Lecture 1A

Introduction to Rocks and Minerals

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to answer the following questions:

1. What is a mineral?
2. What are the main rock-forming minerals?
3. What are the different rock-forming mineral groups?
4. How to identify different minerals using diagnostic properties?
5. What are the main diagnostic properties of the major rock-forming minerals?
6. What is a rock?
7. How are rocks formed and transformed (rock cycle)?
8. What are the different types of rocks and their classification schemes?
 What is a Mineral
A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition
and a highly ordered atomic arrangement; it is usually formed by inorganic processes.
(ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA)

• Naturally occurring: Can not be strictly human-made or the result of human activity. Must be found somewhere in
nature. Most minerals form by inorganic processes but some, identical in all respects to inorganically formed minerals,
are produced by organic processes (for example, the calcium carbonate in the shells of clams or snails).
• Homogeneous solid: No liquids or gasses. Cannot be subdivided into simpler minerals. Not a mixture of other
minerals. At some small scale this often is the case.
• Definite, but not fixed composition: Made up of one or more of the naturally occurring elements. Composition is not
random. It can be defined by a chemical formula - expresses the identity and ratio of the atoms present (means that
atoms, or groups of atoms must occur in specific ratios).
• Ordered atomic arrangement / Crystalline structure: Atoms are internally arranged in a regular or specific pattern
that repeats in three dimensions. Minerals that have have same chemical composition but different structures are
referred to as polymorphs, e.g. graphite vs diamond
• Inorganic: Typically not just made by living organisms and not made of organic compounds (combinations of N, O, H,
and C).
 Rock vs Mineral and their Building Blocks
Atoms – The smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element

Elements – The building blocks of minerals

Minerals ‐ The building blocks of rocks

Rocks = solid aggregates of crystals (minerals) with some exceptions (e.g. volcanic glass and coal)
 Rock vs Minerals
• A rock is defined as a consolidated mixture of minerals: a mixture of minerals implies the presence of more than
one mineral grain, but not necessarily more than one type of mineral.
• A rock can be composed of only one type of mineral (e.g., limestone is commonly made up of just calcite), but
most rocks are composed of several different types of minerals. It is very important to understand the difference
between rocks and minerals.
• A rock can also include non-minerals, such as the organic matter within a coal bed, or within some shales
 Rock Forming Minerals
• Nearly 4000 minerals have are known to exist
• Rock‐forming minerals are those common minerals that make up most of the rocks of Earth’s crust. There are
only a few dozen members. And, there are only eight elements that make up 98.5% of the continental crust
(USGS 1967):
1. Oxygen – 46.6%
2. Silicon‐27.7%
3. Aluminum‐8.1%
4. Iron‐5%
5. Calcium‐3.6%
6. Sodium‐2.8%
7. Potassium‐ 2.6%
8. Magnesium‐2.1%.
 Rock Forming Minerals
The common rock-forming minerals are:
1. Feldspars
2. Quartz
3. Amphiboles
4. Micas
5. Olivine
6. Garnet
7. Calcite
8. Pyroxenes

Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals:”
1. Zircon
2. Monazite
3. Apatite
4. Titanite
5. Tourmaline
6. Pyrite and other opaques
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
The common rock-forming mineral groups are:
1. Silicates (ZxSiOx)
2. Non-silicates:
I. Carbonates (ZxCO3)
II. Sulfates (ZxSO4)
III. Sulfides (ZxSx)
IV. Oxides (ZxOx)
V. Chlorides (ZxClx)
VI. Native elements (Z) themselves
 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
1. Color:
• Can be very diagnostic (pyrite) or of little use (quartz). Use Munsell colour chart as a reference.

• Color is one of the most obvious properties of a mineral but it is often of limited diagnostic value,
especially in minerals that are not opaque. While many metallic and earthy minerals have distinctive
colors, translucent or transparent minerals can vary widely in color. Quartz, for example, can vary from
colorless to white to yellow to gray to pink to purple to black. On the other hand the colors of some
minerals, such as biotite (black) and olivine (olive green) can be distinctive.

• Never use color as a final diagnostic property -- check other properties before making an identification.
 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
2. Luster: Luster describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its surface. Is it shiny or dull:
does it look like a metal or like glass? E.g. Metallic (galena or pyrite), Vitreous (quartz), Waxy (chalcedony),
Pearly (talc), and Earthy (goethite)

• Metallic luster is indicative of a metal, such as steel or copper. They are both shiny and opaque, even when
looking at a thin edge. Many metallic minerals become dull or earthy when they are exposed to the elements
for a long time (like silver, they tarnish). To determine whether or not a mineral has a metallic luster,
therefore, you must look at a recently broken part of the mineral.

• Earthy luster looks like earth, or dirt. Like metallic minerals these are completely opaque, but dull. Again,
think of rust on iron or tarnish that forms on precious metals.

• Vitreous luster- is like that of glass, shiny and translucent to transparent.

• Waxy luster appears like paraffin, typically translucent but dull.

• Pearly luster have an appearance similar to a pearl– translucent and shiny but with a bit of light refraction,
producing a rainbow effect on the surface (similar to an oil slick).
 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
2. Luster:
 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
3. Hardness: resistance to being scratched. Use
Moh's Scale of Hardness (1-10). A relative scale,
not absolute.
• Can compare an unknown mineral to substances
of known hardness: Steel nail or knife blade (6-
6.5), Glass (5.5), Copper penny (3-3.5) and
Fingernail (2.5).

Moh’s Scale of Hardness

 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
4. Streak: color of the mineral in its powdered form
• Streak is helpful for identifying minerals with metallic or earthy luster, because (with a few exceptions) minerals with
nonmetallic luster generally have a colorless or white streak that is not diagnostic.
• Streak is obtained by scratching the mineral on an unpolished piece of white porcelain called a streak plate.
• Streak of a mineral is usually the same, no matter what the color of the mineral, streak is commonly more reliable
than color for identification.

The streak of this dark gray mineral (hematite), obtained by rubbing it

on the white streak plate is reddish brown
 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
5. Density: Weight per unit volume (gm/cc) Water has a value of one. Minerals range from 1.5 to 10+. Depends
on structure and composition.
6. Cleavage: Mineral breaks along one or more planar surfaces. Number and angle between them can be
diagnostic.
• Cleavage quality is described as perfect, good, and poor. Minerals with a perfect or excellent cleavage break easily along flat surfaces and
are easy to spot. Minerals with good cleavages do not have such well-defined cleavage planes and reflect less light. Poor- cleavages are
the toughest to recognize, but can be spotted by small flashes of light in certain positions.

• A perfect cleavage results in regular flat faces resembling growth faces such as in mica, or calcite. A less well developed cleavage is said to
be imperfect, or if very weak, a parting. If a fracture is irregular and results in a rough surface, it is hackly. If the irregular fracture
propagates as a single surface resulting in a shiny surface as in glass, the fracture is said to be conchoidal

Types of cleavage
common in minerals
with examples of
mineral
Diagnostic Properties of Minerals Crystal of quartz Sides
form a hexagonal prism
that is capped with
pyramid-like faces

6. Form: External shape of the mineral

• When a mineral begins to solidify, either due to the cooling of
molten material or due to precipitation from a solution,
microscopic crystals always form and grow. These tiny crystals
will continue to grow until they run out of space. At this point
their external shape will simply reflect the shape of the void
which they grew. If the growing crystal runs out of material
before it runs out of space, you will be left with a nicely shaped
crystal within an otherwise empty void such as a geode
Garnets usually form dodecahedral (12-sided) crystals with
• Some minerals commonly occur as well-developed crystals, rhombic faces
and their crystal forms are diagnostic.
• Crystals that commonly develop prism faces are said to have
a prismatic or columnar habit. Crystals that grow in fine
needles are acicular; crystals growing flat plates are tabular.
Crystals forming radiating sprays of needles or fibers
are stellate. Crystals forming parallel fibers are fibrous, and
crystals forming branching, tree-like growths are dendritic
Pyrite occurs as cubes or pyritohedrons (
 Diagnostic Properties of Minerals
7. Reactivity with acids: Carbonates react with HCl.
• When a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on calcite, it readily bubbles or effervesces, releasing carbon
dioxide

8. Striations: Plagioclase feldspar can be positively identified and distinguished from potassium feldspar by
the presence of very thin, parallel grooves called striations
• The grooves are present on only one of the two sets of cleavages and are best seen with a hand lens. They may
not be visible on all parts of a cleavage surface. Before you decide there are no striations, look at all parts of all
visible cleavage surfaces, moving the sample around as you look so that light is reflected from these surfaces at
different angles.

The thin veinlets seen in some potassium feldspars (left) should not be confused with striations in plagioclase (right). Striations are visible on
the upper surface of this sample of plagioclase
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
1. Silicates
• Most common mineral group
• Approximately 25 percent of all known minerals and 40
percent of the most common ones are silicates
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
• Contain the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
• Four oxygen atoms surrounding a much smaller silicon
atom
• Combines with other atoms/cations to form the various
silicate structures: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ or Al3+

From Left to right: Olivine, Pyroxene, Ampbhibole

 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
1. Silicates
• The silicates can be divided into six (6) groups according to structural configuration,
which arises from the sharing of one, two, three, or all oxygen ions of a tetrahedron:
1. Nesosilicates have isolated groups of SiO4,
2. Sorosilicates contain pairs of SiO4 tetrahedrons linked into Si2O7 groups.
3. Cyclosilicates also known as ring silicates are closed, ring-like silicates; the six-
fold variety has composition Si6O18.
4. Inosilicate are composed of infinite chains of tetrahedrons; single chains have
a unit composition of SiO3 or Si2O6, whereas double chains contain a silicon to
oxygen ratio of 4:11.
5. Phyllosilicates, or sheet silicates, are formed when three oxygen atoms are
shared with adjoining tetrahedrons. The resulting infinite flat sheets have unit
composition Si2O5.
6. Tectosilicates or framework silicates are structures where tetrahedrons share
all their oxygen ions resulting in an infinite three-dimensional network being
created with an SiO2 unit composition.
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
1. Silicates
• Common rock forming minerals that are silicates
include:
I. Olivine – independent tetrahedra
(Neosilicate). Fe- Mg Silicate
II. Pyroxene group – tetrahedra are arranged in
chains. Fe- Mg Silicate From Left to right: Olivine, Pyroxene, Ampbhibole
III. Amphibole group – tetrahedra are arranged
in double chains. Fe- Mg Silicate
IV. Micas – tetrahedra are arranged in sheets.
Two types of mica are biotite (dark and
contains Fe-Mg silicate) and muscovite (light
and contains K- silicate)

Mica
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups Feldspar

1. Silicates
• Groups based upon tetrahedral arrangement
V. Feldspars – Three-dimensional network of
tetrahedral. Most abundant group of
minerals in Earth’s crust.
VI. Quartz - Three-dimensional network of
tetrahedra
Quartz
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
2. Carbonates ZxCO3
• The main carbonate minerals are Calcite (CaCO3) and
Dolomite ((Ca,Mg)CO3)

2.1 Calcite
• Clear/Whitish to dark
• Streak – white
• Lustre - Vitreous
• Soluble in water
• Hardness = 3
• Cleavage - Perfect, rhombohedral, three
directions
• Occurs as a sedimentary/Meta Rock Mineral; Calcite
• Instant and obvious fizz from applying a drop of
HCL acid
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
2. Carbonates ZxCO3
• The main carbonate minerals are Calcite (CaCO3) and
Dolomite ((Ca,Mg)CO3)

2.2 Dolomite
• Clear/Whitish to dark
• Streak - white
• Soluble in water
• Hardness = 3
• Cleavage – Perfect, rhombohedral, three
directions
• Form - Hexagonal
• Occur as Sedimentary/Meta Rock Mineral
• Slow and no obvious fizz when 1 drop of HCL is Dolomite
applied to it
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
3. Sulphates ZxSO4
• Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O):
• Whitish/clear in colour
• Streak - white
• Soluble in water
• Lustre - Vitreous, silky,
• Hardness = 2
• One (1) main Cleavage direction
• Occur as a Sedimentary Rock Mineral;

Gypsum
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
3. Sulphates ZxSO4
• Barite (BaSO4):
• White or light color
• White streak
• Hardness = 3 – 3.5
• Cleavage - Very good, basal, prismatic
(3 cleavage directions)
• Lustre - Vitreous to pearly
• Form - Orthorhombic

Barite
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
4. Sulphides ZxSx
4.1 Galena (PbS)
• Silvery gray colour
• Streak – lead gray to black
• Luster – Metallic on fresh surface; dull on tarnished surface
• Cleavage - Perfect, cubic, three directions at right angles
• Hardness = 3‐4 Galena
• Hydrothermal Rock Mineral

4.2 Sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S) zinc sulphide with various amounts of iron

• Yellow, brown, black, red, green, white, colorless
• Streak - White to yellowish brown with an odor of sulphur
• Luster –Nonmetallic
• Cleavage - Perfect, dodecahedral, in six directions!
• Hardness = 3‐4;
• Hydrothermal Rock Mineral
Sphalerite on dolomite
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups Chalcopyrite

4. Sulphides ZxSx
4.3 Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
• “Fool’s gold” colour
• Streak – Greenish black
• Luster – Metallic
• Cleavage – No cleavage
• Hardness = 3‐4
• Hydrothermal Rock Mineral
Pyrite with
4.4 Pyrite (FeS2) “Fools Gold” hematite
• Fool’s gold” colour
• Streak – Greenish black to brownish black
• Luster – Metallic
• Cleavage – Breaks with a conchoidal fracture
• Hardness = 6.0 – 6.5
• Hydrothermal Rock Mineral
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
Magnetite
5. Oxides ZxOx : Magnetite, Hematite,
Limonite

5.1 Magnetite - Fe3O4

• Black to silver colour
• Streak – Black
• Luster – Metallic to submetallic
• Cleavage – No cleavage
• Hardness - 5 - 6.5
• Strongly Magnetic Hematite
• Ore of iron
• Found in Igneous, sedimentary and
Metamorphic Rocks.
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
5. Oxides ZxOx :
5.2 Hematite - Fe2O3
• Black to steel-gray to silver; red to reddish
brown to black
• Streak – Red to reddish brown
• Luster – Metallic, submetallic, earthy
• Cleavage – No cleavage
• Hardness - 5 - 6.5
• Found in Igneous, sedimentary and
Metamorphic Rocks.

Hematite
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
5. Oxides ZxOx :
5.3 Limonite (Fe2O3)(H2O):
• Yellowish brown to brown to black
• Streak – Yellowish brown
• Luster – Dull to earthy
• Cleavage – No cleavage
• Hardness - 1 – 5 based on degree of
weathering
• Iron Ore
• Found in Igneous, sedimentary and
Metamorphic Rocks.
Limonite
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
6. Chlorides ZxClx
• Halite (NaCl)
• Colorless or white when pure
• White Streak
• Vitreous luster
• Hardness = 3
• Cleavage - Perfect, cubic, three directions at right
angles
• Soluble in water
• Sedimentary Rock Mineral
• Easily displaced or flow to form traps and seals Halite
for oil and gas accumulations
 Rock Forming Mineral Groups
E
7. Native Elements Z
A. Diamond
B. Graphite
C. Copper
D. Gold
E. Silver
A B C D
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Feldspars: Alkali
Alkali Feldspar - Properties
Chemical Potassium aluminium silicate (K,Na)AlSi3O8) are rich in alkali metal ions
Composition
Colour Commonly pink to white
Luster Vitreous
Hardness 6.0 - 6.5 Alkali-feldspar (or Orthoclase)
(K+ and Na+ bearing)
Streak White
Specific Gravity 2.5 – 2.8
Cleavage Perfect in two directions. Cleavage planes usually intersect at or close to a 90
degree angle.
Form Stubby Prism
Diagnostic Features 2 cleavages at about 90°; Striations not present; can be pink, white (sometimes
green)
Plagioclase
(Na+ und Ca2+ bearing)
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Feldspars: Plagioclase
Plagioclase Feldspar - Properties
Chemical Sodium- or calcium-rich. Ranges from NaAlSi3O8 (Albite) to
Composition CaAl2Si2O8 (Anorthite)
Colour Generally white to grey. Also colorless, yellow, orange, pink, red, brown, black,
blue, green
Luster Vitreous Alkali-feldspar (or Orthoclase)
Hardness 6.0 – 6.5 (K+ and Na+ bearing)
Streak White
S.G. 2.6 – 2.8
Cleavage Perfect in two directions that intersect at approximately 90 degrees.
Form blocky to prismatic cleavable masses
Striations Striations often present on cleavage faces
Diagnostic 2 cleavages at about 90°; Striations (twinning) present unlike alkali feldspars; Plagioclase
Properties can be white to dark gray (Na+ und Ca2+ bearing)
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Quartz
Quartz - Properties
Chemical Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Composition
Colour Pure quartz is colourless, although the presence of impurities may give a range
of colours, such as violet, pink and orange
Luster Crystals are vitreous (glass-like), massive form is dull or waxy
Hardness 7
Streak White
Quartz
S.G. 2.6 – 2.65
Cleavage Conchoidal fracture. No cleavage
Form Hexagonal and prismatic
Striations Striations are uniquely perpendicular to the crystal length (unlike other striated
minerals that occurs lengthwise) and appear only on the prism faces.
Diagnostic Hexagonal crystals; No cleavage planes; Conchoidal Fracture; Hardness greater
Properties than glass (H=7 on Moh’s scale)
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Amphibole
Amphibole - Properties
Chemical Silicates: generally contain iron, magnesium, calcium and aluminium as well as
Composition silicon, oxygen, and water. Fe, Mg, and Al ions substitute freely for one another.
(Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2
Colour Dark green, dark brown, black
Luster Vitreous, opaque (pyroxenes are more dull)
Hardness 5-6
Streak White to Gray Hornblende
Density 3.0 – 3.4
Cleavage Good cleavage in 2 directions (124 and 56 degrees)
Form Prismatic or needle-like crystals
Diagnostic features Cleavage, color, elongate habit
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Micas - Biotite
Biotite - Properties
Chemical K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
Composition
Colour Dark Brown
Luster Vitreous
Hardness 2.5 – 3.0
Streak White to gray
Specific Gravity 2.7 – 3.4
Biotite
Cleavage 1 perfect cleavage
Form
Diagnostic features Hexagonal shape for biotite (vs elongated or needle-like for amphibole); soft (vs
amphibole and pyroxene - hard); dark brown to black colour vs dark green for
pyroxene; 1 perfect cleavage; faint yellow-brown streak.
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Micas - Muscovite
Muscovite - Properties
Chemical KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2
Composition
Colour Thick specimens often appear to be black, brown, or silver in color; thin sheets
of muscovite is colorless
Luster Pearly to vitreous
Hardness 2.5 - 3
Streak White
Specific Gravity 2.8 – 2.9
Cleavage 1 Perfect Cleavage
Muscovite
Form Monoclinic
Diagnostic features Cleavage, color, transparency
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Olivine
Olivine - Properties
Chemical Typically (Mg, Fe)2SiO4. Ca, Mn, and Ni rarely occupy the Mg and Fe positions.
Composition
Colour Usually olive green, but can be yellow-green to bright green
Luster Vitreous
Hardness 6.5 to 7
Streak Colorless
Olivine
Specific Gravity 3.2 to 4.4
Cleavage No cleavage; Conchoidal Fracture
Form Orthorhombic
Diagnostic Features Green color, vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture, granular texture
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Garnet
Garnet- Properties
Chemical X3Y2(SiO4)3 where X is either Fe 2+, Ca 2+, Mg 2+, Mn2 and Y is either
Composition Fe 3+, Al 3+, Cr 3+
Colour Typically red, but can be orange, green, yellow, purple, black, or brown
Luster Vitreous
Hardness 6.5 – 7.5
Streak Colourless
Specific Gravity 3.5 - 4.3
Garnet
Cleavage None
Form Twelve-sided crystals (diamond-shaped faces) or roughly spherical
crystals common [Isometric]
Diagnostic Features Hardness, specific gravity, isometric crystal form, lack of cleavage
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Calcite
Calcite - Properties
Chemical CaCO3
Composition
Colour Usually white but also colorless, gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,
orange
Luster Vitreous
Hardness 3.0
Streak White
Calcite
Specific Gravity 2.7
Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions
Form Hexagonal
Reactivity with acid Effervesces weakly in dilute HCl

