CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW

FM Radio circuit is the simple circuit that can be tuned to the required
frequency locally. This article describes the circuit of FM radio circuit. This is a
pocket sized radio circuit. Radio is the reception of electromagnetic wave through
air. The main principle of this circuit is to tune the circuit to the nearest frequency
using the tank circuit. Data to be transmitted is frequency modulated at the
transmission and is demodulated at the receiver side. Modulation is nothing but
changing the property of the message signal with the respect to the carrier
frequency. Frequency range of FM signal is 87.5MHz to 108.0MHz. The output
can be heard using speaker. Perhaps this is one of the simplest and smallest FM
radio receivers that can receive the FM stations available locally. It is simple
design makes it ideal for a disseminated by various means such as newspapers,
telephone and the internet. However the fastest way, and sometimes the only way,
is by radio. This is where the transfer by electromagnetic waves, travelling at the
speed of light. In radio communication, a radio transmitter comprises one side of
the link and a radio receiver on the other. No conductor of any kind is needed 2
between them, and that’s how the expression Wireless Link came into being. In the
early days of radio engineering the terms Wireless Telegraph and Wireless
Telephone were also used, but were quickly replaced with Radio Communication,
or just Radio.
1.2 Block diagram and its description:

Figure 1.2: Block diagram of from Radio receiver Circuit

1.2.1 Description of block diagram:

Most of these blocks are discussed individually, and in more detail, on other pages.
See filters, mixers, frequency changers, am modulation and amplifiers. The fm
band covers 88-108 MHZ. There are signals from many radio transmitters in this
band inducing signal voltages in the aerial. The RF amplifier selects and amplifies
the desired station from the many. It is adjustable so that the selection frequency
can be altered. This is called TUNING. In cheaper receivers the tuning is fixed and
the tuning filter is wide enough to pass all signals in the FM band. The selected
frequency is applied to the mixer. The output of an oscillator is also applied to the
mixer. The mixer and oscillator form a FREQUENCY CHANGER circuit. The
output from the mixer is the intermediate frequency (IF.) The IF is a fixed
frequency of 10.7 MHZ No matter what the frequency of the selected radio station
is. the if is always 10.7 MHZ The IF. Signal is fed into the If amplifier. The
advantage of the if amplifier is that its frequency and bandwidth are fixed, no
matter what the frequency of the incoming signal is This makes the design and
operation of the amplifier much simpler .The amplified if. signal is fed to the
demodulator. This circuit recovers the audio signal and discards the RF carrier.
Some of the audio is fed hack to the oscillator as an AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY
CONTROL voltage .This ensures that the oscillator frequency is stable in spite of
temperature changes. The audio signal voltage is increased in amplitude by a
voltage amplifier. The power level is increased sufficiently to drive the
loudspeaker by the power amplifier.
1.3 ADVANTAGES , DISADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
 Highly sensitive
 Noise reduction.
 Efficient in cost
 Reliable and pocket size circuit
DISADVANTAGES
 This is a theoretical circuit and it requires some changes to implement it
practically.
 Produce distortion
 Requires more complicated demodulator
 Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency
 Sidebands extent to infinity either side.

APPLICATIONS:
 The circuit acts as a pocket size radio by tuning to the particular frequency.

 It used in voice transmission.

 It is used in television, laptop, cell phone.

 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THEORY
2.1.1 The Simplest Radio Receiver
Each radio receiver must have a reception antenna. It is an electrical
conductor, where voltages of various frequencies and amplitudes are being
induced, under the influence of electromagnetic fields from various radio
transmitters. Besides these voltages, those induced by EM fields that are created by
various disturbance sources (such as electrical motors, various household
appliances spark-plugs of an automobile and all other devices where electrical
current is being switched on/off during work) are also present in the antenna. as
well as those from fields originating from outer space or the Faith’s atmosphere.
Basic roles that a radio receiver has are:

a. To separate the signal (voltage) of the radio station that ii is tuned at from the
multitude of other voltages, whilst suppressing (weakening) all other signals as
much as possible.

