MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3.

Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

3. SINGLE DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM VIBRATION

Understanding of complex vibration problems begins with understanding of the vibration of a

system with a single degree-of-freedom, i.e. a system for which the motion can be described
by the time variation of a single coordinate. In many situations the important features of the
behaviour of complicated multi-degree-of-freedom systems can be described adequately with
a single degree-of-freedom system.

3.1 Notation
Vectors are used in this section. A vector quantity is represented by an underscore. For
example, F can be a force which has a scalar magnitude F and a direction of action.
ɶ

The notation ∑ Fɶ indicates the sum of vectors, i.e.,

∑ Fɶ = Fɶ + Fɶ + ..... + Fɶ
1 2 n

This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.1.

F2
ɶ F3
ɶ
F1
ɶ

∑ Fɶ Fn
ɶ

Fig. 3.1 vector notation

Displacement x , velocity v and acceleration a can also be regarded as vector quantities,

ɶ ɶ ɶ
although a scalar representation is adequate in systems with a single degree-of-freedom. The
following notation is used for time-derivatives.
dx
v= = xɺ
dt
dv
a= = vɺ = ɺɺ
x
dt

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

3.2 Units
mass kilograms, kg
time seconds, s
displacement metres, m
velocity m/s
acceleration m/s2
force kg m/s2 (from Second Law), called newtons, N
angle radians, rad

θ =s/r
s
2π r r
For a full circle, θ = = 2π rad = 3600 θ
r
dθ
= angular velocity, rad/s
dt
2π/60 rad/s = 1 rpm

3.3 Some Fundamentals of Dynamics

Here some important dynamics results are summarised in the context of rotating machines.
Full detail is available in Bedford and Fowler.
3.3.1 Newton’s Laws
Newton’s laws of motion were first enunciated in Sir Isaac Newton (1687) Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica. They are written in modern language as follows (from
Bedford and Fowler).
First Law: When the sum of the forces acting on a particle is zero, its velocity is constant.
In particular, if the particle is initially stationary, it will remain stationary.
Second Law: When the sum of the forces acting on a particle is not zero, the sum of the
forces is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the particle. If the mass is constant, the
sum of the forces is equal to the product of the mass of the particle and its acceleration.
mv = momentum
ɶ
d (mv ) dv
∑ Fɶ = dt ɶ = m dtɶ if m is constant
d 2r
=m ɶ = ma
dt 2 ɶ

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Third Law: The forces exerted by two particles on each other are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction; e.g. gravitational attraction, swinging a mass on a string.

mj mk
f jk = f kj
f jk f kj

3.3.2 Rotational Equivalent

Consider holding a shaft with two hands and twist each in opposite directions. This is
equivalent to applying a moment (or torque) to the shaft with zero resulting force.

radius r
T F

is equivalent to

T = rF + rF = dF
Strictly, T is a vector. It acts about an axis which has direction. Consider again the Second
Law for translation;
F = ma
Mass might well have been called ‘inertia’. The rotational equivalent is:
T = Iα
Where α = angular acceleration
dω d 2θ
= = 2
dt dt
I = moment of inertia, kgm2
For a particle of mass m rotating in a circular path of radius r, I = mr2 about the axis.
For a uniform rigid disc of mass m and radius r, I = ½mr2
Translational (linear) momentum of mass m is mv
ɶ
Angular momentum of a rigid body about a fixed axis is I ω
ɶ
Kinetic energy of translation of mass m is ½mv2.
Kinetic energy of rotation is ½Iω2. (Detail is in Bedford and Fowler.)

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

3.3.3 Centre of Mass

y
Consider a system of two particles.
m2
Define centre of mass as;
m r + m2 r r1
r = 1ɶ ɶ ɶ
ɶ m1 + m2

= r1 if m2 is small. m2
ɶ
Differentiate twice with respect to time. r1
ɶ
r + m2 ɺɺ
m ɺɺ r2 x
r = 1 ɶ1
ɺɺ ɶ
ɶ m1 + m2

Consider both external and internal forces acting on each particle.

