 was found to be
dilated to 64.378 μs, confirming time dilation to an
accuracy of 0.9 ± 0.4 parts per thousand.[24]
Proper time and Minkowski diagram[edit]
Minkowski diagram and twin paradox

Clock C in relative motion between two synchronized clocks A

and B. C meets A at d, and B at f.
 Twin paradox. One twin has to change frames, leading to
different proper times in the twin's world lines.

In the Minkowski diagram from the first image on the

right, clock C resting in inertial frame S′ meets clock A
at d and clock B at f (both resting in S). All three clocks
simultaneously start to tick in S. The worldline of A is
the ct-axis, the worldline of B intersecting f is parallel to
the ct-axis, and the worldline of C is the ct′-axis. All
events simultaneous with d in S are on the x-axis, in S′
on the x′-axis.
The proper time between two events is indicated by a
clock present at both events.[25] It is invariant, i.e., in all
inertial frames it is agreed that this time is indicated by
that clock. Interval df is therefore the proper time of
clock C, and is shorter with respect to the coordinate
times ef=dg of clocks B and A in S. Conversely, also
proper time ef of B is shorter with respect to time if in S
′, because event e was measured in S′ already at
time i due to relativity of simultaneity, long before C
started to tick.
From that it can be seen, that the proper time between
two events indicated by an unaccelerated clock present
at both events, compared with the synchronized
coordinate time measured in all other inertial frames, is
always the minimal time interval between those events.
However, the interval between two events can also
 correspond to the proper time of accelerated clocks
present at both events. Under all possible proper times
between two events, the proper time of the
unaccelerated clock is maximal, which is the solution to
the twin paradox.[25]
Derivation and formulation[edit]

Lorentz factor as a function of speed (in natural units where c =

1). Notice that for small speeds (less than 0.1), γ is approximately
1.

In addition to the light clock used above, the formula for

time dilation can be more generally derived from the
temporal part of the Lorentz transformation.[26] Let there
be two events at which the moving clock
indicates  and , thus
.
Since the clock remains at rest in its inertial frame,
it follows , thus the interval  is given by
where Δt is the time interval between two co-
local events (i.e. happening at the same place)
for an observer in some inertial frame (e.g. ticks
on their clock), known as the proper time, Δt′ is
the time interval between those same events,
as measured by another observer, inertially
moving with velocity v with respect to the former
observer, v is the relative velocity between the
observer and the moving clock, c is the speed
of light, and the Lorentz factor (conventionally
denoted by the Greek letter gamma or γ) is
Thus the duration of the clock cycle of a
moving clock is found to be increased: it is
measured to be "running slow". The range of
such variances in ordinary life,
where v ≪ c, even considering space travel,
are not great enough to produce easily
detectable time dilation effects and such
vanishingly small effects can be safely
ignored for most purposes. It is only when
an object approaches speeds on the order
of 30,000 km/s (1/10 the speed of light) that
time dilation becomes important.[27]
Hyperbolic motion[edit]
Main article: Hyperbolic motion (relativity)
In special relativity, time dilation is most
simply described in circumstances where
relative velocity is unchanging.
Nevertheless, the Lorentz equations allow
one to calculate proper time and movement
in space for the simple case of a spaceship
which is applied with a force per unit mass,
relative to some reference object in uniform
(i.e. constant velocity) motion, equal
to g throughout the period of measurement.
Let t be the time in an inertial frame
subsequently called the rest frame. Let x be
a spatial coordinate, and let the direction of
the constant acceleration as well as the
spaceship's velocity (relative to the rest
frame) be parallel to the x-axis. Assuming
the spaceship's position at time t =
0 being x = 0 and the velocity being v0 and
defining the following abbreviation
the following formulas hold:[28]
Position:
Velocity:
Proper time as function of
coordinate time:
In the case where v(0) = v0 =
0 and τ(0) = τ0 = 0 the integral
 can be expressed as a
logarithmic function or,
equivalently, as an inverse
hyperbolic function:
As functions of the proper
time  of the ship, the
following formulae hold:[29]
Position:
Velocity:
Coordinate time as
function of proper
time:
Clock
hypothesis[
edit]
The clock
hypothesis is
the assumption
that the rate at
which a clock is
affected by
time dilation
does not
depend on its
acceleration
but only on its
instantaneous
velocity. This is
equivalent to
stating that a
clock moving
along a
path  measures
the proper
time, defined
by:
.
The clock
hypothesis
was
implicitly
(but not
explicitly)
included in
Einstein's
original
1905
formulation
of special
relativity.
Since then,
it has
become a
standard
assumption
and is
usually
included in
the axioms
of special
relativity,
especially
in the light
of
experiment
al
verification
up to very
high
acceleration
s in particle
accelerator
s.[30][31]