Diagnostic Features Rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute

HCl, curved crystal faces and frequent twinning
 Properties of Major rock Forming Minerals
Pyroxenes
Pyroxenes - Properties
Chemical XYZ2O6 where X is one or combination of Ca, Na, Fe++, Mg, Zn, Mn, or Li; Y is
Composition one or combination of Mg, Fe+++, Fe++, Cr, Al, Co, Mn, Sc, Ti, or Vn; and Z is Si,
Al, or a combination of both
Colour Usually dark green to dark brown or black
Luster Vitreous to dull
Hardness 5-7
Streak White Pyroxene
Specific Gravity 3-4
Cleavage Most pyroxene minerals exhibit two directions of cleavage that intersect at
approximately 87o and 93o.
Form Monoclinic or orthorhombic
Diagnostic Features Stubby prismatic crystals. Angle of cleavage plane intersection.
Lecture 1B
Rocks
 Recap: Rock vs Minerals
• A rock is defined as a consolidated mixture of minerals: a mixture of minerals implies the presence of more than
one mineral grain, but not necessarily more than one type of mineral.
• A rock can be composed of only one type of mineral (e.g., limestone is commonly made up of just calcite), but
most rocks are composed of several different types of minerals. It is very important to understand the difference
between rocks and minerals.
• A rock can also include non-minerals, such as the organic matter within a coal bed, or within some shales
Lecture 2 Objectives
Students should be able to:
• Identify the parameters used to develop each classification system for Igneous, Sedimentary
and Metamorphic rocks
• Recall the main categories or classes of each Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.
• Recall the appearance of common igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and identify
their key descriptive features that can aid in their identification (e.g. their colour, texture and
mineralogical composition)
Types of Rocks
There are three main types of rocks:
1. Igneous – Formed from the cooling of magma
2. Sedimentary – Formed from the aggregation of weathered fragments of other rocks over time due to
compression and cementation
3. Metamorphic – Formed by the alteration of a pre-existing rock either by heat, pressure and/or chemical
action
 Rock Cycle
• The Law of Conservation of Matter – Matter cannot be
created nor destroyed, it can only change from one form to
another
• The materials that make up the rocks of the crust are slowly
but constantly being changed from one form to another.
• Magma can either cool slowly (over centuries to millions of
years) within the crust—forming intrusive igneous rock, or
erupt onto the surface and cool quickly (within seconds to
years)— forming extrusive igneous rock.
• Through the various processes of mountain building, all types
of rocks are uplifted and exposed at surface. They are
weathered, both physically and chemically, and the
weathering products are eroded, transported and then
deposited as sediments.
• The sediments are buried and compressed and become
hardened and cemented into sedimentary rock.
• Rocks buried deep within the earth are subjected to plate
tectonic forces where temperature and pressure increases are
so significant that the minerals are chemically altered to form
metamorphic rocks. If the heat is sufficient, part or all of the
rock may melt into magma.
 Igneous Rocks
• At temperatures of well over 1000º C magma will be entirely
liquid because there is too much energy for anything to bond
together. As the temperature drops moving outward of the
crust, crystals will start to form. The minerals that make up
igneous rocks crystallize at various different temperatures.
This explains why a cooling magma can have some crystals
within it, and yet remain predominantly liquid.
• The sequence in which minerals crystallize from a magma is
known as the Bowen Reaction Series.
• It’s called the Bowen Reaction Series because once a mineral
has crystallized it may continue to react with the remaining
magma to form different minerals. For example, as the
temperature drops the olivine crystals might combine (react)
with silica left in the magma to form pyroxene, and pyroxene
may later combine with more silica to form amphibole
• Of the common silicate minerals, olivine normally crystallizes
first. Olivine is followed by pyroxene, then amphibole and
then biotite mica. At about the point where pyroxene begins
to crystallize the plagioclase feldspars also begin to
crystallize. Calcium-rich plagioclase (anorthite) has the
highest melting point, and the more sodium-rich plagioclases
have lower melting points.
Igneous Rocks

Diagram Showing the processes that contributes to the formation of different types of Igneous Rocks
 Classification of Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks are classified according to their texture and their composition.
• In describing texture we are generally referring to the average size of the mineral grains present, but other important
characteristics include the relative sizes (i.e., whether a mineral is present in large grains relative to other minerals)
and the presence or absence of cavities.
• Intrusive igneous rocks are generally crystalline (i.e., phaneritic and more rarely pegmatitic) because they have had a
long time to cool
• Intrusive porphyritic textures are formed in cases where some minerals have crystallized from a magma over a long
period, and then the magma is pushed up closer to surface where the surrounding rock is cooler and the remaining
crystals form quite quickly and are smaller.
• Extrusive (i.e., volcanic) rocks can be glassy, aphanitic, porphyritic or pyroclastic
 Classification of
Igneous Rocks
Textures

Pegmatitic Texture
 Classification of Igneous rocks
Chemical Composition
• Felsic Rocks – These are light coloured rocks. They are dominated by the presence of feldspars (orthoclase and .or
Na-rich plagioclase) and silicates. Low density. Silica content is more than two thirds of the rock e.g. granite
/rhyolite
• Intermediate Rocks – These are found between felsic and mafic rocks in terms of their darkness or lightness in
colour. Dominated by plagioclase feldspars. Intermediate density. E.g. diorite - andesite
• Mafic Rocks – These are darker coloured rocks. Dominated by plagioclase feldspars and ferromagnesian minerals
(magnesium and iron). Felsic content is less than a half of the rock composition. E.g. gabbro - basalt
• Ultramafic rocks – Very dark coloured. Dominated by pyroxene or olivine, and may contain a small amount of
calcium-rich plagioclase. Silica content is less than 45% E.g. peridotite
 Classification of Igneous Rocks
Based on Chemical Composition and
textures
 Examples of Igneous Rocks
The most common igneous rocks are:
1. Granite
2. Gabbro
3. Basalt
4. Dolerite
5. Diorite
 Examples of Igneous Rocks
Granite
• Granite is common type of intrusive(Plutonic rocks)
• It is light in color with pink to grey in color
• This rock mainly consists of Quartz, feldspar and mica
 Examples of Igneous Rocks
Gabbro
• It is coarse grained, intrusive mafic Igneous rock which
is chemically equivalent to basalt.
• It is dark in color with grey to black.
• It is used as road material and concrete aggregate
 Examples of Igneous Rocks
Basalt
• Basalt is common Extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock
formed by the rapid cooling of Lava.
• It is usually grey to black in color.
• It has fine-grained mineral texture.
 Examples of Igneous Rocks
Dolerite
• Dolerite is mafic, holocrystalline, subvolcanic rock.
• It is also know as diabase.
• It has dark brown color.
 Examples of Igneous rocks
Diorite
• Diorite is an Intrusive Igneous rock.
• It is grey to dark grey in color. It can also be black or
bluish grey.
• It is extremely hard rock.
• Its hardness allows it to be worked finely and take a
high polish, and to provide a durable finished work.
Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are formed from the fragments of pre-existing rocks.
• They contribute about 8% to the total volume of the crust
 Processes Involved In Forming Sedimentary
Rocks
1. Sediment generation
2. Sediment transport
3. Sediment deposition
4. Lithification (Compaction
and cementation)
 Processes Involved in Forming Sedimentary
Rocks
• The process of lithification is ultimately responsible for the formation of the rock
 Compaction is the process that involves the squeezing out of air and water from the voids within the rock.
• Sediments are deposited layers upon layers which result in increased stress in underlying sediments
(increased pressure).
• This pressure results in small sediments being stuck together.
• Larger sediments requires sedimentation
 Cementation is the process whereby minerals are precipitated in the pore spaces between fragments that
leads to their hardening and welding. Common cementing minerals include silica, calcite and hematite.
• As water moves through soil and rock, it picks up materials released from minerals during weathering.
• The resulting solution of water and dissolved materials moves through open spaces between sediments
cementing them together.
 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
• The first step to sedimentary rock classification is to identify its sediment type.
• If the sediment is largely composed of silicate minerals (quartz, feldspar etc.), it is classified as a siliciclastic
sedimentary rock. Any sedimentary rock that contains the remains of animals (almost always marine animals) is
called a biochemical sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks that are produced through chemical precipitation from
water are called chemical sedimentary rocks. If the rock contains plant remains, it is an organic sedimentary rock
• The next step in sedimentary rock classification is to identify the dominant particle size of the sediment that makes up the
rock
• Biochemical and chemical sedimentary rocks are also classified according to their grain size, but the rules are not a strict
as they are for the siliciclastic rocks.
• In general, any rock that is composed of CaCO3 is called a limestone, but there are different types of limestones.
Limestone composed of gravel-sized shell/skeletal fragments are called fossiliferous (mixed components) or coquina
(just shells). Limestone composed of mud-sized sediment is generally called chalk. The chemical sedimentary rocks
are usually just named after the dominant mineral (e.g., halite, gypsum etc.), but beware, most chemical sedimentary
rocks are not pure minerals. For example, the sylvite that you will see in lab contains a lot of halite too.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
A. Sediments and sedimentary rocks are grouped into five main subdivisions:
1. Detrital / clastic—rocks made up of material produced by mechanical means and transported as solid
particles (i.e., fragments), e.g. shale, siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate, breccia, etc.
2. Carbonates – These are both biogenic and biochemical. They are formed from the activity of living
organisms or their remains and includes plants or animals of carbonates (mainly calcium carbonate)
and their skeletons. They may also be formed by organically influenced precipitation as seen in
chemical rocks. Diagenetic alteration can also lead to formation of dolomite
3. Organic - rocks composed of materials formed by the activity of living organisms such as the fixing of
carbon or phosphatic compounds by plants and animals (e.g. phosphates) and the accumulation of
dead plant or animal material, e.g. coal (compacted undecayed plant matter).
4. Chemical—rocks made up of material that has been transported in solution, e.g. limestone, chert,
evaporates (anhydrite, rock salt), gypsum, etc.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
5. Volcaniclastics - Clastic rocks and sediments with mostly volcanic-derived clasts, containing at least
25% by volume of pyroclastic fragments, e.g ignimbrites, tuffs, volcaniclastic sandstones, etc. The
dominant processes involved are the eruption of volcanic material and the transport and
deposition by volcanic processes
• Detrital sedimentary are the most abundant by far.

B. Sedimentary rocks can also be classified based on the site or environment of sediment deposition:
1. Continental or terrestrial – deposited on land or continents
2. Marine – deposited in oceans
Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Detrital
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Detrital
1. Breccia
• Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock that is
composed of large (over two-millimeter
diameter) angular fragments.
• The spaces between the large fragments can
be filled with a matrix of smaller particles or a
mineral cement which binds the rock
together.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Detrital
2. Conglomerate
• Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock
that contains large (greater than two
millimeters in diameter) rounded particles.
• The space between the pebbles is generally
filled with smaller particles and/or a chemical
cement that binds the rock together.
• The specimen shown above is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Detrital
3. Sandstone
• Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock made
up mainly sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimeter
diameter) weathering debris.
• Environments where large amounts of sand
can accumulate include beaches, deserts,
flood plains, and deltas.
• The specimen shown above is about two
inches (five centimeters) across
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Detrital
4. Siltstone
• Siltstone is a sedimentary rock composed
mainly of silt-sized particles ( 1/256 to 1/16
mm).
• Formed mostly in fluvial, aeolian, tidal,
coastal, lacustrine, deltaic, glacial, paludal,
and shelf environments.
• A simple test to determine whether a rock is a
siltstone is to put the rock to one’s teeth. If
the rock feels “gritty” against one's teeth,
then it is a siltstone.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Detrital
5. Shale
• Shale is a clastic sedimentary rock that is made
up of clay-size (less than 1/256 millimeter in
diameter) weathering debris.
• Shale is distinguished from other mudstones
because it is fissile and laminated.
"Laminated" means that the rock is made up
of many thin layers. "Fissile" means that the
rock readily splits into thin pieces along the
laminations
• Shale breaks into thin pieces with sharp
edges. It occurs in a wide range of colors that
include red, brown, green, gray, and black
• The specimen shown above is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Carbonates
1. Limestone
• Limestone is a rock that is composed primarily of calcium carbonate.
• Limestone is by definition a rock that contains at least 50% calcium
carbonate in the form of calcite by weight. All limestones contain at
least a few percent other materials. These can be small particles
of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, pyrite, siderite, and other minerals.
It can also contain large nodules of chert, pyrite, or siderite
• It most commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow marine waters
• It can form organically from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal,
and fecal debris. It can also form chemically from the precipitation of
calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water.
• Limestone is used in many ways. Some of the most common are:
production of cement, crushed stone, and acid neutralization.
• The specimen shown adjacent is about two inches (five centimeters)
across.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Carbonates
2. Dolomite
• Dolomite (also known as "dolostone" and
"dolomite rock") is a chemical sedimentary
rock that is very similar to limestone.
• It is thought to form when limestone or lime
mud is modified by magnesium-rich ground
water.
• Dolomite and limestone are very similar rocks.
They share the same color ranges of white-to-
gray and white-to-light brown (although other
colors such as red, green, and black are
possible). They are approximately the same
hardness, and they are both soluble in dilute
hydrochloric acid.
• The specimen shown adjacent is about four
inches (ten centimeters) across.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Organic
1. Coal
• Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that
forms mainly from plant debris.
• The plant debris usually accumulates in a
swamp environment.
• Coal is combustible and is often mined for
use as a fuel.
• The specimen shown adjacent is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Organic
1. Coal
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Organic
2. Phosphate
• Rock consisting of high phosphorous content
of between 5 and 50% of its volume e.g
apatite
• The phosphates may be derived from a
variety of sources, including marine
invertebrates that secrete shells of
calcium phosphate, and the bones and
excrement of vertebrates.
• The phosphorite is usually carbonaceous and
pelletal, and it is mixed with skeletal matter
and phosphatic shells.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Organic
3. Oil Shale
• Oil shale is a fine grained sedimentary rock formed
from the compaction and heating of organic rich
sediments and containing significant amounts of
kerogen.
• Formation of oil shale has occurred in a number of
environments, from fresh to saline lakes, marine
basins, and in some swamps usually in association
with coal deposits.
• In some ways, oil shale may seem similar to coal,
but in fact differs greatly in composition. Oil shale
may contain between 60 and 90% mineral matter
(non-organic), while coal will contain, by definition,
less than 40%.
• Oil shale usually meets the definition of "shale" in
that it is "a laminated rock consisting of at least
67% clay minerals." However, it sometimes
contains enough organic material and carbonate
minerals that clay minerals account for less than
67% of the rock
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Chemical
1. Rock salt / halite
• Rock Salt is a chemical sedimentary rock that
forms from the evaporation of ocean or saline
lake waters
• It is rarely found at Earth's surface, except in
areas of very arid climate.
• It is often mined for use in the chemical
industry or for use as a winter highway
treatment.
• Some halite is processed for use as a
seasoning for food.
• The specimen shown adjacent is about two
inches (five centimeters) across
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Chemical
2. Chert
• Chert is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline
sedimentary rock material composed of
silicon dioxide (SiO2).
• It occurs as nodules and concretionary
masses, and less frequently as a layered
deposit.
• It breaks with a conchoidal fracture, often
producing very sharp edges.
• Early people took advantage of how chert
breaks and used it to fashion cutting tools
and weapons.
• The specimen shown adjacent is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Chemical
3. Flint
• Flint is a hard, tough, chemical or biochemical
sedimentary rock that breaks with a
conchoidal fracture.
• It is a form of microcrystalline quartz that is
typically called “chert” by geologists. It often
forms as nodules in sedimentary rocks such
as chalk and marine limestones
 Types of Sedimentary Rocks - Volcaniclastic
1. Tuff or Ignimbrites
• Tuff is an volcaniclastic rock that forms from the products of
an explosive volcanic eruption. In these eruptions, the volcano
blasts rock, ash, magma and other materials from its vent. This
ejecta travels through the air and falls back to Earth in the area
surrounding the volcano. If the ejected material is compacted
and cemented into a rock, that rock will be called "tuff."
• Tuff is usually thickest near the volcanic vent and decreases in
thickness with distance from the volcano. Instead of being a
"layer," a tuff is usually a "lens-shaped" deposit. Tuff can also
be thickest on the downwind side of the vent or on the side of
the vent where the blast was directed.
• Tuff can contain fragments of dust-size particles to boulder-size
particles and be composed of many different types of material
 Classification of Sandstones
• Sandstones are usually classified on the basis of their composition (mineralogical content) and texture (matrix
content) using the QFL Ternary diagram that utilizes the content of Quartz, Feldspars and Lithics for framework
grains and a major division based on the relative amount of matrix
• Sandstones are first subdivided into two major textural groups:
1. Arenites - consist of a sand size framework component surrounded by pore spaces that are either empty
(arenite sands) or filled with crystalline chemical cement (arenites)
2. Wackes- consist of a sand-size framework component floating in a finer-grained pasty matrix of grains finer
than 0.03 millimeter whose overall abundance exceeds 15 percent by volume.
 Classification of Sandstones
• Quartz arenites are rocks whose sand grains
consist of at least 95 percent quartz. If the sand
grains consist of more than 25 percent feldspar
(and feldspar grains are in excess of rock
fragments), the rock is termed arkosic arenite
or “arkose,” although such sandstones are also
somewhat loosely referred to as feldspathic
sandstones. In subarkosic arenite
(or subarkose), feldspar sand grains likewise
exceed rock fragments but range in abundance
from 5 to 15 percent.
• Lithic arenites have rock fragments that exceed
feldspar grains; the abundance of rock
fragments is greater than 25 percent. Sublithic
arenites likewise contain more rock fragments
than feldspar, but the amount of rock
fragments is lower, ranging from 5 to 25
percent.
• Sands and sandstones with less than 15% Pettijohn
matrix are called arenites and those with more Classification
than 15% are called wacke. Sediments with System
over 75% muddy matrix are called mudrock
 Classification of Carbonates
 The main components of carbonate sediments are their grains (ooids, intraclasts and bioclasts) and micrite mud.
• Bioclasts are those clasts originating from skeletal material of organisms (either whole or broken skeletons)
• Intraclasts are fragments of groups of grains of carbonate grains that are lightly cemented together
• Ooids are small (less than 2mm) near-spherical carbonate grains with a pronounced concentric structure
 The most widely used and updated classification scheme are the Dunham Classification Scheme (1962) and the Folk
Classification Scheme (1959/62)
 Folk divides carbonate rocks on the basis of the clast types and the presence of matric or cement. Carbonate rocks
with a micrite matrix are given the suffix - micrite whereas those with crystalline (“Spary”) cement are given the
suffix- sparite. Thus a rock composed of bioclasts in a micrite matrix is a bio-micrite. If it contains little or no matric
but has a sparry cement, it is a bio-sparite.
 Classification of Carbonates
 Dunham concentrates on the primary grain and matrix texture and ignores cement.
• Carbonates consisting only of grains and cement with no matric are known as grainstones. Those with some
matrix, but with a clast supported fabric are called packstones, whilst those with a matrix –supported fabrix are
wackestones.
• Carbonates consisting mainly of micrite, with less than 15% grains, are known as mudstones.
Classification of Carbonates - Folk
Classification of Carbonates - Dunham
 Metamorphic
Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are formed through the
transformation of existing rocks due to
increased temperature and pressure
beneath the earth’s surface
• The original rock that has undergone
metamorphism is called the protolith
• Profound physical and chemical changes to
the rocks when temperatures and pressures
exceed 1500C and 1500 bars respectively.
• At ~5km the temperature is ~150°C this is
the point at which diagenesis ends
(pressure 300Mpa) and metamorphism
begins
• The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at
the pressure and temperature of wet partial
melting of the rock in question. Once
melting begins, the process changes to an
igneous process rather than a metamorphic
process
Metamorphic Rocks
 Types of Metamorphism
Metamorphism can take place in several different environments where special conditions exist in terms of pressure,
temperature, stress, conditions, or chemical environments. Several types of metamorphism exists with some of the key
ones identified below.
1. Contact Metamorphism
• Refers to when rocks are in close proximity to magma (igneous intrusions) and be subjected to extreme
temperature
2. Regional Metamorphism
• Refers to when a large volume of rock is buried over a large area in the crust and subjected to elevated
temperature and pressure resulting in deformation from differential stress (tectonic forces).
3. Dynamic Metamorphism
• This type of metamorphism is due to mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock slide past one
another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along the zone, and the rocks tend to
crushed and pulverized due to the sliding. Dynamic metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a
narrow zone along which the sliding occurred. The rock that is produced is called a mylonite.
 Types of Metamorphism
4. Hydrothermal Metamorphism
• Near oceanic ridges where the oceanic crust is broken up by extensional faults, sea water can descend along
the cracks. Since oceanic ridges are areas where new oceanic crust is created by intrusion and eruption of
basaltic magmas, these water-rich fluids are heated by the hot crust or magma and become hydrothermal
fluids. The hydrothermal fluids alter the basaltic oceanic crust by producing hydrous minerals like chlorite and
talc.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamoprhic Rocks are generally classified based on the presence or absence of structures. Further delineation of
sub-types are made based on the presence of chief minerals and/or texture
• There are two major subdivisions of metamorphic rocks:
1. Foliated
• These have a planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation (alignment) of minerals and formed under
differential stress. They have a significant amount of sheet silicate (platy minerals and are classified by
composition, grain size, and foliation type.
2. Non- Foliated
• These have no evident planar fabric or foliation, crystallized under conditions where there was no differential
stress, and are comprised of equant minerals only (absence of platy minerals – sheet silicates).
• They may also be formed relatively near the surface with very little pressure at all. These are classified mainly
by the minerals present or the chemical composition of the protolith.
• Non-foliated rocks are given specific names based on their mineralogy and composition
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
• The various types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or intensity of metamorphism and the
type of foliation are:
I. Slate
II. Phyllite
III. Schist
IV. Gneiss