b. Amplifies the extrapolated signal and take out information from it and

c. Reproduces that information i.e. restores it into its’ original shape

Even the simplest radio, the one we are discussing in this chapter. must be able
to accomplish all these tasks. The electronic diagram of one such device is
given on figure2. I It is the famous (years ago) Detector Radio Receiver or
shortly. Detector, The signal selection (separation) and voltage amplification
and made of the capacitor C and coil, the separation(speech or music)from the
AM station in the detector that comprises the diode D , capacitor C2 and
resistance of the headphones, and information restoring in the very headphones.
 Main advantages of’ this device lie in its extreme simplicity and the I’act that it
requires no additional energy sources for it operation .all the energy required ii
draws from the Antenna, which therefore has to be at least it dozen meter long
for proper operation. It is also useful to have a good ground. one can do without
it but the reception with it is truly better, especially considering the distance and
small power transmitter.

.
Fig.2.1: Block diagram and electronic diagram of
a detector radio receiver circuit

2.1.2. Input Circuit:

The capacitor that takes the signal from the antenna (so-called coupling
capacitor) Cl. variable capacitor C and coil L form the input circuit of the radio
receiver. Its main role is to separate the signal of station the receiver is tuned at
from multitude of voltages (having various frequencies and amplitudes) existing in
the antenna, amplify that signal and turns it over to the detector. In order to better
understand the requests that are to be fulfilled during the practical realization of
input circuit. it is necessary to know basic characteristics of circuit made of
capacitor C and coil I. It is called ‘The oscillatory circuit and is shown on pie 32-a.
The amount ot its impedance (resistance to AC current) between points A and B.
which is marked with , depends on the frequency, as it is shown on the diagram
on pic3.2-b. The most important characteristic of this Circuit is its resonance,
frequency, being given by Thompson’s formulae

………………..2.1

As one may notice, the resonance frequency depends on the capacitance of the
capacitor C and inductivity of coil L. and changes if one of them change. In our
receiver, a variable capacitor is used, that can change its capacitance from Cmax to
Cmin, therefore changing the resonance frequency in boundaries from

………………..2.2

………………..2.3

The area between fd (lower boundary frequency) and fg (upper boundary

frequency) is the reception area of the input circuit, as shown in fig 2.1 On this
figure. carrier frequencies of four radio transmitters are being marked with fs1. fs2,
fs3 and fs4. The resonance frequency of the oscillatory circuit is set (by means of
C) to be equal to the carrier frequency of the second station: fs2. In that case, the
impedance ZAB - frequency dependence is shown in continuous line. As one can
see, the impedance ZAB for all
received signals whose carriers have frequencies less than fsl and greater than fs3
is less than 20 kilo Ohms, while for the station that is tuned it is equal to 200 k
ohms. Let us now imagine that the parallel oscillatory circuit is connected with the
antenna and ground. as shown on fig 2.1 Imagine, also, that there are(only) four
voltages in the antenna. that have the same amplitude and

Bandwidth of LC tank circuit

Are created by four radio Transmitter, having carrier frequencies of fsl, fs2, fs2
and fs4. Since these voltages spread between the antenna and the ground. four
currents will flow through the oscillatory circuit: 1st, 1s2, 1s3 and 1s4. The
voltages that are created by them in the oscillatory circuit. between points A and B.
are equal. acc To Ohm’s Law, to the product of current and impedance:

UAB = I * ZAB ……………….(2.4)