Gravita
tional
time
dilation
[edit]
Main
article: Gra
vitational
time
dilation
 Time
passes
more
quickly
further
from a
center of
gravity, as
is
witnessed
with
massive
objects
(like the
Earth)

Gravitationa
l time
dilation is
experience
d by an
observer
that, at a
certain
altitude
within a
gravitational
potential
well, finds
that their
local clocks
measure
less
elapsed
time than
identical
clocks
situated at
higher
altitude
(and which
are
therefore at
higher
gravitational
potential).
Gravitationa
l time
dilation is at
play e.g. for
ISS
astronauts.
While the
astronauts' 
relative
velocity slo
ws down
their time,
the reduced
gravitational
influence at
their
location
speeds it
up,
although at
a lesser
degree.
Also, a
climber's
time is
theoretically
passing
slightly
faster at the
top of a
mountain
compared
to people at
sea level. It
has also
been
calculated
that due to
time
dilation,
the core of
the Earth is
2.5 years
younger
than
the crust.[32] 
"A clock
used to
time a full
rotation of
the earth
will
measure
the day to
be
approximat
ely an extra
10 ns/day
longer for
every km of
altitude
above the
reference
geoid."[33] Tr
avel to
regions of
space
where
extreme
gravitational
time dilation
is taking
place, such
as near
a black
hole, could
yield time-
shifting
results
analogous
to those of
near-
lightspeed
space
travel.
Contrarily to
velocity
time
dilation, in
which both
observers
measure
the other as
aging
slower (a
reciprocal
effect),
gravitational
time dilation
is not
reciprocal.
This means
that with
gravitational
time dilation
both
observers
agree that
the clock
nearer the
center of
the
gravitational
field is
slower in
rate, and
they agree
on the ratio
of the
difference.
Experim
ental
testing[ed
it]
Main
article: Exp
erimental
testing of
time
dilation

 In
1959 Ro
bert
Pound a
nd Glen
A.
Rebka 
measur
ed the
very
slight gr
avitation
al
redshift i
n the
frequen
cy of
light
emitted
at a
lower
height,
where
Earth's
gravitati
onal
field is
relativel
y more
intense.
The
results
were
within
10% of
the
predictio
ns of
general
relativity
. In
1964,
 Pound
and J.
L.
Snider
measur
ed a
result
within
1% of
the
value
predicte
d by
gravitati
onal
time
dilation.
[34]
 (See 
Pound–
Rebka
experim
ent)
 In 2010
gravitati
onal
time
dilation
was
measur
ed at
the
earth's
surface
with a
height
differen
ce of
only one
meter,
using
optical
atomic
clocks.[22]
Combin
ed
effect of
velocity
and
gravitat
ional
time
dilation
[edit]

Daily time
dilation
(gain or
loss if
negative)
in
microseco
nds as a
function of
(circular)
orbit
radius r = r
s/re,
where rs is
satellite
orbit radius
and re is
the
equatorial
Earth
radius,
calculated
using the
Schwarzsc
hild metric.
At r ≈
1.497[Note
1]
 there is
no time
dilation.
Here the
effects of
motion and
reduced
gravity
cancel.
ISS
astronauts
fly below,
whereas
GPS and
geostation
ary
satellites
fly above.[1]
 Daily time
dilation
over
circular
orbit height
split into its
component
s

High-
accuracy
timekeeping
, low-Earth-
orbit
satellite
tracking,
and pulsar
timing are
applications
that require
the
consideratio
n of the
combined
effects of
mass and
motion in
producing
time
dilation.
Practical
 examples
include
the Internati
onal Atomic
Time stand
ard and its
relationship
with
the Barycen
tric
Coordinate
Time stand
ard used for
interplaneta
ry objects.
Relativistic
time dilation
effects for
the solar
system and
the earth
can be
modeled
very
precisely by
the Schwar
zschild
solution to
the Einstein
field
equations.
In the
Schwarzsch
ild metric,
the
interval  is
given by[36][37]
where
 is a small increment of proper time  (an interval that could be recorded on an
atomic clock),
 is a small increment in the coordinate  (coordinate time),
 are small increments in the three coordinates  of the clock's position,
 represents the sum of the Newtonian gravitational potentials due to the masses
in the neighborhood, based on their distances  from the clock. This sum includes
any tidal potentials.
The
coordi
nate
veloci
ty of
the
clock
is
given
by
The
coordinat
e time  is
the time
that
would be
read on a
hypotheti
cal
"coordina
te clock"
situated
infinitely
far from
all
gravitatio
nal
masses
(), and
stationary
in the
system of
coordinat
es (). The
exact
relation
between
the rate
of proper
time and
the rate
of
coordinat
e time for
a clock
with a
 radial
compone
nt of
velocity is
where
 is the radial velocity,
 is the escape speed,
,  and  are velocities as a percentage of speed of light c,
 is the Newtonian potential; hence  equals half the square of the escape speed.
The above eq
exact under th
assumptions o
Schwarzschild
reduces to vel
dilation equati
presence of m
absence of gra
reduces to gra
time dilation e
absence of mo
presence of gr
Experimen
testing[edit]