V. Granulite
VI. Migmatite
• V and VI are formed from Plutonic Metamorphism whereby temperature and pressure conditions are exceedingly
high whilst I-IV are formed under regional metamorphism
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
I. Slate
• Slates form at low metamorphic grade
by the growth of fine grained chlorite
and clay minerals.
• The preferred orientation of these sheet
silicates causes the rock to easily break
along the planes parallel to the sheet
silicates, causing a slatey cleavage.
• Because of the nearly perfect breakage
along planes, slates are useful for
blackboards and shingles.
• Note that in the lower adjacent figure,
the maximum stress is applied at an
angle to the original bedding planes, so
that the slatey cleavage has developed
at an angle to the original bedding.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
II. Phyllite
• Fine mica-rich rock, formed by low –
medium grade metamorphism.
• In a phyllite, the clay minerals have
recrystallized into tiny micas (biotite and
muscovite which reflect a satiny luster.
• Phyllite is between slate and schist.
• Phyllite is similar to slate, but has
typically been heated to a higher
temperature; the micas have grown
larger and are visible as a sheen on the
surface. Where slate is typically planar,
phyllite can form in wavy layers
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
III. Schist
• The size of the mineral grains tends to
enlarge with increasing grade of
metamorphism. Eventually the rock
develops a near planar foliation caused
by the preferred orientation of sheet
silicates (mainly biotite and muscovite).
• Quartz and Feldspar grains, however
show no preferred orientation.
• The irregular planar foliation at this
stage is called schistosity
• Schist often has other minerals besides
micas. These include minerals like -
Quartz, Feldspars, Kyanite, Garnet,
Staurolite, and Sillimanite.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
IV. Gneiss
• As metamorphic grade increases, the
sheet silicates become unstable and dark
colored minerals like hornblende and
pyroxene start to grow.
• These dark colored minerals tend to
become segregated in distinct bands
through the rock, giving the rock a gneissic
banding.
• Because the dark colored minerals tend to
form elongated crystals, rather than sheet-
like crystals, they still have a preferred
orientation with their long directions
perpendicular to the maximum differential
stress.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
V. Granulite
• At the highest grades of metamorphism all
of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicates
become unstable and thus there are few
minerals present that would show a
preferred orientation. The resulting rock
will have a granulitic texture that is similar
to a phaneritic texture in igneous rocks.
• At the upper limit of the
facies, migmatite formation may occur
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks
VI. Migmatite
• If the temperature reaches the solidus
temperature (first melting temperature),
the rock may begin to melt and start to co-
mingle with the solids. Usually these melts
are felsic with the mafic material
remaining metamorphic.
• At this point, the rock is considered to
include both igneous and metamorphosed
material.
• Migmatites have a gneissose, streaked and
irregular structure as a result of the mixing
between magmatic and metamorphic
materials.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Non-Foliated Rocks
I. Amphibolite
• These rocks are dark colored rocks with
amphibole (usually hornblende) as their
major mineral and very little quartz.
• They are usually poorly foliated and form
at intermediate to high grades of
metamorphism of basaltic or gabbroic
protoliths.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Non-Foliated Rocks
II. Hornfels
• These are very fine-grained rocks that
usually form as a result of magma
intruding into fined-grained igneous rocks
or shales. The magma causes a type of
metamorphism called contact
metamorphism.
• They have no definite chemical
composition
• Hornfels is a rock that was "baked" while
near a heat source such as a magma
chamber, sill, or dike.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Non-Foliated Rocks
III. Quartzite
• A rock made up almost entirely of quartz.
• They are formed by metamorphism of
quartz arenites (sandstones). Since quartz
is stable over a large range of
temperatures and pressures, no new
minerals are formed during
metamorphism, and the only
metamorphic effect that occurs is
recrystallization of the quartz resulting in
interlocking crystals that make up a very
hard rock.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Non-Foliated Rocks
IV. Marble
• A limestone or dolostone made up only of
calcite or dolomite will metamorphose to
a marble which is made mostly
recrystallized calcite or dolomite.
• The Recrystallization usually obliterates all
fossils.
• Marbles have a variety of colors and are
often complexly banded. They are
commonly used as a decorative stone.
 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Non-Foliated Rocks
V. Soapstone
• Consists primarily of talc with varying
amounts of other minerals such as
micas, chlorite, amphiboles, pyroxenes,
and carbonates. It is a soft, dense, heat-
resistant rock that has a high specific
heat capacity.
• These properties make it useful for a
wide variety of architectural, practical,
and artistic uses.
End
Lecture 3
Geological Time
Learning Objectives
Students should be able to:
1. Understand the basis upon which the divisions of geological time are classified
2. Recall the major geological and life events that occurred throughout the earth’s history
3. Understand the different techniques and geological principles utilized in relative age dating
4. Decipher the geochronology of strata using geological principles of spatial relationship
5. Understand the concept of absolute age dating
6. Calculate the numerical age of a stratum using the principle of isotopic dating.
Introduction
• The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old
• The oldest rocks found on the Earth are about 4.1 billion years.
• The study of the evolution of the earth by geologists resulted in a common scheme being developed to track
major geological events over time
• Tracking geological events was achieved by using fossils in the 19th century to correlate rock units. Organisms
thrived, evolved and died off at specific periods during the earth’s history. Their presence in rocks allowed
for relative age dating of the rocks. (See slide 3)
• The oldest fossils are around 545 million years old
• Man has been around for ~100,000 years
Geological Time Divisions
1. Eons
• The primary defined divisions of time are eons which sequentially include the Hadean, the Archean, the
Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic. The first three of these can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian
Supereon.
• The rocks could be broken up into 2 divisions:
I. Those containing visible signs of life (e.g., fossils) and referred to as Phanerozoic (542 Million
years to the present)
II. Those devoid of life (e.g., pre-fossils) and referred to as the Precambrian (544 Million years and
older). Some Proterozoic rocks did in fact contain primitive life (bacteria and later on soft-
tissued organisms), but not beasties that produced skeletal remains
• The Precambrian (Archaean Archaean + Proterozoic Proterozoic) covers the first 85-88% of the geological
timescale.
• Precambrian rocks form the cores of the major continental plates
• Eons are divided into eras, which are in turn divided into periods, epochs and ages.
Geological Time Divisions
2. Eras
• Eras are named for the degree to which life is similar to life today:
I. Paleozoic‐ "ancient life"; life very different from today (Cambrian – Permian)
II. Mesozoic‐ "middle life"; life between ancient and recent (Triassic‐ Cretaceous)
III. Cenozoic‐ "recent life; life resembles today's fauna and flora. (Tertiary‐Quaternary)
• The eras of the Precambrian utilizes the prefixes of Paleo, Meso and Neo and give rise to the terms
Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean, Neoarchean, Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic.
Geological Time Divisions
3. Periods
• Periods are time unit based on faunal assemblage/place
• These were named based on the places where a rock units contain a distinct faunal assemblage. For
example, the Cambrian is named based on the old Roman name for Wales = Cambria.
 Evolution of the Earth’s Continents

• C:\Users\DE
O\Download
s\Continental
Drift.mp4
• https://youtu
.be/ovT90wY
rVk4
Major Geological Events Through Geological Time -
Precambrian
The Precambrian is known for the formation of the earth through cooling, the formation of oceans, the origin of single
cellular life and later multi-celled forms of life, and the formation of Rodinia and its subsequent disaggregation
Eon Years (Ma) and Geological Event
older
Hadean 4000 Earth existed as a molten body; outer layer eventually cooled to form crust;
Meteorites continuously collided with the earth; Moon was formed
Archean 2500 Meteorite bombardment stopped; Earth started to cool and water vapor condensed to
form oceans; Continents began to form as cratons collided (Rodinia); Most rocks
recorded of this age are metamorphic and form greenstone belts; The cyanobacteria
lead to the great oxygenation event as they released oxygen after generating energy
through photosynthesis; resulted in the formation of banded iron formations; Most of
these rocks formed cratons or stable shield areas.
Proterozoic 540 Massive and rapid continental accretion, supercontinent cycles and orogenic activity;
Earth entered into ice age as oxygen reacted with methane and removed the previous
greenhouse effect; Origin of multicelled organisms; formation and break up of Rodinia
Supercontinent at 1GA and 750-600Ma, respectively; First sponges, colonial algae and
soft-bodied invertebrates
Major Geological Events Through Geological Time -
Precambrian
The Precambrian is known for the formation of the earth through cooling, the formation of oceans, the origin of single
cellular life and later multi-celled forms of life, and the formation of Rodinia and its subsequent disaggregation

Rodinia – about 1.1 Ga

Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Paleozoic Era
The Paleozoic era marks the end of the global ice age and the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia; The earth
consisted of several small continents which aggregated at the end of this era to form the supercontinent Pangea;
Sea level rise and fell 4 times; It began with the Cambrian live explosion event and ended with the Permian
extinction event

Period Years and Older Geological Event

(Ma)
Cambrian 485.4 Origination of hard-shelled invertebrates in the ocean; followed by the age of the
fish, age of amphibians; First land plants in the Ordovician; creation of Cambrian
continents Siberia, Baltica, Laurentia and Gondwana from the breakup of the
supercontinent Pannotia.
Ordovician 443.8 Southern continents coalesce into Gondwana which drifted to the south pole and
became glaciated; ended with the second largest of the 5 major extinction events
(447-444 Ma)

Silurian 419.2 Melting of ice cap on Gondwana led to increase in sea level forming the Silurian-
Ordovician unconformity; Formation of Euramerica supercontinent commenced as
fragments of continents and cratons migrated towards the equator
 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Paleozoic Era
Period Years and Geological Event
Older
(Ma)
Devonian 358.9 Known for increased tectonic activities; Laurentia and Baltica collided to form Euramerica; Pangea
began to consolidate near the equator as plates of Europe and North America converged and
resulted in the further raising of the Appalachin Mountains and the formation of the Caledonian
Mountains in Britain; Sea Levels were high worldwide resulting in a major flooding event but later
dropped in the end of the Devonian.
Carboniferous 298.9 Continuation of mountain building activities; Gondwana collided with Laurussia (North America
and Europe) causing the Hercynian Orogeny in Europe and Alleghenian Orogeny in North America;
Sea level rose creating epicontinental seas and allowed for carbonate deposition during the
Mississippian. Subsequent sea level drop during the mid carboniferous resulted in the extinction
of crinoids and ammonites and formation of the Mississippian – Pennsylvanian unconformity.
Opening of Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys, and shrinking and closing of other oceans (Rheic Ocean
from the South and North America assembly)
Permian 251.9 Landmasses united to form supercontinent Pangea; Permian-Triassic Extinction event occurs
eradicating about 95% of all marine organisms and 70% of land-dwelling vertebrates;
Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Paleozoic Era

• Pannotia about 600Ma • Pangea in Triassic

 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Mesozoic Era
The Mesozoic Era was more calm in terms of tectonic movements; Dramatic rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea forming
a northern continent, Laurasia, and a southern continent, Gondwana as continents began to move into present day
configuration. This created the passive continental margin that characterizes most of the Atlantic coastline; Three of the
five largest extinction event occurred with the end of the dinosaurs resulting from the last event.