For m1 , Second Law gives F1 + f 21 = m1rɺɺ1
ɶ ɶ ɶ
For m2, F2 + f12 = m2 ɺɺr2
ɶ ɶ ɶ
Add:
F1 + F2 + f 21 + f12 = ( m1 + m2 ) ɺɺ
r
    
Sum of external forces on system =0 Total mass of system

So;
Sum of external forces on a system of particles = total mass of system × acceleration of
mass centre
∑ F = ma
3.3.4 Vibration of Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems
Consider, for example, the simplest model of vibration of
an unbalanced turbine (rotor + casing) on elastic
mountings (Fig. 3.2). For simplicity, turbine is
constrained to move only vertically. A similar model
could be set up for horizontal vibration. Assume:
M = total mass of turbine plus casing
m = equivalent unbalance point mass
k = spring stiffness of support; (spring force = kx)
Fig. 3.2 (from Thompson).
c = viscous damping coefficient of support;
(damping force = c xɺ )
Viscous damping is a convenient approximation to more realistic non-linear damping because
it leads to analytical solutions that approximate actual systems well.

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

In the equilibrium position (rotor stationary), x = xɺ = 0

Mg
And spring force balances weight. Only changes from equilibrium
are considered, so weight (gravity) can be ignored.

Treat as a system of two particles, m and M-m, in displaced position shown. kxo

Position of centre of mass is given by:

( M − m) x + m( x + e sin ωt )
x=
( M − m) + m
Apply Second Law to motion of mass centre, recognising that x is positive upwards.
d 2  ( M − m) x + m( x + e sin ωt ) 
− kx − cxɺ = M
dt 2  M 

d2
= [ Mx + me sin ωt ]
dt 2
= Mxɺɺ − meω 2 sin ωt
Rearrange to get differential equation of motion of turbine casing.
Mxɺɺ + cxɺ + kx = meω 2 sin ωt = F0 sin ωt (3.1)
where F0 = meω2 = centripetal force (constant for constant ω).
me = unbalance.
Same unbalance can be caused by larger m at smaller e.
Some special cases are now considered.

3.3.5 Free Vibrations

No rotation of turbine rotor; ω = 0.
Equation of motion (3.1) becomes:
Mxɺɺ + cxɺ + kx = 0
c k
x+
ɺɺ xɺ + x=0
M M
Rewrite as:
x + 2ςωn xɺ + ωn 2 x = 0
ɺɺ (3.2)

k c
where ωn = and ς =
M 2 M ωn

The physical significance of ωn and ς will become apparent.

System motion is caused by initial conditions,

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

x(0) = initial displacement at t = 0, and

xɺ (0) = initial velocity.
Solution of (3.2) is:

 xɺ (o) + ςω x(o) 
x = e−ςωnt  n
sin 1 − ς 2 ωn t + x(o) cos 1 − ς 2 ωn t  (3.3)
 ωn 1 − ς 2 

This can be obtained from the theory of

differential equations, Laplace transforms, or by
substituting (3.3) into (3.2). Solution is the sum
of oscillatory sine and cosine terms, multiplied by
a time-decaying exponential (Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3
• For no damping, c = 0 and ς = 0. The
solution of (3.2) is:
 xɺ (o) 
x= sin ωn t + x(o) cos ωn t 
 ωn 

k
The system vibrates at undamped natural frequency ωn = .
M

• For ς < 1, the frequency of damped oscillation is ωd = ωn 1 − ς 2 .

• For ς > 1, the solution of (3.2) is:

x = Ae( −ς + ς 2 −1) )ωn t

+ Be( −ς − ς 2 −1) )ωn t
where:

xɺ (0) + (ς + ς 2 − 1)ωn x(0)

A=
2ωn ς 2 − 1

− xɺ (0) − (ς − ς 2 − 1)ωn x(0)

B=
2ωn ς 2 − 1

The motion is an exponentially decreasing function Fig. 3.4

of time, as shown in Fig. 3.4.

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

• For ς =1, 1 − ς 2 = 0 and the solution of (3.2) is:

x = { x(0) + [ xɺ (0) + ωn x(0) ] t} e −ωnt

Three types of responses are shown in Fig. 3.5 for

different initial velocities.
This is called critical damping. If damping is any
higher, exponential decay is slower.
Fig. 3.5
c
For ς =1, = 1 so ccritical = 2 M ωn
2 M ωn

Then ς is the ratio of actual damping present, c, to damping, 2 M ωn needed to achieve

critical damping. ς is called the damping ratio.