 Hafele and
1971,
flew caesiu
clocks eas
around the
commercia
compare th
time again
clock that r
the U.S. N
Observato
opposite e
into play. T
were expe
more quick
larger elap
than the re
since they
higher (we
gravitation
most of the
(c.f. Pound
experimen
contrasting
moving clo
expected t
slowly bec
speed of th
From the a
paths of ea
theory pred
flying clock
with refere
the U.S. N
Observato
have lost
40±23 nan
during the
and should
275±21 na
during the
Relative to
time scale
Naval Obs
flying clock
nanosecon
eastward t
273±7 nan
during the
(where the
represent s
deviation).
the Nationa
Laboratory
Kingdom re
limited rep
experimen
experimen
the origina
caesium cl
sent on a s
(London–W
D.C. return
clocks wer
accurate. T
results are
 the predict
relativity, w
uncertainty
measurem
 The Globa
System ca
considered
continuous
experimen
special and
relativity. T
clocks are
both specia
relativistic
effects as d
above, so
observed f
earth's sur
at the sam
clocks on t
the Earth.[4

 Physics

See also[e
 Length con
 Mass in sp

Footnotes
1. ^ Average tim
dependence o
inclination an
p.32). The r ≈
corresponds t
inclination of
satellites, whi

Reference
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a b c

(2003). "Rela
Positioning S
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 oi:10.12942/lr
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03.
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Einstein's Spe
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Early Interpre
Reading, Mas
Wesley. ISBN
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Genesis of th
Relativity  (PD
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Dynamical Th
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Elektrodynam
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Elektrodynam
Körper".  Anna
Physik. 322(1
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See also: Eng
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[1907],  "Die G
die elektroma
in bewegten K
Fundamental
Electromagne
Moving Bodie
der Gesellsch
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Universe: A g
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in 0.00458 se
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28). "A Trip F
Travel Agent:
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13. ^ Gott, J., Ric
Travel in Eins
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Physics. Spri
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(1996). Physi
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Ruth M. (2000
Space-times 
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An introductio
physics.  CRC
p.  54. ISBN 9
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2006. Springe
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Further
reading[ed
 Callender,
(2001). Int
Time. Icon
Books. ISB
84046-592
 Einstein, A
Elektrodyn
bewegter
Körper". A
Physik. 32
891. Bibco
.322..891E
/andp.1905
 Einstein, A
"Über die M
einer neue
des
Relativitäts
nalen der
Physik. 32
198. Bibco
.328..197E
/andp.1907
 Hasselkam
Mondry, E.
A. (1979).
Observatio
 Transversa
Shift". Zeit
Physik A. 2
155. Bibco
A.289..151
7/BF01435
 Ives, H. E.
R. (1938).
experimen
the rate of
clock". Jou
Optical So
America. 2
226. Bibco
A...28..215
4/JOSA.28
 Ives, H. E.
R. (1941).
experimen
the rate of
clock. II". J
Optical So
America. 3
374. Bibco
A...31..369
4/JOSA.31
 Joos, G. (1
"Bewegte
Bezugssys
Akustik. De
Effekt". Le
Theoretisc
Zweites Bu
ed.).
 Larmor, J.
dynamical
electric and
medium". P
Transactio
Royal Soci
205–300. B
e:1897RSP
L. doi:10.1
.0020. (thir
a series of
the same n
 Poincaré, H
théorie de
principe de
Réaction". 
Néerlanda
78.
 Puri, A. (20
"Einstein v
simple pen
formula: do
slow all
clocks?". P
Education.
431. Bibco
d..50..431P
8/0031-912
 Reinhardt,
(2007). "Te
relativistic
with fast op
clocks at d
velocities" 
Physics. 3
864. Bibco
h...3..861R
/nphys778
from the
original  (PD
07-12.
 Rossi, B.; H
(1941). "Va
Rate of De
Mesotrons
Momentum
Review. 59
223. Bibco
...59..223R
/PhysRev.5
 Weiss, M. 
time transf
satellites". 
Institute of
and Techn
Archived fr
original on
 Voigt, W. (
das Dopple
princip". N
von der Kö
Gesellscha
Wissensch
Göttingen.