Period Years and Geological Event

Older (Ma)

Triassic 201.3 Rifting of Pangea began; subduction of oceanic plates resulted in the destruction of all deposited marine
sediments; Records of Triassic stratigraphy are mostly of organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline
environments; First dinosaurs and mamals

Jurassic 145.0 Pangea broke up into Laurasia (northern continent) and Gondwana (southern continent); the north
Atlantic ocean opened to form the Mid Atlantic Ridge and remained narrow whilst south Atlantic ocean
did not form; First birds and lizards to appear; Dinosaurs diversified; Warm climate (no glaciation)
 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Mesozoic Era

Earth at the end of the Jurassic

 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Mesozoic Era
Period Years and Geological Event
Older (Ma)

Cretaceous 66 Completion of Pangea break-up to form present day continents; Break up of Gondwana commenced as
South America, Antatartica and Australia rifted away from Africa; North Atlantic Ocean widened; South
Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed; Mid-Oceanic Ridge activity commenced; Transgression of
Sea lead to global sea level rise; Largest Chalk Deposition was characteristic of the Cretaceous; Mass
extinction at the end of Cretaceous of dinosaurs (most large animals) and many plants
 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Mesozoic Era

Earth at the end of the Cretaceous

 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Cenozoic Era
The Cenozoic Era was known for the movement of the continents into their present position; Antartica was
glaciated; Rocky Mountains and the Himalayas formed; Mammals became dominant and humans developed

Epoch Years and Older Geological Event

(Ma)
Paleocene 56.0 Laurasia remained intact with Eurasia (Europe and Greenland) and North America
connected; South America and North America remain separated by the
equatorial seas; Gondwana continue to break apart with Africa migrating north
towards Europe closing the Tethys Ocean whilst India subcontinent migrated
towards Asia; Alpine Orogeny in Europe and Asia; Tropical climate persisted;
Mammals thrived;
Eocene 33.9 Himalayan Orogeny resulting from India colliding with Asia; Reglaciation of
Antartica; Break up of Laurasia commenced; Tethys Sea vanished in Europe;
Warm equatorial waters which initially in the Oligocene circulated globally, was
deflected from Antartica and only isolated cold water circulated between
Antarctica and Australia when Australia split from the southern continent.
 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Cenozoic Era
Epoch Years and Older Geological Event
(Ma)
Oligocene 23.03 Continents continued to drift to current positions; South America detached from
Antartica and drifted north towards North America; Antartica developed
permanent ice cap;
Miocene 5.33 Continents continued to drift to current positions; Global drop in sea level caused
the drying up of the Mediterranean Sea;
Pliocene 2.58 Continents continued to drift to current positions with reduction in distance from
current positions changing from about 250km to 70km; South America became
linked to North America by the Isthmus of Panama (narrow strip of land); Africa's
collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of
the Tethys Ocean; Greenland ice sheets developed as current ice age began at the
end of the Pliocene
 Major Geological Events Through Geological Time –
Cenozoic Era
Epoch Years and Older (Ma) Geological Event

Pleistocene 0.012 Further cooling of the planet; Spread of Homo Erectus (1.8 Ma) followed by rise
of Homo Sapiens (0.77 Ma)
Holocence Present Continental motions have been less than a kilometer; Last glacial period of
current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago; Sea levels rose about 35m in early
Holocene whilst parts of the earth above 40 degrees north latitude experienced
as much as 180m sea level rise ;
 Relative Age Dating Techniques of Rocks
1. Fossil dating (sedimentary rocks) – The succession of fossils or fossil assemblages from oldest to youngest is the
same everywhere. This allows us to make a relative time scale based on the life forms found in the rocks.
 Relative Age Dating Techniques of Rocks
2. Spatial relationships of rocks
I. Principle of original horizontality - sedimentary rocks were laid down essentially horizontally
II. Principle of superposition - younger sedimentary beds lie on top of older sedimentary beds
III. Principle of Lateral Continuity – layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions;
in other words, they are laterally continuous
IV. Principle of cross-cutting relationships – igneous rocks may intrude other stratigraphy which can lead to
assumptions of relative ages
V. Principle of uniformitarianism – “The present is the key to the past.” Geological processes which are currently
happening are essentially similar to those which happened in the past.
VI. Unconformities – Gap in geological time
 Rock Relative Age Dating Techniques -
Example
Arrange the rock units in order of oldest to
youngest for the adjacent diagram
 Absolute Age Dating Techniques of Rocks
• During the last 50 years techniques have been developed to
determine the absolute age of rocks on the basis of radioactive
decay of elements such as uranium, potassium, strontium,
carbon, and several others.
Recap:
I. An isotope is a variant of the same parent atom that differs
in the number of neutrons.
II. Radioactive isotope is an unstable isotope of an element.
Emits radiation to decay to a stable
daughter isotope of another element
• The rate at which radioactive isotopes decay is often stated as
the half-life of the isotope (t1/2). The half-life is the amount of
time it takes for one half of the initial amount of the parent,
radioactive isotope, to decay to the daughter isotope. Thus, if
we start out with 1 gram of the parent isotope, after the
passage of 1 half-life there will be 0.5 gram of the parent
isotope left.
 Absolute Age Dating Techniques of Rocks
• Isotopic dating can only be applied to igneous rocks
(rocks formed from magma) because they have been
heated sufficiently to separate parent isotopes from
daughter isotopes.
• In the case of 40K - 40Ar, for example, an igneous rock
will have no 40Ar at the time of its formation, and hence
any 40Ar found in it can be assumed to be derived from
the decay of 40K
• Short lived isotopes (1/2 lives = thousands of years):
• Carbon (14 C) ‐> decays to Nitrogen (14N) –
½ life = 5730 years
• Can be used for plants, etc. but not for much
older rocks
• The use of isotopic dating in combination with the
different relative age dating techniques has allowed
geologists to attribute absolute ages to rocks.
 Rock Absolute Age
Dating Techniques
• There are three processes by which
radioactive decay occurs:
I. Alpha decay – emits 2 neutrons
and 2 protons
II. Beta decay – emits an electron,
neutron becomes a proton
III. Electron capture – changes a
neutron to a proton
Absolute Age Dating Techniques of Rocks
How are the ages calculated?
1. Determine amount of parent/daughter in a mineral or glass to determine age.
2. For most circumstances, these quantities are then fed into the radioactive decay equation for the particular
isotope system where it solved for time (t):
N = Noe-λt
where
N - the amount of parent remaining,
No - the original amount of the parent (= remaining parent + daughter)
λ - the radioactive decay constant for that parent daughter pair
t - time.
 Rock Absolute Age Dating - Example
A feldspar crystal from a basalt is found to have 25% (1/4) K (parent isotope) present, and 75% (3/4) 40Ar (daughter/decay
product) present in the feldspar. What is the absolute age in years?

The half life of K= 1.3 Billion (Ga) years

It takes one ½ life (1.3 Ga) to reach 50%K / 50%Ar

Now you only have 50% (1/2) of the K remaining, which continues to decay.
After another 1.3 Ga elapses, 50% or ½ of the remaining K will decay
Note: (50% or ½ of the remaining K is equal to 25% or ¼ of what was there initially)
Therefore, 50% + another 25% = 75% or ¾ of the original K decays to Argon (Ar) over 1.3Ga + 1.3Ga years
Which equals a total of = 2.6 Ga
In the simplest approach to remembering how all of this works, we can look at multiples of ½ for any situation where
there is radioactive decay.

In that case,
• If ½ of parent is left = 1 half life
• If ¼ of parent is left = 2 half lives
• If 1/8 of parent is left = 3 half lives
 Exercise

Apply the principles of spatial

relationship to arrange the rock
layers from oldest to youngest by
arranging the labels (letters). Explain
your arrangement.
Assignment
Written report (50%) due on April 30th (18:00hrs); Presentation (50%) of 30 minutes on May 09.
Discuss the geological evolution of the Guyana-Suriname basin over geological time and produce a geological chart highlighting
the major geological events that would have taken place.
• Written Report Format:
• Title page with name of contributors
• Summary (not more than 500 words)
• Content Page
• Introduction (location of the Guyana-Suriname basin using maps, petroleum potential)
• Geological overview of the basin identifying the main types and ages of rocks that exists within the basin: produce a
stratigraphic chart
• Geological Evolution of the basin with a global perspective (global perspective applies to periods before the basin
would have started to form such as the Precambrian)
• Highlight and discuss major events that occurred throughout the different geological periods (eons, eras,
periods,etc.) using requisite diagrams and cross-sections
• Produce a geological event chart highlighting stratigraphy, major geological or tectonic events and flooding
events.
• Mark Scheme: Group Mark 60%, Individual Mark - 40%
• Presentation/format of report/Reference/ Figures - 5 marks
• Summary – 5 marks
• Introduction – 5 marks
• Geological overview – 10 marks
• Geological evolution of the basin – 25 marks (20 marks for discussion, 5 marks for chart)
• Note: Individual marks will also be gained during the presentation segment for every question answered and
whilst group marks will be gained for every question asked from a specific group..\..\Group members.xlsx
 Lecture 4
Sedimentary Rocks and Sedimentary Features
Learning Objectives

Students should be able to:

1. Explain the processes involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks
2. Understand the textural components of Sedimentary rocks and their controlling factors
3. Identify and describe the various macroscopic features of sedimentary rocks
4. Recollect the different depositional environments of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary Structures

• Features visible at the scale of an outcrop.

• Formed at the time of deposition or shortly thereafter, but before lithification.
• Manifestations of the physical and biological processes that operated in depositional environments.
• May be created during deposition by the water or wind which moves the sediment.
• May form after deposition – such as footprints, worm trails, or mudcracks.
• Provide information about the environmental conditions under which the sediment was deposited.
• Some structures form in quiet water under low energy conditions, whereas others form in moving water
or high energy conditions.
 Sedimentary Structures
1. Stratification
I. Bedding and lamination
II. Graded bedding
III. Cross-bedding
2. Bedforms
I. Ripples
II. Dunes
III. Antidunes
IV. Hummocky Cross-stratification
3. Sole Marks
I. Scour Marks
II. Load casts
III. Tool Marks
4. Imbricates
5. Mud cracks and Raindrop Imprints
6. Dish and Pillar Structures
7. Biogenic sedimentary structures
I. Molds and casts
II. Burrow Marks and Borings
III. Bioturbation
IV. Stromatolites
8. Chemical sedimentary structures
I. Concretions
II. Nodules
 Sedimentary Structures
1. Stratification
1.1 Layering or bedding
• The most obvious feature of sedimentary rocks.
• The layers (or beds or strata) are visible because of
differences in the color, texture, or composition of
adjacent beds.
• Beds are common in rocks with coarser grains
• Bedding thickness -- The thickness of sedimentary
beds can be measured and described using
standardized terminology as follows:
• Massive: No beds apparent over several m of
exposure Illustration of bedding appearance
• Thick beds: greater than 100.0 cm (greater
than 1.0 m)
• Moderate beds: 10.0 cm - 100.0 mm
• Thin beds: 1.0 cm - 10.0 cm
• Laminae, or laminated beds: less than 1.0 cm
(less than 10 mm)
 Sedimentary Structures

1. Stratification
1.2 Graded Bedding
• Some beds show an upward gradual decrease or
increase in grain size, known as graded bedding
• Graded bedding is common in turbidity current
deposits (form when sediment water mixtures flow
along the seafloor; As they slow, the largest particles
settle out then smaller ones)
• Types of Grading:
1. Normal Grading – fining upwards sequence
2. Inverse Grading – coarsening upwards
sequence
• Normal grading may be formed by sedimentation
from suspension clouds generated by storm activity
on the shelf, periodic silting of delta distributaries,
deposition in the last phases of a heavy flood,
settling of volcanic ash after an eruption
 Sedimentary Structures

1. Stratification
1.3 Cross-bedding
• Cross-bedding forms during deposition on the
inclined surfaces of bedforms such
as ripples and dunes; it indicates that
the depositional environment contained a flowing
medium (typically water or wind)
• Cross-beds result from transport of sediments by
either water or wind
• The beds are inclined or dip downward in the
direction of the prevailing current
• They indicate ancient current directions, or
paleocurrents
• They are useful for relative dating of deformed
sedimentary rocks
• Types of Cross bedding:
I. Tabular
II. Trough
Cross-bedding illustrations
 Sedimentary Structures Tabular crossbedding in the Upper
Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation in
Montana
1. Stratification
1.3 Cross-bedding
• Tabular cross-bedding
• Tabular cross-bedding is formed mainly by
migration of large-scale, straight-crested ripples
and dunes. It forms during lower-flow regimes.
• The foreset laminae of tabular cross-beds are
curved so as to become tangential to the basal
surface
• Trough cross-bedding
• Trough cross-beds have lower surfaces which
are curved or scoop shaped and truncate the
underlying beds.
• The foreset beds are also curved and merge
tangentially with the lower surface.
• They are associated with sand dune migration
 Sedimentary Structures
2. Bedforms
• For medium sand (0.25-0.5mm), as the current velocity or
stream power increases, the first bedforms to form are current
ripples.
• As the stream power increased, larger scale structures, known as
megaripples or dunes, form and are replaced at even higher
stream powers by a flat bed, (upper stage plane bed).
• For both small ripples and megaripples, ripple crests tend to
become more curved and discontinuous with increasing stream
power.
• Both ripples and megaripples have a relatively low slope on their
up-current ‘stoss’ side and are steeper on their downcurrent
‘lee’ side.
• In the case of ripples, grains roll or saltate up the stoss side and
periodically avalanche down the lee side. The dip of the lee side
is thus controlled by the angle of repose.
• In the zone of back-flow, some sediment is caught in the
backflow eddy and is deposited at the toe of the lee slope. As
the ripple migrates, successive positions of the lee side are Schematic representation of various bedforms and their
marked by inclined ‘foresets’, which can be seen within the body relationship to grain size and stream power. Based on Simons
of the bedform et al. 1965 and Allen 1968a.
• These foresets are either planar or concave-upwards
 Sedimentary Structures
2. Bedforms
2.1 Ripples
• Ripples are quite regularly spaced undulations on a sand
surface or on a sandstone bedding plane. Their spacing
(wavelength) is usually 5cm to 40cm and relief is between
0.5 cm to 3 cm.
• Typically found under low to moderate flow velocities
• They appear as small-scale alternating ridges and troughs
on bedding planes, especially in sandstone

Ripples found on rock surface

 Sedimentary Structures
2. Bedforms
2.1 Ripples
Classification
• There are two types of ripple marks
A. Current Ripple Marks – form in response to water or wind
currents flowing in one direction and have asymmetric profiles Profile of a current ripple mark

• This creates ripple marks with still pointed crests and

rounded troughs, but which are inclined more strongly in the
direction of the current allowing geologists to determine
paleocurrent directions
B. Wave-Formed Ripple Marks result from the to and fro motion
of waves tend to be symmetrical.
• This creates ripple marks with pointed crests and rounded
troughs, which aren't inclined more to a certain direction
• Useful for relative dating of deformed sedimentary rocks
Profile of a wave ripple
 Sedimentary Structures

2. Bedforms
2.2. Dunes
• Dunes are similar to ripples only that their relief or height
exceeds 3cm and their wavelengths are at least 40cm.
• Formed under moderate to high flow velocities in
relatively deep water and sand that is more than 0.2mm
in diameter.
• Common in desert environments due to the action of
wind and continuously migrate
• Both dunes and ripples tend to be straight-crested under
low flow velocities and sinuous under higher velocities
• Often preserves large internal cross beds
 Sedimentary Structures

2. Bedforms
2.3. Antidunes
• An antidune is a bedform found in fluvial and other
channeled environments.
• Antidunes occur in supercritical flow, where the flow
velocity exceeds the wave velocity (also known as upper
flow regime).
• In antidunes, sediment is deposited on the upstream
(stoss) side and eroded from the downstream (lee) side,
that is opposite to lower flow regime bedforms (ripples
and dunes). As a result, antidunes migrate in an upstream
direction, counter to the current flow
• Their preservation potential is low, but they can be
identified by low-angle (less than 10°) foresets, dipping
up-current.
 Sedimentary Structures

2. Bedforms
2.4 Hummocky Cross- Stratification
• Cross-bedding formed by the action of large
storms, such as hurricanes
• Formed where water depth is below fair-
weather wave base and above storm-weather
wave base
• Formed from a combined flow (unidirectional
and oscillatory)
• Commonly found in silt to fine sand.
• It is typically interbedded with bioturbated
mudstone.
• Mostly found in shallow marine rocks and less
occurrences in lacustrine rocks
 Sedimentary Structures

Hummocky Cross- Stratification

https://cmgds.marine.usgs.gov/data/seds/b
edforms/animation.html
 Sedimentary Structures

3. Sole Marks
• Scour marks are distinguished by their generally smooth shape and often by their rather streamlined appearance
• Common agents which produce sole marks are turbidity currents in deep sea (most common), storm surge in
shallow water, sheet floods in semi-arid environments, and crevasse surges into flood plains
• Sedimentary structures found on the bottom or “soles” of beds, essentially comprised of positive relief casts
derived from underlying sediment surface:
I. Scour marks / Flute casts: current-formed erosion structure, bulbous cast formed by the scouring of the
sediment interface, bulbous end usually point up-current
II. Load Casts: Irregular knobs found on sandstones overlying shale beds
III. Tool marks: groove casts, infilling of mold formed by dragging object across sediment interface
 Sedimentary Structures

3. Sole Marks
3.1 Scour Marks
• Negative relief feature of a sediment surface formed
from erosive current flowing over it
• Distinguished by their generally smooth shape and
often by their rather streamlined appearance.
• The most important scour mark is flute marks. Flute
marks are characterized by a rounded, although
sometimes tightly curved, "nose" at one end.
• The deepest part (i.e. maximum relief) occurs close to
the nose, from which point the mark flares away and
dies out.
• Erosion is most concentrated near the nose of the
flute from where it dies out down stream as the
current eddies are absorbed into the main flow.
• The tapered end along the long axis gives the
palaeocurrent direction
Flute casts on the base of a turbidite sandstone: The bulbuous terminations of
the flute casts indicate that paleocurrent flow was from right to left
 Sedimentary Structures

3. Sole Marks
3.2 Load Casts and Flame Structures
• Results from the deposition of sand over a hydroplastic mud
layer that flows as the denser sand settles on top of it.
A drill core showing a load cast showing light-
• Well preserved in the deepwater deposits and shallow water colored sand sticking down into dark mud.
environments, especially in areas normally having a rapid mud
sedimentation, interrupted by occasional sand deposition.
• Commonly occur in the channels of muddy intertidal flats.
• Loads are preserved on the lower side of the sand layer
overlying the mud layer.
• Flame structures are curved, pointed tongues of mud projecting
upward into an overlying sand layer. Because of unequal loading
and liquefaction, the mud layer has moved up in the form of
tongues into the overlying sand layer

Load and Flame Sructures

 Sedimentary Structures

3. Sole Marks
3.3 Tool marks
• Produced by the impact against a muddy bottom of a solid
object driven by a current moving over the bed.
• Preserved as a cast, seen on the base of a sand or silt bed
deposited on the muddy bottom soon after the marks have
been formed
• Sharply defined shapes, and they often carry detailed patterns
of small-scale relief.
• Two groups: continuous and discontinuous moving tool marks.
• Continuous marks are elongated markings produced by tools
being swept continuously along the bottom. They include
grooves with sharp and irregular profile; chevrons with smooth
and crenulated appearance.
• Discontinuous marks are short, distinct marks; single or
arranged in sets. They are produced by tools touching the
sediment surface at intervals. They include single prod marks
and bounce marks and repeated skip marks.
 Sedimentary Structures

3. Sole Marks
3.3 Tool marks

Large intersecting groove casts on the base of a turbidite

sandstone bed,
 Sedimentary Structures

4. Imbricate (Pebbles)
• Pebbles may orient themselves in inclined
imbricate orientation during high energy flow
conditions with the inclination pointing upstream
 Sedimentary Structures

4. Imbricate (Pebbles)

Imbricate bedding at layer above pen Cobbles in this conglomerate are positioned in a way that they are stacked on
each other, which occurred as flow went from left to right.
 Present day
exposed surface
showing mud
Sedimentary Structures cracks