Acc. to pic.3.2-b. for 1s2. impedance of the circuit is ZAB=200 kOhms. and for
currents Isi and 1s3 it is lOx smaller. That means that the voltage that is being
created in the oscillatory circuit by the station that transmits on frequency fs2 will
be ten times greater than the voltages being created by stations transmitting on
frequencies fsl and fs3. This is how selection of one station is performed. by means
of the oscillatory circuit. Transition to some other station is performed by changing
the capacitance of capacitor C, as long as the resonance frequency of the
oscillatory circuit does not become equal to the carrier frequency of that station. If
its frequency happens
to be fs4 (ace. to fig2. 1), the impedance of the oscillatory circuit for that case is
shown in dashed line, which causes that on the circuit output voltage of the station
that transmits on frequency fs4 is acquired. while other stations’ signals are
suppressed At first glance, everything is Just the way it should be: Parallel
oscillatory circuit extrapolates one and suppresses all other stations. Unfortunately,
the reality isn’t so simple. First of all, radio transmitter Extremely important factor
for good work of simple radio receivers is the outside antenna that has to belongs
enough, and in which voltages induced by the radio transmitters will be high
enough. At first sight, one can think of using instead some modest antenna made of
a piece of wire, compensating that with supplying the receiver with amplifier
strong enough to give the end result as if much better antenna have been used.
Thai, of course, is not the case, since every amplifier creates noise that makes the
reception worse, if not impossible. This fact is the cause for a radio-amateur saying
that ‘Antenna is the best HF amplifier.” The external (outside) antenna is being
made of copper wire, thick enough to resist strong wind conditions. In the sense of
mechanical strength. the best thing is to use the LITZ wire (cable), i.e. a cable
made of huge number of thin threaded copper wires. There is no need to remove
the wire isolation if it exists since it doesn’t represent an obstacle for the
electromagnetic waves. The length of antenna is being determined in accordance
with the “TLTB” law (The Longer. The Better). The antenna that we have been
using for testing the receivers described herein was 6 meter long (the length of the
Radio Receivers Lab at “Tesla” high school. where it was spread), but if you are in
position, you should make it even longer (the author has a friend whose antenna is
about 30 meter long). It should be moved away from the sources of electrical
disturbances (public electricity cables, various household electrical devices, cars,
electric motors etc.). Considering this, the best place for your antenna should be
the building roof. The wire can be crossed between two chimneys (fig.2. I).
between a chimney and some pillar. between two purposefully built pillars,
between two buildings, a building and a pole

in the yard etc. You should, however, always keep in mind that the wire, however
strong it may be. can snap during some big storm and, in case that happens. under
operate with various output (emission) powers and on various geographic distances
from the receiver, therefore making the voltages that their signals create in the
reception antenna very different in amplitude. It is clear that stronger signals will
“cover” the weak ones, thus disabling their reception. Eg. if radio transmitter that
emits on the frequency fsl is geographically much closer to our radio receiver that
the transmitter operating on fs2, the voltage the former creates in the reception
antenna can be even 200 times greater than the one created by the latter. The
oscillatory circuit will do its job as previously described, but on its ends the voltage
of the first transmitter will still be greater (20x) than that of the transmitter the
receiver is tuned at, and normal reception won’t be possible. There are also other
problems whose solving will not be discussed herein, and readers that are
interested in those can read a book Radio Receivers”, written by MOMIR
Filipovic, issued by the National Textbook Publishing Company from Belgrade,
Yugoslavia. To conclude this chapter, we may say that the simplest radio receiver
can cover only signals of the local
and powerful radio transmitter.
2.2 future scope
Although we were unable to get the RBDS (radio broad cast) features working. We
have included some of the back ground, hardware, and software components in the
RBDS section of the appendix so that perhaps a future group can expands on our
project to implement a future using RBDS.
3.2.COMPONENTS DETAIL
VCTRIMMER (variable capacitor):
A trimmer can he a variable capacitor which can vary the charges. It is
variable capacitor A trimmer is a miniature adjustable electrical component. It is
meant to be set correctly when installed in some device, and never seen or adjusted
by the device’s user. Trimmers can be variable resistors (potentiometers). variable
capacitors, or trim able inductors. They are common in precision circuitry like AJV
components. and may need to be adjusted when the equipment is serviced. Tripods
are often used to initially calibrate equipment after manufacturing. Unlike many
other variable controls, trimmers are mounted directly on circuit boards, turned
with a small screwdriver and rated for many fewer adjustments over their lifetime.
Trimmers like trim able inductors and trim able capacitors are usually found in
superheats radio and television receivers, in the intermediate frequency (IF),
oscillator and radio frequency (RF) circuits. They are adjusted into the right
position during the alignment procedure of the receiver.

Figure3.l: VC Trimmer

 TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is a semiconductor device it having three terminals this
device is used to amplify and switch electronics signal and electronics power
 it consist of three terminals base .emitter ,and collector, there are two types
of transistor

 NPN Transistor:
In NPN transistor p is sandwiches between two N regions .and one
end of N is emitter terminal and other terminal of N is collector terminal and
P is a base terminal. In this transistor current is flowing from collector
through emitter to the ground the direction of current is denoted by arrow
which outside between base and emitter.