5. Mud cracks and Raindrop Imprints

• These structures are evidence of subaerial exposure
of semi-consolidated sediment surface Ancient rock with
mud cracks -
• Suggests an area that was flooded and then Mud cracks are
dried out very fast. typically fill in
with sediment
• Clays have high shrinkage potential and produces when they are
polygon fractures when dried. preserved

• Mud cracks require wetting and drying to form:

• along a lakeshore
• river flood plain
Raindrop
• where mud is exposed at low tide along a Impression over
seashore wave ripples
 Sedimentary Structures
6. Dish and Pillar Structures
• Develops in sandy beds parallel to bedding, where they appear as
subhorizontal to concave-upward, dark, clay-rich laminae varying in
width from a few cm to 50 cm and 0.2 to 2 mm in laminae thickness.
• Dish structures are water escape structures, and represent a
deformation structure formed during the consolidation and
dewatering of quickly deposited sediments which undergo
liquefaction and fluidization.
• Escaping water is forced to follow horizontal flow paths beneath
semipermeable laminations to points where continued vertical
escape is possible.
• Fine grained material is concentrated as laminations, and deformed
to make dishes; while pillars form during forceful, explosive water
escape.
• Dish structures are reported from thick turbidites, delta front Dish structures and water escape structures due to
deposits, fluvial or lake deposits, etc where periods of rapid complex dewatering history
deposition alternate with intervals of reduced sedimentation.
 Sedimentary Structures

7. Biogenic Sedimentary Structures

• Biogenic sedimentary structures are post depositional structures that are formed as a result of the activities
of organisms present within the sediments
• These structures include:
I. Molds and casts
II. Boring
III. Bioturbation (resulting boring or burrow marks)
IV. Stromatolites
 Sedimentary Structures

7. Biogenic Sedimentary Structures

7.1 Molds and Casts
• Molds and casts are three-dimensional
impressions in which the surface contours of an
organism are preserved.
• Organisms buried in sediment slowly
decompose, leaving a cavity that contains an
exact imprint of the organisms’ shape and size.
When this hollow space fills with material, this
material takes the shape of the mold, forming a
cast
• Molds are the reproduction of the inside or
outside surface of an organism
• Casts are duplicates of the original organism;
usually formed by the replacement of the inside
of an organism by mineral fill
 Sedimentary Structures

7. Biogenic Sedimentary Structures

7.3 Boring
• A boring is any biogenic structure that
involves erosion of an already consolidated
substrate by an organism
• The process of forming a boring by an
organism is bioerosion

Borings in a sedimentary rock

 Sedimentary Structures

7. Biogenic Sedimentary Structures

7.3 Bioturbation
• Bioturbation refers to particle mixing within
unconsolidated sediments through the activities
of biological organisms, most commonly at, or
close to, the water-sediment interface
• Include burrowing, ingestion, and defecation of
sediment grains
• Results in sediment in-fill and reworking of
sediments in sedimentary rocks that may be Bioturbation in rocks seen as vertical, dark-colored
recognized by distinct change in grain size or areas infilled with sediments
pockets or contrastingly sorted sediments due to
mixing
 Sedimentary Structures

7. Biogenic Sedimentary Structures

7.4 Stromatolites
• Layered deposit, mainly of limestone
• Consists of layer upon layer of cyanobacteria, a single-
celled photosynthesizing microbe that lives today in a
wide range of environments ranging from the shallow
shelf to lakes, rivers, and even soils
• Usually characterized by thin, alternating light and
dark layers that may be flat, hummocky, or dome-
shaped.
• The alternating layers are largely produced by the
trapping of sediment washed up during storms on
some occasions and by limestone precipitation by the
blue-green algae on others
 Sedimentary Structures

8. Chemical Sedimentary Structures

8.1 Concretions
• A hard and compact mass of matter formed by
the precipitation of mineral cement within pore
spaces Typical concretion appearance

• Often ovoid or spherical in shape, although

irregular shapes also occur
8.2 Nodules
• Small, irregularly rounded knot, mass, or lump
of a mineral or mineral aggregate that typically
has a contrasting composition from the
enclosing sedimentary rock
• Typically solid replacement bodies of chert,
pyrite, anhydrite and calcite or iron oxide
Nodule appearance
Sedimentary Depositional Environments

• A sedimentary depositional environment is

a geographically restricted part of the
earth's surface, which can be easily
distinguished from its adjacent areas by
the complex of physical, chemical (salinity,
pH, oxidation potential, temperature, etc.)
and biological conditions, influences or
forces under which a sediment
accumulates.
• The physical conditions which act on and
control an environment include climate,
temperature, humidity, wind, topography,
etc.
• The chemical conditions include water
salinity and pH, oxidation potential,
temperature, geochemistry of the rocks,
etc.
• The biological conditions comprise both
fauna and flora, terrestrial or aquatic, and
bacteria present in the environment.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Sedimentary depositional environments may

be classified and sub-classified as follows:
1. Continental
1. Alluvial (Alluvial Fan and Fluvial)
2. Lacustrine
3. Desert (Aeolian)
4. Glacial
2. Shoreline or Transitional
1. Clastic shoreline (beach, barrier island,
estuary, lagoon)
2. Deltaic
3. Arid (evaporitic shoreline)
3. Marine
1. Reef
2. Shelf
3. Turbidite
4. Pelagic
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Sedimentary depositional environments may

be classified and sub-classified as follows:
1. Continental
1. Alluvial (Alluvial Fan and Fluvial)
2. Lacustrine
3. Desert (Aeolian)
4. Glacial
2. Shoreline or Transitional
1. Clastic shoreline (beach, barrier island,
estuary, lagoon)
2. Deltaic
3. Arid (evaporitic shoreline)
3. Marine
1. Reef
2. Shelf
3. Turbidite
4. Pelagic
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.1 Alluvial Fan

• Fan or cone shaped deposits of sediments built up by
streams
• Stream enters from high-land to low-land
• Typically found where canyons draining from
mountain enters flat area
• Poorly sorted material
• Caused by flash floods
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.1 Alluvial Fan

• Diagnostic Features:
• Absence of marine fossils (Typically
Unfossiliferous)
• Presence of plant fossils
• Red beds (Oxidation)
• Scoured channels
• Unidirectional-flow
• Lamination, Cross-lamination, Ripple marks,
Graded beddings
• Grain size, angularity decrease from source to
mouth
• Sorting, sphericity, roundness increases from
source to mouth
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
• Rivers flow downhill from the source area towards a
lake or the sea and their form reflects a number of
controls including climate (especially rainfall), slope
and the available sediment.

• The most common classification of river forms

identifies four types of channels: straight,
meandering, braided and annastomosing.

• Most rivers are either meandering or braided;

straight rivers are not very common.

• The geomorphology of rivers is crucial to

understanding and interpretation of fluvial deposits
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
1.21 Meandering Rivers
• Meandering rivers have a single channel with a strongly sinuous
form.
• The outer bank is eroded and sediment is deposited on the inner
bank to form a point bar. Continued erosion of the outer bank and
deposition on the point bar increases the amplitude of the
meanders and produces relatively narrow necks on the point bar.
• During a severe flood, the point bar neck may be breached,
leading to a shortening of the channel course and abandonment
of the old meander loop. This process is called neck cutoff.
• The ends of the abandoned loop soon become plugged by fine
sediment to form an oxbow lake.
• Every now and then, probably during a really big flood, the river
breaks out completely from its meander belt to reestablish its
course along some distant lower part of its floodplain, leaving the
entire meander belt to be eventually filled and covered by fine
floodplain sediment. Such a catastrophic change in course is called
avulsion
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
1.21 Meanders
• The shifting and abandonment of meander loops and
channel itself leads to a characteristic vertical
arrangement of sand bodies encased in floodplain
muds. This is because the sand carried in the main
channel is deposited on the sloping surfaces of the point
bars as they accrete laterally forming lateral accretion
deposits
• Sometimes you see a kind of large-scale low-angle cross
stratification, reflecting the channelward slope of the
point-bar surface, produced by the episodic accretion
onto the point bar-surface, but usually such cross
stratification is masked by the smaller-scale structures
(planar lamination and especially large-scale cross
stratification) produced by sediment movement on the
point-bar surface.
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Fluvial - Meanders
• Texture - Meandering river deposits show normal grading and are typically composed of
sands, silts and shales. The basal zone is poorly sorted and grain size ranges from
conglomerates to coarse grained sands. It grades upward to a well sorted medium to fine
sands. The upper zone is generally composed of very fine sands, silts and some clays and
may be poorly to fairly sorted
• Structure - Sedimentary structures are related to the flow regime and consequently
organized in sequences. The sequence starts with an erosional surface with scour troughs,
followed by medium-scale cross-bedding; parallel laminations which are related to upper
flow regime; foreset bedding in point with small trough sets. Flood plain deposits show
horizontal or convolute bedding, generally destroyed by bioturbation. Rootlets may also be
present.
• Reservoir Characteristics - Sand bodies potentially form good reservoir rocks with porosities
up to 30 % and permeabilities up to several thousands of millidarcys, but they are laterally
restricted. Shales beds or laminae can create permeability barriers. In such environments,
the abundant impermeable floodplain shales can form stratigraphic traps. They often
contain their own source rocks (plant debris and peat, lignite or coal), and, due to that, they
Theoretical sequence of facies in a
are commonly considered more likely to contain gas than oil.
meandering system. VA = vertical accretion
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
1.22 Braided
• Braided rivers have a number of active channels separated by sandy
or gravelly bars that are likely to form on slightly steeper slopes, and
where there is a high proportion of sandy or gravelly sediment
• Because of their easily-eroded sandy banks, individual channels in a
braided system will tend to migrate laterally and to shift their course
frequently. The intervening bars migrate both downstream and across
the streams. Braided rivers therefore tend to produce compound
sandbodies consisting of a number of mutually-erosive channel
bodies. These multi-storey and multilateral bodies will be both thicker
and wider than the channel dimensions
• Braided rivers are characterized by wide channels of changing
position, and rapid and continuous shifting of the sediment.
Consequently, an individual unit may be between 0.5 and 8 km wide.
Their length may commonly range from 10s to 100s km. The
thickness of an individual unit ranges from several decimetres to 30
metres. The width- depth ratio is high.
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Fluvial - Braided
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
1.22 Braided
• Texture - Poor to moderate sorting (gravel to sand) with low sphericity and with
moderate to low grain-matrix ratio is observed; abundant silt in fine end tail
(Pettijohn et a/., 1972). Conglomerates range from clast-supported matrix-free,
through clast-supported with interstitial sandy matrix, on to sandy conglomerates
with dispersed clasts.
• Structure - Asymmetrical small scale ripples, abundant well oriented cross-bedding
and small scale cross-laminations are observed. The bedding may be either massive
or graded. Beds tend to be lenticular with erosional scour; infrequent tracks and
trails.
• Reservoir Characteristics- Braided river deposits may constitute potentially good
reservoir rocks with up to 30% porosity and permeabilities of thousands of
millidarcys.
• Shales are of limited lateral extend and do not play a major role in blocking
fluid migration. They do not commonly form stratigraphic traps Theoretical vertical cross-section of a braided
alluvial channel system deposits.
Sedimentation occurs almost
entirely in the rapidly shifting complex of
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
1.23 Straight / Anastamosing Rivers
• The other two types of channels, straight and anastomosing
channels, are rarer and less well described than
meandering and braided rivers.
• Straight channels are single channels of low sinuosity, and
are characterised by side bars which are attached to
alternate sides of the channel. Straight channels produce
single channel-fill sandbodies.
• Anastomosing rivers, like braided rivers, consist of a
number of active channels which split and rejoin in a down-
valley direction. In contrast to braided rivers, with their
active bars between channels, the individual channels of
anastomosing rivers are separated by larger, finer grained,
more stable islands. These islands are commonly low-lying
and vegetated. The channels do not migrate much laterally.
This leads to the development of relatively narrow but thick
multi-storey sand bodies
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.2 Fluvial
• Some of the criteria used to determine whether an environment is fluvial (not solely fluival) includes:
• absence of marine fossils
• presence of plant fossils
• red beds
• scoured channels
• unidirectional-flow cross-stratification
• broadly unidirectional paleocurrents
• desiccation cracks
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.3 Aeolian
• Aeolian, or wind-transported, sediments occur most commonly in desert environments.
• Deserts are defined as areas where potential evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation

Distribution of modern deserts around the

world
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional
Environments
1.3 Aeolian
• Sandy deserts are dominated by large fields of dunes
(ergs). Within ergs, draa are the main bedforms. The
draa are generally covered by smaller scale dunes
• The foresets of these dunes contain laminae deposited
by a number of different processes, or combinations of
processes
• Aeolian dune sets and cosets are typically m’s to 10’s of m
thick.
• The central parts of the slipface are commonly
dominated by grainflow laminae being more common
near the dune crest and wind-ripple laminae present at
the flanks and low on the slipface. As the grainflow
laminae generally have the best porosity and
permeability, the best reservoir properties in aeolian
successions are commonly found in the dune core areas
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.3 Aeolian
• Aeolian deposition is episodic at a number of scales and
each phase of deposition is separated from the next by a
period of erosion. This results in the formation of a
bounding surface; the temporal and spatial scale over
which they occur give rise to a heirachy of such surfaces.
• First order surfaces are very extensive, low-angle features
inferred to represent interdune migration. Second order
surfaces are commonly concave-up on sections parallel to
palaeowind and are interpreted as set boundaries due to
superposition of bedforms, whilst third order surfaces are
discontinuities (reactivation surfaces) between bundles of
foresets within the same set
• The dunes and draa are separated by low-lying interdune
areas. Within draa, interdune areas between individual
dunes are small and relatively short-lived, but interdune
areas between major dune areas or draas may be larger,
more permanent features.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.3 Aeolian
• Both interdune and fluvial
sediments have poorer reservoir
quality than aeolian dune sands
• As a result, interdune or fluvial
intervals may form baffles to vertical
flow and therefore tend to
compartmentalise aeolian reservoirs

• Clays are minor components in an

aeolian environment, occurring only
in wadi deposits, inter- dune or
coastal sabkhas, in inland sabkhas
and playa lakes
• Nodules of gypsum or anhydrite
may be present
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.3 Aeolian
Texture
• Aeolian sand generally consists of fine-to-medium sand grains (0.2 to 0.5 mm), well rounded and well sorted.
Ahlbrandt (1979) recognized three textural groups :
I. moderately to well sorted, fine- to medium-grained inland dune sands;
II. well sorted fine-grained coastal dune sands;
III. moderately to very poorly sorted interdune or serir sands.
• Grains are commonly coarser on ripple tops than in adjacent swales, but lag grains in swales may be coarser than
grains in adjacent large dunes. The absence of fines (clays) and micaceous minerals, due to aeolian winnowing,
give a high grain/matrix ratio.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.3 Aeolian
Structure
• Dunes commonly contain the following internal structures
• large-scale, moderate to high angle cross-strata, facing downwind, commonly tabular planar sets and laminae
within sets are, generally, tangential to the lower bounding surface;
• successive boundaries separating individual cross-sets horizontal or downwind at a low angle of dip
• cross-sets become progressively thinner toward the top of dunes, as the dunes grow upward, winds more
frequently truncate the upper laminae, producing the thinning - up ward pattern of sets
• dipping foresets are progressively larger in a downwind direction
• rare ripple laminae.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional
Environments
1.3 Aeolian
Reservoir characteristics
• Aeolian deposits are complex, heterogeneous
reservoirs due to:
I. lateral discontinuity of reservoir zones;
II. impermeable or less permeable flat-bedded
units interspersed with more permeable
cross-bedded units
III. anisotropic permeabilities and related
textural changes and cementation along
individual laminae causing low transmissivity
across laminae
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.4 Lacustrine
• Isolated water body on land having its own drainage system
• Still water allows for the settling out of fine sediments to produce
lacustrine deposits
• Deposits are well sorted
• Characterized by thin layers of sediments that reflect annual deposition
of sediments
• As water enters lake, currents are produced which is high energy zone
and fine particles remain suspended and move away towards the center
• As energy gets low, sediments settle in middle of lake
• Characterised by:
• Lacustrine rocks appear circular to subcircular in map with fine
sediments in the middle
• Organic lamination
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.5 Glacial
• Glacial deposition is simply the settling of sediments
left behind by a moving glacier
• As glaciers move over the land surface, they pick up
debris, sand, soil and rocks, and these particles get
stuck within the ice and travel with the glacier, often
for long distances.
• When the ice melts, the mixture of unsorted
sediment deposits carried by the glacier, known
collectively as glacial till, is dropped, or deposited.
• These sediments often get formed into piles known
as moraines, which we can define as piles of till
deposited along the edges of past glaciers.
• Because moraines form in lines, their locations give
us important clues as to where the borders of a
glacier were once found.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

1.5 Glacial
• Glacial deposition is simply the settling of sediments left behind by a moving glacier
• The high viscosity of ice makes all ice transport of sediments laminar, grain sizes are not
sorted.
• All of the sediment is transported together, with the ice and it is deposited when the ice
melts.
• Main features included:
• Poorly sorted and unstratified deposits
• Striations on rocks or clasts
• Angular sediments with unspecific origins
• Oxidising environment with few fossils
• Presence of stromatolites
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.0 Marginal Marine Environments

• Lies along the boundary between the continental and the marine setting
• River, wave, and tidal processes are dominant sedimentary processes
• Salinity varies significantly
• Some environments are of intermittent to nearly constant subaerial exposure, others are continuously covered
by shallow water.
• Wide variety of sediment types including conglomerates, sandstones, shales, carbonates, and evaporites.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.0 Marginal Marine

Environments
• Marginal marine
environments include
1. Deltaic
2. Estuary
3. Beaches
4. Lagoon
5. Barrier Island
6. Tidal Inlet
7. Tidal Flats
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1 Delta
• Distinct shoreline depositions formed where
rivers enter standing water (oceans, semi-
enclosed seas or lakes)
• Sediment is supplied more rapidly than it can be
redistributed by basinal processes
• The most important deltas are formed in the
open ocean

Nile River Mouth: Called a “delta” because of its

triangular shape
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1 Delta
Global Distribution

Global Location of Major Modern River Deltas

Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1 Delta
Classification
• Can be categorized using several criteria
• Classification on the basis of dominant energy source seems to be
preferred by most geologists
• Deltas are thus classified as:
I. Fluvial-dominated
II. Tide-dominated
III. Wave-dominated
• Each is further distinguished on the basis of dominant grain size (mud, Classification of deltas in terms
sand, gravel, etc.) of river, wave and tide influence,
simplified from Galloway (1975)
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1 Delta
Fluvial-dominated
• Primarily controlled by the density difference between the
inflowing river water and the standing water on the basin
• Fluvial-dominated deltas supply more sediment to the coastline
than can be reworked by the basinal processes.
• Occurs as a pronounced protuberance of the shoreline.
• Depending on the depth of water into which the delta is
prograding, and the degree of reworking, the delta may be
either lobate or elongate
Different flow types:
I. Homopycnal flow
II. Hyperpycnal flow
III. Hypopycnal flow

Fluvial Dominated Delta

Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1 Delta
Tidal-dominated
• Deltas which undergo strong tidal interaction (tidal
currents are stronger than river outflow)
• High tides confine sediment; low tides carry sediment
seaward
• Occur in locations of large tidal ranges or high tidal
current speeds
• Develop linear structures parallel to the tidal flow and
perpendicular to the shoreline (Tidal sand ridges)
• Tidal processes will tend to produce a radial pattern of
distributary channels which become broader towards the
basin .
Example of tidal delta
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1 Delta
Wave-dominated
• Fluvial processes may be significantly modified under
conditions of high wave energy
• Breaking waves cause immediate mixing of fresh and salt
water
• Fresh water flow velocity decelerates rapidly
• Wave action reworks the sediment into beach ridges on
either side, making it much sandier than other deltas
(sorted)
• Contains high % of resistant minerals and rock types (e.g.
quartz, chert and heavy minerals)
• Sediment is deposited as beaches and bars
• Develop parallel to the shoreline with only a slight deflection
of the shoreline
Paraíba do Sul wave-dominated river delta
 Classification of Sedimentary
Depositional Environments
2.1 Delta - Sequences

Typical vertical succession in a fluvial-dominated delta front (from Kelling &

George, 1971)

Theoretical vertical cross-sections in

the three types of deltas
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.1Delta
Diagnostic Features
• Comprised primarily of sand grain size particles (sandstones)
• Cross-beddings, ripple marks and laminations
• Yellowish-brownish colour
• Best reservoir
• Particle size decreases towards the ocean
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.2 Estuary
• A partially enclosed coastal body (seaward portion of a
a river valley) of brackish water with one or more rivers
or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to
the open sea
• Less saline than lagoon due to fresh water
• Inflows of sea and fresh water provide nutrients, so it is
more productive
Conditions
• Mixing of fresh and seawater
• Sediment supply: both river and marine sources
• Facies influenced by tide, wave and fluvial processes
• Wave-dominated or Tidal-dominated
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional
Environments

2.2 Estuary
Classification: 1) Wave -dominated
• Mouth of the estuary experiences high wave energy;
little tidal input
• Sediments move alongshore and into the mouth of the
estuary
• Barrier prevents most of the wave energy from entering
the estuary
• Limited inlets
• Muddy river sediments, accumulate in the central part
of the estuary
Distribution of (A) energy types, (B) morphological
components in plan view, and (C) sedimentary facies
in longitudinal section within an idealized wave-
dominated estuary
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional
Environments

2.2 Estuary
Classification: 1) Tide-dominated
• Elongate sand bars develop parallel to the length of the
estuary
• The river flow strength decreases as it interacts with the
tidal forces
• Deposition: Sand bars, tidal channels, tidal flats
• Muddy sediment: deposited in lower-E parts of the
estuary floor & in salt marshes

Distribution of (A) energy types, (B) morphological

components in plan view, and (C) sedimentary
facies in longitudinal section within an idealized
tide-dominated estuary
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.2 Estuary
Tide-dominated vs. wave-dominated estuaries
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.3 Beaches
• Beaches are long, narrow accumulations of sand aligned
parallel to the shoreline and attached to land
• Beaches form the boundary between the shallow marine
and terrestrial environment.
• Most dynamic of all depositional environments
• 10s to 100s of m broad, up to 100s of km long and 10-20 m
thick
• They are dominated by wave and current processes, but in
most cases are also affected by tides. Water is driven onto
the beach by waves, and then returns to the sea as
localized currents
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.3 Beaches
• Parts of a beach profile include:
• The berm – A ridge at the top of the beach
• Backshore - The area above the high water
mark
• Foreshore - The area between the high and
low water marks
• Shoreface extends from the low water mark
to the fairweather wave base.

Definition of the beach profile

Classification of Sedimentary Depositional
Environments
2.3 Beaches
Texture and structure
• Well-sorted, well-rounded sediment
• Compositionally mature
• Low-angle parallel laminae (2o-3o dipping seaward)
• Bioturbation

Vertical section through a typical

beach deposit
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.4 Lagoon Environments

• A lagoon is a shallow (few meters) body of water found near the sea
and is separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or
reefs
• Little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow
• Generally the lagoon is fed with marine waters that run
through the numerous channels in the barrier-island system.
However, where lagoons are developed adjacent to rivers and
estuaries, lagoonal waters may often be brackish to nearly
fresh
• Often lagoons are the site of prolific production of plants and
burrowing organisms that feed on the decaying organic matter. As a
result, lagoonal sediments are rich in organics, are highly
bioturbated, and may form coal seams in the geologic record
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.4 Lagoon Environments

• Lagoonal successions commonly contain interbedded sandstone, shale, siltstone, and coal facies characteristic of a
number of overlapping depositional environments.
• Because of the inherent low energy of most lagoons (little current activity of any kind), fine-grained sediments
are common
• Sand facies include washover sheet deposits and sheet and channel-fill deposits of flood-tidal-delta origin.
• Fine-grained sediments include those of the lagoon and tidal flats, which are situated adjacent to the barrier or
on the landward side of the lagoon abutting the hinterland marsh and swamp flatlands
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.4 Lagoon Environments

Types of Lagoons
• Based on geomorphology and the nature of water
exchange with sea, there are 3 types of Lagoons:
• Choked lagoons: one long, narrow entrance
channel; tidal influence largely eliminated
• Restricted lagoons: commonly exhibit two or
more entrance channels or inlets; have a well-
defined tidal circulation
• Leaky lagoons: has many ocean entrance
channels; tidal currents are a more important
factor in sediment transport than are wind
waves
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.4 Lagoon Environments

Diagnostic Features of Lagoons
• Mostly Evaporates
• Thin beds of carbonates
• Salt pseudo-morphs
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.5 Barrier Island

• A barrier island is an elongate, essentially shoreparallel, island composed dominantly of unconsolidated sediment,
which protects the adjacent land mass and is separated from it by some combination of wetland environments.
• Barrier islands and beaches will tend to produce linear sandbodies oriented parallel to the coastline. If the beach or
barrier island migrates seaward, it will produce more sheet-like bodies
• Largely built up by wave action
• Barriers may be less than 100m wide to several km wide and a few hundreds metres to tens of kilometers
• Some major environments associated with barrier island systems are:
I. beach and shoreface environments on the seaward side of barriers and strand plains,
II. inlet channels and tidal deltas, separating barriers laterally, and
III. washover fans on the landward or lagoonward side of barriers
Classification of Sedimentary
Depositional Environments

2.5 Barrier Island

Barrier Island Systems

Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.5 Barrier Island

Generalised cross-section parallel to shoreline illustrating the development of

a barrier-inlet sand body by lateral inlet migration. (Modified from Hoyt and Henry,
1965).
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.6 Tidal Inlets

• Tidal inlets are more or less permanent passages
between barrier islands that allow tidal exchange
between the open sea and lagoons, bays, and tidal
marshes behind the islands.
• Inlet channels are generally deepest between the tips
of the islands and shallow into tidal deltas both
lagoonward (flood delta) and seaward (ebb delta).
• Tidal inlets migrate laterally as the spit on the end of a
barrier island grows. The thickness of sediments
deposited by migration of tidal inlets and associated
environments may be as great as the depth of the tidal
channel itself
• Tidal inlets migrate rapidly along the barrier island,
eroding the upper shoreface and foreshore deposits.
• The inlet deposits are similar to those of fluvial
channels, with erosive bases and upward-fining trends.
• Migration of the inlets can lead to the upper parts of
barrier island successions being dominated by tidal inlet
deposits. Figure showing tidal environments
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.5 Tidal Inlets

Cross section parallel to the shoreline, showing

deposits left by lateral migration of a tidal inlet

Vertical section through a typical tidal-inlet deposit

 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional
Environments
2.7 Tidal Flats
• The Tidal Flat is transition environment that still affected by
tide.
• It is the border of estuarine and lagoon environments
• They are of low relief and cut by meandering tidal channels
• The tidal flat divided into 3 zones:
1. Supratidal Zone also called a Sabkha, is influenced by
extreme tides. This zone undergoes evaporation and
produce crystal salt.
2. Intertidal Zone is located between high and low tide level.
This zone occurs where there is bedload and suspension
load transportation.
3. Subtidal Zone is under the water at low tide level. Tide
influence in this environment is very important especially
at tidal channels, where bedload transport and deposition
are dominant.
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

2.7 Tidal Flats

• Sediment characteristics of tidal flat Includes:
• Dominantly sand deposition in shallow subtidal zone, intertidal bottom zone, and channel.
• Cross bedding sand in channel and abundance of mud in supratidal zone.
• Sedimentary structures include ripple cross-lamination and lenticular bedding
• Fossils present are shallow marine fauna and salt marsh vegetation
• Colour – often dark due to anaerobic conditions
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

3.0 Marine Depositional Environments

• Shallow marine
• Up to about 200m deep of water
• Land-derived sediments are deposited on the continental shelf (coarser grained sands, silts and clays, coral reefs)
• Deep Marine
• Seaward of continental shelves
• Deep sea sediments, primarily fine-grained sediments (silts and clays) that originate from continental shelf as a result
of turbidity currents

Sections of a Marine Environment

• Continental Shelf
• Shelf Break
• Continental Slope
• Continental Rise
• Abyssal Plain
• Ocean ZOnes
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

3.0 Marine Depositional

Environments
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Shallow Marine - Continental Shelf

• The continental shelf is the flooded edge of the
continent
• Relatively flat (slope < 0.1 degrees)
• Extensively wide (>100km) and
• Covered by up to 200m deep waters.
• Exposed to wave tides and currents
• Exposed to a wide range of sediment deposition
(gravel to mud)
Global Location of continental Shelves

Source: www.marineregions.org
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Shallow Marine - Continental Shelf

The continental shelf of Guyana

Source: Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Shallow Marine - Continental Shelf

Shelf is divided into three zones:
I. Inner shelf - Subaerial to shallow water;
dominated by tidal, wind-driven, and storm-
wave processes
II. Middle shelf- Subtidal and may extend to shelf
break
III. Outer shelf - narrow zone that always includes
the shelf break

• Boundaries between the inner, middle, and outer

shelves are not fixed
• Positions fluctuate with changing sea level
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Shallow Marine - Continental Shelf

Sediment characteristics
• Shallow seas are rich in marine life
• Abundant calcareous shells may be found in sediments
• Whole shells in mud-rocks (low-energy deposits)
• Bio-clastic fragments in high energy environments (sands)

Primary structures
• wave ripples, hummocky cross-stratification, trough crossbedding

Bioturbation
• Forms recognizable features
• Churns sediment and removes structures
• Most intense in shallower waters
• More abundant in sandy sediment than in muddy deposits
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Shallow Marine - Continental Shelf

Summary
• Lithology – mainly sand and mud, with some gravel
• Mineralogy: – mature quartz sands, shelly sands
• Texture – generally moderately to well sorted
• Bed Geometry – sheets of variable thickness, large lenses formed by ridges and bars
• Sedimentary Structures – cross-bedding, cross and horizontal lamination, hummocky and swaley cross
stratification
• Palaeocurrents – flow directions very variable, reflecting tidal currents, longshore drift, etc.
• Fossils – often diverse and abundant, benthic forms are characteristic
• Colour – often pale yellow-brown sands or grey sands and muds
• Facies Associations – may be overlain or underlain by coastal, deltaic, estuarine or deeper marine facies
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Shallow Marine – Shelf Break

• Point of noticeable slope increase
• Average distance from shore: 75 km (range: 10s of m
to >1000 km)
• Average water depth: 130m
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Continental Slope
• Accounts for 10-15% of the Earth’s Surface
(Nardin, et al., 1979)
• Located seaward of the continental shelf and
before the continental rise
• It is the steep (5-25 degrees) drop off at the
edge of the continent into oceanic crust
• Rapid sediment transport from continental
shelf down slope by dense, muddy turbidity
currents.
• Sediments pass seaward to the continental rise
and abyssal plain Relationship between continental slope and crusts
• Sedimentary rock types formed are primarily
turbidites
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Continental Rise
• Located between the continental slope and the
abyssal plain
• Major depositional regime
• Site for thick sediment deposition, primarily as
submarine fans off of submarine canyons
• Sediments are primarily deposited by turbidity
currents at the base of the continental rise to
produce turbidite deposits
• Sediment movement involves them going seaward
into the abyssal plain.
Relationship between continental slope and crusts
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Abyssal Plain
• Refer to as the deep ocean floor
• Basically flat
• Depth: 3,000 to 6,000 m
• Sediment accumulation: averages 1 km in
thickness
• Covered by fine grained detrital sediments
and shells of microscopic organisms that
have remained entrained in water column
for long periods of time and transported
great distances

Photo shows the lateral extent of the abyssal plain. It accounts

for as much 79% of the total sea floor
Source: www.extremescience.com
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments - Marine

Abyssal Plain
• Sediments, primarily chalk diatomite and shale are deposited over basaltic oceanic crust
• Originate at continental shelf as the result of turbidity currents (deep-sea fans).
• Sedimentary rock types include:
I. Siltstones, Mudstones, and Shales
II. Fine-grained Inorganic Limestones (Micritic and Crystalline)
III. Fine-grained Organic Limestones – Foraminifera forming Chalk or Micritic Limestones
IV. Fine-grained Inorganic Siliceous Rocks – Diatoms forming Diatomite
V. Chert (Radiolarians and Volcanic Ash)
Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Features of Deep Marine Clastic Environments

• The physical processes, such as tides and waves, which dominate coastal and shallow marine environments
are generally absent or ineffective in the deep marine environment.
• The deep oceans are predominantly low-energy environments in which fine grained carbonate or clastic
muds are able to accumulate.
• Coarse-grained sediment is transported into these environments by a number of infrequent and short-lived
processes, of which the sediment gravity flow processes (slumps, debris flows, turbidity currents etc.) are
dominant.
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Turbidite
• A special type deposit formed within a submarine
environment is known as a turbidite. In response to a major
storm or an earthquake, a plume of sediment-rich water
starts to flow down the continental slope, eroding material as
it goes.
• This material is deposited on the deep ocean floor, and as it
settles out it forms graded layers, ranging upward from
coarse to fine material.
• The process is repeated tens or
hundreds of times forming a sequence of layers with
relatively consistent thicknesses in the order of a few
centimetres - each layer representing one turbidity flow. Single point-source submarine fan in a
sand-rich system
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

Turbidite
• Some turbidite successions demonstrates the occurrence of facies
sequences in which the thickness and/or mean grain size of the
sandstone beds increases or decreases upwards. These trends were
attributed to deposition on different parts of a submarine fan.
• Submarine fans occur offshore from major river systems or off the
continental shelf in many parts of the world. Like deltas, they are
sourced from a single point and contain a system of distributary
channels supplying lobes.
• The upward-thickening trends in turbidite sequences are attributed
to the progradation of fan lobes and the upward-thinning trends to
deposition within a channel. It should be noted, however, that this
model is somewhat simplistic, and that the thickening or thinning
trends may be very subtle.
Single point-source submarine fan in a
sand-rich system
 Classification of Sedimentary Depositional Environments

The classic Bouma sequence for a classical turbidite

(Bouma, 1962). Division A is structureless; B is parallel-
laminated sand; C is rippled and/or convoluted; D consists
of parallel-laminated silt and mud. The pelitic interval E is Facies models for turbidites, debris flow deposits (debrites)
partly of turbidite origin (t) and partly hemipelagic (h) and slump deposits.
Interpreting Depositional Environments

What to look for when trying to determine which depositional environment the sedimentary rock
was formed?
1. Grain size
2. Grain shape
3. Grain surface texture
4. Sedimentary structures
5. Composition (siliciclastic; carbonate, evaporite, coal, chert)
6. Presence of organics
7. Presence or absence of fossils (body fossils, trace fossils)
8. Stratification sequence (fining or coarsening upwards)
9. Sediment-body geometry/architecture
Summary Slides
Classification of
Sedimentary
Depositional
Environments
Classification Depositional Description
Environment
Location Features Sediments Sedimentary Rocks

of Deltas • Fan-shaped accumulations of • Forms where a river

sediment. flows into a standing
• The delta builds seaward • Coarser sediment is deposited
(or progrades) as near the mouth of the river.
• Pebble Conglomerates,
Sandstones, Siltstones,
Sedimentary body of water, such as a sediment is deposited at • Finer sediment is carried seaward Mudstones, and Shales
lake or the sea the river mouth. and deposited in deeper water.
Depositional Beaches and • A long, relatively narrow • Barrier Islands are • Exposed to wave energy • Dominated by sand • Beaches – Quartz
Environments Barrier Islands island running parallel to the
mainland.
separated from the
mainland by a lagoon
• Marine fauna • Associated with lagoon (or salt
marsh) deposits
Sandstones, other
sandstones, Conglomerates
• Served to protect the coast (or salt marsh) • Associated with tidal flat • Barrier Islands – Quartz
from erosion by surf and tidal deposits Sandstones
surges • Lagoons and Tidal Flats –
Transitional Siltstones, Mudstones, and
Shales
Depositional Lagoons • Shallow bodies of water • Landward side of barrier • Protected from the • Contain finer sediment than the • Siltstones, Mudstones, and
islands. pounding of the ocean beaches and barrier islands Shales
• Also present behind
Environments reefs, or in the center of
waves by barrier islands. (usually silt and clay)

atolls
Tidal Flats • Nearly flat, low relief areas • Border lagoons, • Periodically flooded and • May be marshy, muddy, sandy or • Sandy Siltstones,
shorelines, and exposed by tides (usually mixed sediment types Mudstones, and Shales
estuaries twice each day) (terrigenous or carbonate) • Carbonates
• Laminations and ripples are
common.
• Sediments are intensely
burrowed.
• Stromatolites may be
present (if conditions are
appropriate)
Estuaries • Mouth of a river drowned by • Forms where a river • Brackish water (mixture • May trap large volumes of • Sandstones, Siltstones,
the sea. flows into a standing of fresh and salt) sediment. Mudstones, and Shales
• Many estuaries formed due to body of water, such as a • Sand, silt, and clay may be
sea level rise as glaciers lake or the sea deposited depending on energy
melted at end of last Ice Age. level
• Some formed due to tectonic
subsidence.
 MARINE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Depositional
Location Water Depth Slope Width Features Sediments Sedimentary Rocks
Environment
Continental • Flooded edge of • Shallow • Relatively flat • Up to 300 • Exposed to waves, • ● Covered by land derived detrital • Pebble Conglomerates, Sandstones,
Shelf Continent. water (less (slope < 0.1º). km wide tides, and currents. sediments pebbles, sand, silt, and Siltstones, Mudstones, and Shales
• Flooding occurred than 200 m (averages • Locally cut by clay. • Organic Limestones – Fossiliferous
when the glaciers deep) 80 km wide submarine canyons • Larger sedimentary grains are Limestones, Oolitic Limestones, Coral Reef
melted about 10,000 (eroded by rivers deposited closer to shore. Limestones, and Coquina
years ago. during Ice Age low • Coral reefs and carbonate sediments • Evaporites in enclosed seas
sea level stand). in tropical areas.
Continental • Seaward of • Deeper • More steeply • ~20 km • Boundary between • Rapid sediment transport from • Turbidites – Fining-upward sequence with a
Slope continental shelf. water inclined. wide continental and continental shelf down slope by dense, base of pebble conglomerates in a sandy
Steeper slope at (slope 3 – 6º) oceanic crust. muddy turbidity currents. matrix that grade up through coarse to
edge of continent • Sediments pass seaward to the medium sandstones, followed by silty
continental rise and abyssal plain. sandstones, and finally siltstones and
shales. This vertical succession of changing
lithology is representative of strong to
waning flow regime currents and their
corresponding sedimentation.
Continental • Base of the • 1,400 to • More gradual • Up to • Submarine fans form • Turbidity currents form submarine • Turbidites
Rise continental slope. 3,200 m slope 100s of off submarine fans off submarine canyons.
km wide canyons. • Sediments pass seaward into the
abyssal plain.