 PNP Transistor:
In PNP transistor N is sandwiches between two p regions ‘and one end of p
is emitter
terminal and other terminal of p is collector terminal and N is a base
terminal. In this transistor current is flowing from collector through emitter
to the ground the direction of current is denoted by arrow which inside
between base and emitter.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its
development in 1947 by American physicists John Bardeen. Walter Brattain,
and William Shockley. the transistor revolutionized the held of electronics,
and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and
computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE
milestones in electronics.[l] and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956
Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement.
 Figure3.2: constructional diagram of transistor

 INDUCTOR
The self supporting coil L has four turn 22 switch enameled copper with air
core having 4 mm internal diameter, it can be construct by any cylindrical object
wire such as pencil or pen having a diameter of 4mm.when the required number of
turns of the coil reach the coil is taken of the cylinder and stretch the little that the
turn don’t touch each other.

Figure3.3: Inductor wound on copper wire(air core inductor)

 ANTENNA
We can use the telescopic antenna of an unused devices, a good reception
can also be obtained with a piece of isolated copper wire about 60 cm long and
the optimum length of copper wire can be found experimental. An antenna (or
aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and
vice versa [1]. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In
transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio
frequency (i.e. a high frequency alternating current (AC)) to the antenna’s
 terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves). In reception. an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage a its terminals, that is
applied to a receiver to be amplified.
Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are
used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio,
communications receivers. radar. cell phones. and satellite communications, as
well as other devices such as garage door openers. wireless microphones.
Bluetooth-enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and
Rtagson merchandise.
The antenna also must act somewhat as a resonant circuit i.eit must have the
ability to transfer energy alternately from electrostatic or electromagnetic if the z
match is correct, the energy being transferred will radiate energy into the
atmosphere the same way the transformer transform energy from primary to
secondary, it is a structure of metallic object often a wire or group of wire, used
to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice-versa.

Figure3.4: Aerial Antenna

IC LM386
General description of IC LM386:
 The LM386 is low voltage power audio amplifier designed for use in low
volt- age
consumer applications. it is actually operational amplifier which can amplify an
output or in fm radio receiver circuit iy amplifies sound to make it audio able the
external part shown in diagram3.5.can be selected to get desired gain. The gain is
internally set to 20 to keep external part Count low, but the addition of an external
resistor and capacitor between pins I and 8 will increase the gain to any value from
20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases
to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 miliwatts
when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery
operation, pin diagram of LM386 shown in figure 3.5

Figure 3.5: schematic diagram of IC LM3 386

From figure3.6 pin out diagram configuration IC LM-386 acts as a

operational amplifier. It is having 8 pins as like of an op-amp.2 pin is inverting pin
and 3 pin is non-inverting pin and 5 pin is an output of an op-amp.LM386 has op-
amp internally connected.
 Figure 3.6: Pin configuration of LM-3861C

From above pin out diagram configuration IC LM-386 acts as a operational

amplifier. 11 is having K pins as like of an op-amp.2 pin is inverting pin and 3 pin
is non-inverting pin and 5 pin is an output of an op-amp.LM386 has op-amp
internally connected.
Features: -
1. In Batten’ operation
2. Minimum external parts

3. Wide supply voltage range: 4V—12V or 5V—18V

4. Low quiescent current drain: 4mA

5. Voltage gains from 20 to 200

6. Ground referenced input

7. Self-centering output quiescent voltage

8. Low distortion. 0.2% (AV = 20, VS = 6V, R L=8Ω,PO= 125mW, f = 1kHz

 VARIABLE RESISTOR
There are three pins terminals on a preset .the maximum resistance that a
preset can provide is written on it if 100k is written on preset it means that we
can very its resistance from a 0 to l00k.amovable metal is rotated in clockwise
or anticlockwise direction that change the resistance of preset. Now, we name
the three terminals as A,B,C. If we take terminal A and terminal B .and rotate
the movable metal in clockwise direction ,the resistance of preset increases
from 0 to maximum.

Figure3.7: variable resistor

Informally a pot is a three- terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact

that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end
and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.

The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider

used for measuring electric potential (voltage): the component is an
implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are
commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio
equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position
transducers for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly
control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the
potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.

 RESISTOR

Figure3.8: resistor