Abyssal Plain • Deep ocean floor • 3 to 5 km+ • Nearly flat ) • NA • Covered by very finegrained detrital • Siltstones, Mudstones, and Shales
(2 - 3 sediments and shells of microscopic • Fine-grained Inorganic Limestones
miles+ ) organisms that have remained (Micritic and Crystalline)
entrained in water column for long • Fine-grained Organic Limestones –
periods of time and transported great Foraminifera forming Chalk or Micritic
distances. Limestones
• Originate at continental shelf as the • Fine-grained Inorganic Siliceous Rocks –
result of turbidity currents (deep-sea Diatoms forming Diatomite
fans). • Chert (Radiolarians and Volcanic Ash)
Structural Geology
Outline
• What is Structural Geology and what it entails?
• Stress vs strain
• Geological Structures
• Fractures
• Faults
• Joints
• Folds
• Boudins
• Shear zones
• Cleavages (also knows as schistosities)
• Foliations
• Lineations
objectives
Students should be able to understand:
• The focus of structural geology
• Role of Stress and Strain in producing geological structures
• Differentiate between the different types and subclassifications of Geological
Structures
• The process by which the different structures are formed
• Significance of the different geological structures in Petroleum Exploration
and production
Key terms
Geological Structure
• A geometric feature in rock whose shape, form, and distribution can be described

Structural Geology
• It is the branch of geology that studies the 3D geometry from micro (100
microns) to macro (100 meters) scale of rocks to explain the deformation
processes the rocks experienced since their origination.
• It introduces the physical side of Geological Sciences and emphasizes:
I. Geometry (shape, orientation, position, size, etc.)
II. Motion (beginning and ending positions and paths of particles and bodies—
deformation or change in geometry)
III. Mechanics (explanations of why the geometry and motion are as they are)
Structural geology - Importance
• Structural geology is at the core of hydrocarbon and mineral exploration, as
structures control the migration, trapping and escape of hydrocarbon
fluids.
• It is the first stage to any regional geophysical and geochemical surveys
aiming at identifying new mineralized provinces.
• Dictates well placement in petroleum exploration (prospects and hazrads)
• Critical for the interpretation of geophysical, geochemical, and
geochronological data
• Core of geotechnical site assessment for bridges, dams, tunnels, nuclear
reactors, waste disposals etc.
• No geological, geochemical or geophysical study can be done without the
input of structural geology
Structural geology
What do we study in structural geology?
• We infer the stress that causes strain; we never observe stress while it is
happening.
Strain ——> Shortening or lengthening (extension)
Stress —–> Compression or Tension

• We measure attitude of planes and lines.

• Attitude: the orientation of a plane or line in space.

Key terms
• Stress
• The force applied on the surface of a body.
• Defined as F/A where F is Force and A is cross-sectional area

• Strain
• The resultant effect that causes a change in the shape, size, or volume of that body.
• In other words, strain is the measure of material deformation such as the amount of
compression when something is squeezed or elongation when it is stretched.

• A change in the volume of a body is termed as dilation, whereas an alteration of shape is

known as distortion.
Driving Forces of deformation
• Driving forces of deformation include
• Gravitational loading
• Tectonics (plate boundaries)
• Convergent or collisional – e.g. Andes, Himalayas
• Divergent – e.g. Mid-Ocean ridge
• Transform - - e.g. San Andreas Fault
Stress
Types of Stresses
• Depending upon the resistance offered by a rock body, stresses are classified into three types:
1. Compressive
2. Shear
3. tensile.
• Compressive stress tends to compress the rock body resulting in a decrease in volume
• Shear stress tends to shear (i.e., break apart) one part from the other.
• Tensile stress tends to develop cracks in the body of the rock samples.
• Stress is measured as the total force per
unit area and expressed as N/m2 or Pa
 Factors Controlling Rock Deformation
• The type and amount of strain that a particular material experiences
depends on:
I. Type and rate of stresses applied – Sudden stress such as impact from hammer is likely to lead
to failure whilst loading over time leads to plastic deformation
II. Pressure and temperature (depth) – Rocks break more readily at surface whilst at depths they
behave more plastic.
III. Rock composition
IV. Presence or absence of fluids
Deformation of Rocks – Behavioral Response
to Stress
Deformation of Rocks – Behavioral Response
to Stress
Deformation of Rocks – Behavioral Response
to Stress
• Different types of rocks vary considerably in their stress-strain
behavior

• Brittle rocks respond in a mostly elastic fashion until failure •

• Ductile rocks respond elastically until the “Elastic Limit”, then in

plastic fashion until failure
Deformation of Rocks – Behavioral Response
to Stress
• Strain at Failure
• Brittle rocks, typically crystalline rocks, have low strain at failure, while soft rock, such as
shale and mudstone, could have relatively high strain at failure.

• Strain at failure sometimes is used as a measure of brittleness of the rock. Strain at failure
increases with increasing confining pressure under triaxial compression conditions

• Rocks can have brittle or ductile behaviour after peak. Most rocks, including all crystalline
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, behave brittle under uniaxial compression. A
few soft rocks, mainly of sedimentary origin, behave ductile
Deformation of Rocks – Behavioral
Response to Stress
Deformation of Rocks – Behavioral Response
to Stress
Young's Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio

• Young's Modulus is modulus of elasticity measuring the stiffness of a rock material. It is defined as
the ratio of the rate of change of stress with strain.
• Similar to strength, Young’s Modulus of rock materials varies widely with rock type. For
extremely hard and strong rocks, Young’s Modulus can be as high as 100 GPa.
• There is some correlation between compressive strength and Young’s Modulus

• Poisson’s ratio measures the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain, at linearly-elastic region. For
most rocks, the Poisson’s ratio is between 0.15 and 0.4.
• As seen from early section, at later stage of loading beyond linearly elastic region, lateral
strain increase faster than the axial strain and hence lead to a higher ratio.
Deformation Features / Structures
• Fractures - Is a local separation or discontinuity plane in a geologic formation
• Faults - Distinct fracture surfaces along which rocks have been offset by movement parallel to
the fracture surface Mode II or III).
• Joints - A joint is a separation in rock where the amount of separation is not greater than the
displacement associated with the opening of the fracture (Mode 1 Fracture).
• Folds - Folds are planar surfaces that are curved or bent due to external forces.
• Boudins - extensional rock structures resembling sausage like form
• Shear zones - General term for a relatively narrow zone with subparallel
boundaries in which rocks are more highly deformed than rocks adjacent to the
zone
• Cleavages (also knows as schistosities)
• Foliations - Foliation is any penetrative planar fabric or layering in a rock.
• Lineation - Is a preferred linear alignment of elements in rocks
 Measurements needed to describe structures
• In the field, structural geologists measure
the strike-dip direction of planar features
(bedding, cleavage, fault, fold axial surface
...), and plunge plunge direction of linear
features (fold axes, intersecting lineations).
• They gather information about the
orientation, and when possible the
magnitude, of strain and stress, and they
determine the relative sense of
displacement across brittle faults and
ductile shear zones.
• Based on cross-cutting relationships, they
determine the sequence of geological and
deformational events, they characterise
the strain (incremental and finite strain Planar surfaces are oriented in space by their strike (azimuth of an horizontal line
on the planar surface), dip (angle from horizontal down to the plane) and dip
analyses). direction (geographic direction toward which the plane is sloping). Folds are
oriented by the strike-dip-dip direction of their axial plane, the the plunge and
plunge direction of their axis (line running along their hinge).
 Measurements needed to describe
structures' Attitude
• Trend: The direction of a horizontal line
specified by its bearing or azimuth.
• Bearing: The horizontal angle measured
east or west from the true north or south.
• Azimuth: The horizontal angle measured
clockwise from the true north.
• Strike: The trend of a horizontal line on an
inclined plane. It is marked by the line of
the intersection with a horizontal plane.
(Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
• Inclination: The vertical angle, measured
downward from the horizontal to a sloping
plane or line.

Planar surfaces are oriented in space by their strike (azimuth of an horizontal line
on the planar surface), dip (angle from horizontal down to the plane) and dip
direction (geographic direction toward which the plane is sloping). Folds are
oriented by the strike-dip-dip direction of their axial plane, the the plunge and
plunge direction of their axis (line running along their hinge).
Fractures
Fractures are important in Petroleum exploration as they:
• Provide relative age and tectonic evolution of sedimentary rock sequences
• They exhibit physical characteristics that influences the behavior of rocks, for
e.g. permeability and strength of rocks
 Fractures
Classification
• Based on the relative motion across the
fracture surfaces as they form:
• Extension Fractures – Motion perpendicular to the
fracture surface (Mode I) during fracture
propagation
• Shear Fractures – Relative motion occurs parallel to
fracture surface as fracture propagates
• Mode II (In-plane) – Propagation occurs if the
sliding motion is perpendicular to the
propagating tip, or edge of the fracture
• Mode III (Out-of-plane) – Propagation occurs if
the sliding motion is parallel to the propagating
tip Arrows on fracture tip shows the
• Fractures formed from both parallel and fracture propagation direction.
perpendicular displacements from the fracture Double-shafted arrows show
surface is an oblique extension fracture relative motion across the fracture
plane
faults
Descriptive Geometry of Faults
• Hanging wall (HW) - block above
fault plane
• Footwall (FW) – block below fault
plane
• Fault surface - planar or listric
(concave upward)
• Slip or total displacement – the
direction, sense and magnitude of
movement on a fault (a vector, u)
• Heave – horizontal displacement of
a particular layer across a fault
surface
• Throw – vertical displacement of a
particular layer across a fault surface
 Classification of Faults
• Faults are classified using the
of HW, FW, and Slip:
• Normal Faults – HW slips down
relative to FW
• Thrust Faults -- - FW slips up
relative to HW (dip < 45
degrees)
• Reverse Faults – steeper
versions of thrust faults (dip >
45 degree)
• Strike-slip faults – horizontal
slip - right lateral or left lateral
• Oblique-slip - Combines strike
slip with either normal or
reverse motion
Oblique-slip
faults
Now that we know the components of a fault, What is the story behind
this fault?
Anderson’s Theory of faulting
• There cam be no shear stress at a free surface, therefore principal
stresses are oriented perpendicular and parallel to Earth’s surface.
• Normal faults dip 60°, vertical max. principal stress
• Thrust faults dip 30°, vertical min. principal stress, horizontal max. principal
stress
• Strike-slip faults dip 90°, vertical intermediate principal stress, horizontal max.
and min principal stress
Classification of Faults
Normal Fault
• A normal fault is a dip-slip fault in
which the hanging-wall has moved
down relative to the footwall.
• Normal faults are produced by
extensional stresses in which the
maximum principal stress (rock
overburden) is vertical
• A very low-angle normal fault at the
base of an extending block is called
a detachment fault
• Found primarily in Mid Ocean
Ridges and basins
Thrust / Reverse Fault
• A thrust or a reverse fault is a dipping
fault whose hanging wall is translated
updip
• Thrusts are commonly low angle faults
(< 45 degrees)
• Reverse faults are high angle (>45
degrees)
• Thrust faults and thrust belts are
associated with convergent margins
(subduction zones, collision zones) and
tectonic thickening of the crust
• Produced by compressional stresses in
which the maximum principal stress is
horizontal and the minimum stress is
vertical
Strike – Slip Fault
• Strike-slip faults are faults with very little
vertical component of motion, i.e.: the slip
vector is nearly parallel with the strike line.
• Strike-slip faults are typically steep or vertical
and in Andersonian fault theory are
associated with a stress regime where both
maximum and minimum stresses are near
horizontal while the intermediate stress is
vertical.
• A dextral or right-lateral strike-slip fault is
when if you stand on one side of the fault
and see the other side move to the right
• If it moves to the left, its called a sinistral or left-
lateral strike-slip fault
• Strike-slip faults are characteristic of margins
where lithospheric plates slide past each
other
Oblique-Slip fault
• Both the maximum and
minimum compressive stresses
which drive the faulting are
horizontal.
• These stresses are oblique to
the fault; the direction of
maximum compressive stress
is about 30 degrees from the
fault strike.

Strike-Slip faults in siltstone. Near Lillooet, British Columbia

Extensional fault systems
• An extensional fault is a fault caused by stretching of the Earth's crust.
• Stretching reduces the thickness and horizontally extends portions of
the crust and/or lithosphere resulting in fractures to form.
• In most cases such a fault is also a normal fault, but may create a
shallower dip usually associated with a thrust fault.
• Extensional faulting systems usually includes:
• Listric faults
• Horst and Graben
Extensional fault systems
• Listric Fault
• A listric fault is a fault which shallows
with depth thereby producing a
curved fault plane.
• Compared to a simple planar model,
such a fault accommodates a
considerably greater amount of
extension for the same amount of slip.
• Characteristically, beds in the hanging
wall have to rotate and dip towards
the fault and consists of several low
angle faults connected to the larger
fault.
Extensional fault systems
• Listric Fault
Extensional fault systems
• Find the Listric Fault!
Extensional fault systems
Horst and Grabben
• Horst and graben are formed when normal faults
of opposite dip occur in pair with
parallel strike lines
• A horst represents a block pushed upward relative
to the blocks on either side by faulting
• A graben is a fault block, generally elongate, that
has been lowered relative to the blocks on either
side without major disturbance or pronounced
tilting.
• The bordering faults, or fault zones, are usually of
near-parallel strike and are steeply dipping, along
which the vertical displacement has been
approximately equal.
 Joints
• A natural break in the rock that lacks visible movement of the rock
parallel to the plane of fracture.
• Most frequently occur as joint sets and systems.
• A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be
identified through mapping and analysis of the orientations, spacing, and
physical properties.
• A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. or fracture
in the rock that lacks any visible movement parallel to the fracture plane.
• Angles at which joint sets intersects in a joint system are called dihedral
angles
• Formed in most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks,
such as sandstone, limestone, quartzite, and granite.
• Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials (veins or dikes)
• Rocks are generally weak in tensile strength, thus tensile stress can cause
rocks to become jointed.

Columnar Jointing
Joints
Classification
• Joints may be classified based on:
1. Spatial Relationship – refers to how the joints are related to each other
I. Non-systematic
II. Systematic
2. Geometery - refers to the orientation of joints as either plotted
on stereonets and rose-diagrams or observed in rock exposures
I. Strike
II. Dip
III. Oblique
3. Origin – the genesis of the joints
1. Tectonic
2. Hydraulic
3. Exfoliation
4. Unloading and cooling
joints
1. Spatial Relationship
1.1 Non Systematic Joints
• Nonsystematic joints are joints that
have no consistency in form,
spacing, and orientation .
• Cannot be readily grouped into
distinctive, continuous joint sets
• In many cases they are related to
systematic joints in that these occur
between them
joints
1. Spatial Relationship
1.2 Systematic Joints
• Systematic joints are more ordered
• Consists of planar, parallel, joints that
can be traced over large distance, and
are regularly, evenly spaced on the
order centimeters, meters, tens of
meters, or even hundreds of meters.
• Based upon the angle at which joint
sets of systematic joints intersect to
form a joint system, it can be
subdivided into conjugate and
orthogonal joint sets.
joints
1. Spatial Relationship
1.2 Systematic Joints
• When the dihedral angles are
nearly 90° within a joint
system, the joint sets are
known as orthogonal joint sets.
• When the dihedral angles are
from 30 to 60° within a joint
system, the joint sets are
known as conjugate joint sets.
Conjugate joints
joints
2. Geometry
2.1 Strike Joints
• Joint sets strike parallel to the strike
of rocks
2.2 Dip Joints
• Joints are parallel to the dip of rocks
2.3 Oblique Joints
• Joints, which run in a direction that
lies between the strike and dip
direction of the rock beds
Joints
3. Origin
3.1 Tectonic
A. Tension Joints
• Formed due to tensile forces
• Found on outer section of crest and troughs of fold, during cooling of igneous
rocks and in underlying rocks expanding after weathering and erosion of
overlying rock layers.
B. Shear Joints
• Formed due to shear stresses acting in folded (axial region) or faulted rock bodies
C. Compression Joints
• Related to compressive forces such as the core of folded rocks
Joints
3. Origin
3.1 Tectonic
 Joints
3. Origin
3.2 Hydraulic Joints
• Joints thought to have formed when pore
fluid pressure became elevated as a result of
vertical gravitational loading.
• This occurs by the accumulation of either
sediments, volcanic, or other material causes
an increase in the pore pressure of
groundwater and other fluids when they are
confined from movement

• 3.3 Sheet and Exfoliation Joints

• Sets of flat-lying, curved, and large joints that
are restricted to massively exposed rock
faces in an deeply eroded landscape.
• They are formed sub- paralled to the
topographic surface as weathering of Diagram illustrating sheet jointing
overlying material allows expansion in rock
 Joints
3. Origin
3.3 Sheet and Exfoliation Joints
Joints
3. Origin
3.4 Unloading Joints
• Also referred to as release joints
• Formed near the surface due to uplift
and erosion
• Related primarily to sedimentary rocks
which when uplifted looses compression
and becomes relaxed to non-
confinement and fractures in response to
expansion of the rock
• Compressive stress is released either
along pre-existing structural elements
(such as cleavage) or perpendicular to
the former direction of tectonic
compression.
Joints
3. Origin
3.5 Cooling Joints
(Columnar)
• Cooling joins are generally
columnar joints that
results from the cooling of
lava forming pattern of
joints that join together at
triple junctions either at or
about 120° angles.
• Also called prismatic joints
Folds
Folds
• Folds are evidence of ductile deformation (permanent strain)
• Petroleum exploration has historically been associated with folds more than with
any other geological structure.
• Fold structures are found in various shapes and sizes, and can be very complex.
• We can observe folds on rock samples (hand specimens), outcrops, seismic
images, and on satellite and aerial photographs.
• Millimeter-scale folds can be observed in thin-sections.
• The complete picture of a fold structure may not be visible in an outcrop due to erosion or
non-exposure.
• To reconstruct and analyse fold structures it is important to understand their
basic elements – their anatomy
• Large doubly-plunging anticlines are especially important because they
provide four-way dip closures for oil and gas accumulations
Geometry of folds
• A fold is a rock structure in which two curved
surfaces, or limbs (flanks), are joined at
a hinge line (or a hinge point on a 2D profile)
or practically speaking a hinge zone.
• Folds in 2D
• Hinge point – point of maximum curvature
• Hinge zone -- curved portion of fold
• Limb – sides of fold with little or no curvature
between hinges
• Inflection point - point on a limb at which the
concavity reverses; on regular folds, this is the
midpoint of the limb
• Interlimb angle: The smaller angle (acute angle)
made by the limbs
• Infers the intensity of
deformation
 Geometry of folds
• Folds in 3D
• Fold axis – collection of hinge points as an imaginary line,
which when moved parallel to itself can define the form of
a fold
• Axial surface / Axial Plane (if not curved) - collection of fold
axes that produces a surface that passes through successive
hinge lines
Geometry of folds
• Symmetry
• Symmetric – each limb dips the same (Upright fold)
• Asymmetric or verging -- one limb has steeper dips than other (Inclined fold)
• Overturned – one limb has overturned beds whilst the other remains normal
stratigraphic position
Geometry of folds
• Orientation
• Plunge: The attitude of the fold
axis is measured as the angle
between the axis and
horizontal.
• This angle which must be
measured in
vertical plane (like the dip
angle), is
termed as the plunge (has both
the
amount and direction.)
Geometry of folds
 Classification of folds
• Folds may be classified based one :
1. Direction of closing
2. Attitude of fold axis
3. Size of interlimb angle
4. Profile
 Monocline

Classification of folds
1. Direction of Closing / Shape
I. Monoclines – a single bent limb of an
otherwise horizontal strata caused by
vertical displacement
II. Antiform – Convex upwards (limbs dip Antiform vs synform
down) downward, does not take age of
rocks into consideration
III. Synform – concave upward (limbs dip up),
does not take age of rocks into
consideration
IV. Anticline – concave downward, oldest
sedimentary rocks in center
V. Syncline – concave upward, youngest
sedimentary rocks in center
 Classification of folds
1. Direction of Closing / Shape
VI. Neutral – Fold closes laterally and is
therefore neither antiformal nor synformal
VII. Vertical – A neutral fold where its fold axis
and axial plane are oriented vertically
 Classification of folds
2. Attitude of Fold Axis
• Folds may be classified in terms of
their attitude of their hinge line
and axial surface
I. Plunge of Hinge Line
II. Dip of Axial Surface

M.J. Fleuty (Geologists’ Association Proceedings, 1964) has

proposed a classification of folds based on dip of axial plane
and plunge of hinge line. This scheme is useful to characterize
the geometric position of a fold.
 Classification of folds
2. Attitude of Fold Axis
• Based on plunge of fold axis /
hinge line:
I. Horizontal - horizontal fold axis
II. Plunging - inclined fold axis
III. Vertical - vertical fold axis
 Classification of folds
2. Attitude of Fold Axis
• Based on inclination of fold axial
surface (from vertical)
I. Symmetrical – axial plane is vertical
II. Asymmetrical – axial plane is incline
III.Overturned folds - axial plane inclined to
such an extent that the strata on one limb
are overturned
IV. Recumbent - axial surface is nearly
horizontal between 0-10°
V. Reclined fold - axial plane dips between 10-
80° and the pitch of the hinge line on the
axial plane is more than 80°.
Classification of folds
3. Fold Tightness based on
interlimb angle (Fleuty, 1964)

• Flat lying 180°

• Gentle 120°-180°
• Open 70°-120°
• Closed 30°-70°
• Tight 10°-30°
• Isoclinal 0°-10°

Tangents are drawn from inflection points

when measuring interlimb angles
between limbs that are not straight.

Fold classification based on

interlimb angle
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
• The geometry of the fold is one of the most widely used and simple classification schemes of
folds
• The fold profile or geometry is the shape of folded layer observed in the plane perpendicular
to the fold axis

Types of Folds based on fold profile include:

1. Parallell
2. Similar
3. Chevron
4. Parasite
5. Harmonic and Disharmonic
6. Conjugate
7. Dome and Basin
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.1 Parallell / Concentric Fold

• Folds that maintain uniform layer

thickness
• the constant thickness of folded layer
is measured perpendicular to the fold
surface
• Caused by warping from active
buckling of the layers
• Concentric fold is where adjacent
fold surfaces are arcs of a circle
with a common center known as
the center of curvature
• Both folds die outward and
downward as a consequence of
their own geometry
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.2 Similar Fold

• The orthogonal thickness of a

fold layer changes in systematic
manner that the fold maintains
uniform thickness measured
parallel to the axial surface.
• The folded layers tend to be
thicker in the hinge of the fold
and thinner along the limbs of
the fold.
• Requires ductile flow of material
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.3 Chevron Fold

• This is a fold having a sharp

angular crest or trough with
straight limbs
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.4 Parasite Folds
• Exists as small folds on the
hinge and limbs of much
larger folds
• Small in terms of wavelength
and amplitude
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.5 Harmonic and
Disharmonic Folds
• Harmonic folds consists of a
thick succession of rock
layers that almost follow
the same style
• Disharmonic fold is where
the layer surfaces do not
follow the same style as the
others within it.
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.6 Conjugate Fold
• These folds are found in pairs
whose axial surfaces are
dipping towards each other
(double hinged fold)
• Limbs are commonly straight,
and hinge zones short and
angular.
• Thought to be formed during
the final stages of
deformation
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4.7 Dome Fold
• Dome fold consists of a set of
rock beds lifted centrally giving
the feature of a dome.
• The area of rock bed lifted may
be circular or oval shaped.
• In a vertical section through the
summit, the fold exhibits an
anticlinal feature. For this reason
this fold is also called a
compound anticline.
• After the domes are eroded, the
younger rocks appear
surrounding the older rocks.
Classification of folds
4. Fold Profile
4. 8 Basin Fold
• Basin fold consists of a set of
rock beds which are sunk
down centrally giving the
feature of a basin.
• The area of the rock bed sunk
may be circular or oval
shaped.
• In a vertical section taken
centrally the fold exhibits a
synclinal feature. For this
reason this fold is also called a
compound syncline.
What causes folds to form?
1. Applied Stress – Exceeds elastic limit causing rocks to become
permanently bent or folded
2. The presence of planar surfaces within the strata
What causes folds to form?
1. Layer-parallel shortening
2. Fault-related folding
3. Fault bend folding
4. Fault propagation folding
5. Detachment folding
6. Folding in shear zones
7. Folding in unconsolidated sediments
8. Intrusions

Activity – Read up on how these processes influenced fold formation

Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
1. Buckling
2. Bending
3. Flexural Slip
4. Flexural Flow
5. Passive Flow
Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
1. Buckling
• Formed when force is applied
parallel to layering in rocks.
• Results in layers shortening
parallel to layering
• A contrast in viscosity is
required for buckling to occur,
with the folding layer being
more competent than the host
rock (matrix)
Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
1. Buckling
• Strain produced with in the
layer is determined by
extension around the outer Arc
and compression in the Inner
Arc separated by a neutral
surface .

Strain distribution in the hinge zone of a folded limestone

layer in shale. Outer-arc stretching is separated from
inner-arc shortening by a neutral surface.
Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
2. Bending
• Forces acting on strata are applied at
high angles to layers acting across all
layers.
• Layers in bending are bent like an
elastic beam the has been supported at
the ends and loaded in the middle.
• Generally produce folds that are very
gentle with large inter limb angles.
• Formed in scenarios such as where
there is forceful intrusive bodies (salt or
magma), layers with differential
compaction, fault-bend folds (rocks
over a thrust fault) and or rigid boudins
Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
2. Bending

Examples of bending in various settings and scales: (a)

between boudins; (b) above thrust ramps; (c)
above reactivated faults; and (d) above shallow intrusions
or salt diapirs.
Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
3. Flexural Slip
• Flexural slip allows folding by creating
layer-parallel slip between thin layers
of the folded strata
• Act usually in low temperature and
pressure found at shallow depth
within the Earth Crust.
• Parallel concentric folds form by
buckling or bending. Slip in these folds
is parallel to the layering.
• They have constant layer thickness.
• Maximum slip occurs at the inflection
points and dies out toward the hinge
line, where it is zero.
 Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
4. Flexural Flow / Shear
• Flexural flow requires moderate-to high
ductility contrast between layers.
• Ductile layers flow whilst the brittle layers
buckle
• In flexural fold amplitude and wavelength
may be controlled by the original thickness,
spacing and strength of the strong layers.
• Form in rocks from low and moderate
metamorphic grade. They are similar-like
folds.
• Pure flexural folds have no neutral surface,
and strain increases away from the hinge
zone.
• Produces similar folds
• Hinges are thickened between thinned limbs
Folding Mechanisms – how do folds form?
5. Passive Flow Folds
• Are similar folds that involve plastic
deformation.
• The layering acts only as a
displacement marker.
• Passive flow folds form in
metamorphic rocks with low mean
ductility and ductility contrast.
• Example: salt, glacial ice and water
saturated unconsolidated sediments
 Boudins and Boudinage
• Boudins form due to a process called boudinage
that represents extensional deformation.
• Boudins form when lengthening affects a layered
rock formation involving competent layers
embedded into a less competent, easily deformable,
host rock.
• Upon extension, the stronger layers lengthen via
heterogeneous thinning leading to the development
of pinch and swell structures (i.e. thinning of the
strong layer is periodic).
• Amplification of thinning in the pinched regions
eventually led to the segmentation of the stronger
layers into boudins separated by necks.
• The strength contrast and the direction of
extension with respect to the layer impose a
strong control on the geometry of the boudins.
 Shear zone
• A shear zone is a zone of strong
deformation (with a high strain rate)
surrounded by rocks with a lower state
of finite strain.
• Shear zones develop as a results of slow,
progressive deformation over long
period of time.
• While faulting and fracturing typically
develop at low temperatures (250ºC),
low strain-rates, and low deviatoric
stresses; shear zones tend to form
localised bands of deformation, in an
more or less homogeneously ductile
strain field.
• Shear zones are scale-independent and
form from mm scale shear bands, to
transcontinental shear zones
Shear zone
• Mylonite, is the central part of
the shear zone where
deformation is the most
intense.
• In a mylonite, the grain size is
significantly reduced and hardly
visible to naked eyes.
• Mineral clasts appear to float in a
fine-grained matrix made of
recrystallized grains

Diagram showing the major different types of shear zones. Displacement,

shear strain, and depth distribution are also indicated.
Shear ZOnes
• Types
1. Brittle
2. Ductile
3. Semi-brittle
4. Brittle-Ductile
Shear ZOnes
Brittle Shear Zones
• Brittle shear zones form in the upper part
of the crust, where the brittle
deformation dominates.
• Characterized by closely spaced faults,
numerous joints and shear fractures.
• These zones of intensely fractured and
crushed rocks associated with faults vary
in thickness from less than a mm to a km
or more.
• The wall rocks outside a brittle shear zone
may be unaffected by the faulting, or may
show a zone of drag folding flanking the
zone.
Shear ZOnes
Ductile Shear Zones
• Ductile shear zones are formed by
shearing under ductile conditions, in this
case it produces at the middle-lower part
of the crust.
• Associated with rocks found in the middle
crust and deeper like gneiss, schist,
marble, migmatite, pegmatite, etc
• The principal feature of a ductile shear
zone is that it doesn’t display any physical
break. Instead, differential translation of
rock bodies is achieved entirely by ductile
flow.
Shear ZOnes
Semi-brittle Shear Zones
• Dominated by brittle deformation
mechanisms but contain some ductile aspects
as well.
• Shear zones defined by en echelon folds can
be either semi-brittle or ductile, depending of
the conditions under which they form.
• Many zones of en echelon folds are
associated with faults and are probably best
classified as semi-brittle shear zones.
• The faults are brittle features, but the folding
may occur by ductile mechanisms, such as
pressure solution, without loss of cohesion of
the rocks
 Shear ZOnes
Brittle-Ductile Shear Zones
• Contain evidence of deformation by
both brittle and ductile mechanisms.
• Brittle-ductile shear zones can be
formed when:
I. Physical conditions permit brittle
and ductile deformation to occur at
the same time
II. Different parts of a rock have
different mechanical properties
III. A shear zone strains harden
IV. Physical conditions change
systematically during deformations
V. Shear zone is reactivated under
physical conditions different from
those in which the shear zone
originally formed.
 Shear Zones – Determining Sense of shear
1. Offset markers 2. Foliation Patterns
• Foliation will be rotated towards
• Measure displacement of parellelism with the shear zones where
features that were once the rocks are more strongly deformed,
connected and the strain is higher.
 Shear Zones – Determining Sense of shear
3. Inclusions 4. Fractured and Offset Grains
• Porphyroclasts and other rigid inclusions
• Inclusions provide sense of may accommodate deformation by
shear information by the way becoming sliced up by small-scale or
they rotate, deform, grain-scale faults.
recrystallize, and interact with
their host rock
 Shear Zones – Determining Sense of shear
5. Veins
• Most shear zone-related veins contain quartz and calcite.
• These minerals are deposited from the fluids that filled the opened fractures.
• Most veins form “perpendicular” to the axis of maximum extension, because this is
the direction in which tension fractures form.
Cleavage
• Cleavage is the low-temperature version of foliation and is
best developed in rocks with abundant platy minerals.
• Cleavage is a secondary (tectonic) fabric which imparts on
the rock a tendency to part or split along it.
• The classic example is slate, where the cleavage is so
perfect that the rock is easily quarried into thin, flat slabs
for pool tables and roofing materials.

Types of cleavage
I. Disjunctive
II. Pencil
III. Slaty
IV. Phyllitic
V. Crenulation
Cleavage
1. Disjunctive
• A type of spaced cleavage defined by an array of
more or less parallel fabric domains (called cleavage
domains).
• Within each fabric domain, there is typically
evidence of pressure solution (hence this is often
called solution cleavage or stylolitic cleavage).
• These domains are separated by intervals called
microlithons.
• The spacing of the cleavage domains (and hence
the width of the microlithons) is quite variable, but
commonly observed on a cmscale
• The term disjunctive cleavage is commonly used
about early tectonic domainal cleavage in
previously unfoliated rocks such as mudstones,
sandstones and limestones. This term implies that
the cleavage cuts across, rather than crenulating
(folding), pre-existing foliations
 Cleavage
2. Pencil
• This is characterized by the rock breaking
into elongate, pencil-like shards.
• Pencil cleavage appears to result from the
intersection of two spaced cleavages, one
of which forms due to the primary
preferred orientation of clays (imparted
during sedimentation and compaction),
the second may form axial planar to folds
or perpendicular to layerparallel
shortening.
• With more strain, it is possible to get the
complete erasure of the original parting
and production of slaty cleavage

Pencil cleavage in shale in the Caledonian foreland fold-and-thrust belt

near Oslo.
Cleavage
3. Slaty
• Slaty cleavage is defined as having 0.01 mm
or less of space occurring between layers.
• Slaty cleavage often occurs
after diagenesis and is the first cleavage
feature to form after deformation begins.

Metamorphosed shale depicting slaty cleavage. Note the

grains of mica, quartz, and ilmenite aligned with a
preferred orientation.
Cleavage
4. Phyllitic
• Cleavage in which flakes are
produced that are barely visible to
the unaided eye. It is coarser than
slaty cleavage
• Phyllitic cleavage is characteristic of
low grade (low greenschis).
• It is produced by the preferred
alignment of clay and mica minerals.
• At the lowest metamorphic grade
these will be illite, transitioning to
white mica (sericite / muscovite) and
chlorite at higher grades.
Cleavage
5. Crenulation
• If rocks containing an early, closely spaced
cleavage (this can be slaty cleavage, phyllitic
cleavage or schistocity) are shortened in a
direction at a low angle to the original fabric,
the older fabric folds at a very small scale.
• This produces a characteristic "wrinkled"
appearance, somewhat like the baffles in an
accordion.
• When a very regularly closely spaced cleavage is
crenulated, the spacing of the small folds is very
uniform, and fold hinges and fold limbs line up.
• This, and possibly pressure solution or shear
thinning in the limbs defines a new foliation,
which is called a crenulation cleavage
Foliation vs Lineation
• Foliation is the result of flattening to produce planar fabric that
record the finite strain
• Lineation refers to any repeated alignment of linear elements
(minerals) in a rock
Homework
In Groups of 5:
1. Research the different types of foliation and produce a short write
up on each type with photographs. Produce a table summarizing the
main distinguishing characteristics for each type
2. Conduct similar research and outputs for lineation
3. Slide 73 - Read up on how these processes influenced fold
formation and summarize in a table