Summary ς=0 undamped free vibrations

ς <1 underdamped oscillations
ς =1 critical damping
ς >1 overdamped

The frequency of damped vibrations is ωd = ωn 1 − ς 2 rad/s. This differs by only a small

amount from ωn for small ς . Hence ωn can be estimated well from the observed frequency
in transient bump tests.

3.3.6 Complex Frequency Response

In this section the system is forced to vibrate at frequency ω. It is convenient to use the
concept of phasors. Complex variable theory gives:

X 0 eiωt = X 0 ( cos ωt + i sin ωt ) where i = −1

So X 0 sin ωt = Im ( X 0 eiωt )

Recall that

A1eiφ1 . A2 eiφ2 = A1 A2 ei(φ1 +φ2 )

A1eiφ1 A1 i (φ1 −φ2 )

and = e
A2 eiφ2 A2
Return to (3.1).
Mxɺɺ + cxɺ + kx = meω 2 sin ωt = F0 sin ωt where F0 = meω 2

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Rewrite as
F0
x + 2ςωn xɺ + ωn 2 x =
ɺɺ sin ωt (3.4)
M
Solution is the sum of a constant amplitude forced vibration (particular integral) and a
transient response (complementary function) which decays to zero with time. We are
interested in the forced response after transients have died away.
F0 F 
Write sin ωt = Im  0 [ cos ωt + i sin ωt ]
M M 
F 
= Im  0 eiωt 
 M 
We could have equally validly assumed a cosine forcing function in (3.5);
F0 F 
cos ωt = Re  0 eiωt 
M M 
F0 F
So put sin ωt = 0 eiωt in (3.4).
M M
F0
Now vibration x will also be a sine (or cosine) function but out-of-phase with sin ωt .
M
So let x = x0 e (
i ω t −ϕ )
(x lags F0 by ϕ )

= xeiωt where x = x0 e − iϕ = complex amplitude of vibration

Then (3.4) becomes
F0 iωt
−ω 2 xeiωt + 2iςωn xeiωt + ωn2 xeiωt = e
M

( −ω 2
+ 2iςωωn + ωn2 ) x =
F0
M
x 1 1/ ωn2 ω
= 2 = where β=
F0 / M ωn − ω 2 − 2iςωωn 1 − β 2 + 2iςβ ωn
Take amplitudes (moduli).

x x0 1/ ωn2
= = 1
(3.5)
F0 / M F0 / M
(1 − β 2 )2 + ( 2ςβ )2  2
 
Using ωn2 = k / M gives,

x 1 x 2ςβ
= = and tan ϕ =
F0 / k 1
xstatic 1− β 2
(1 − β 2 )2 + ( 2ςβ )2  2
 

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Case A Rotating unbalance

F0 = meω 2

Mx0 β2
So = 1
(3.6)
me
(1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ςβ ) 
2 2 2
 
Mx0
and ϕ are plotted on Fig. 3.6.
me

Fig. 3.6

Case B F0 = constant, independent of ω. It follows that

x0 1
= 1
and (3.7)
F0 / k
(1 − β 2
) + ( 2ςβ ) 
2 2 2


2ςβ
tan ϕ = (3.8)
1− β 2
(3.7) and (3.8) are plotted in Fig. 3.7.

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Fig. 3.7

Case C Vibration Isolation

Spring and damper transmit forces to foundation that are 90o out-of-phase.
So magnitude of force transmitted is
1 1

FT = ( kx0 ) + ( cω x0 )  2 = kx0 1 + ( 2ςβ )  2

2 2 2
(3.9)
   
Combine (3.7) and (3.9) to get force transmissibility,
1
 1 + ( 2ςβ )
2 2
FT
TR = =   (3.10)
F0  (1 − β 2 )2 + ( 2ςβ )2 
 
This is plotted in Fig. 3.8.

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Fig. 3.8

3.3.7 Vibration Measuring Instruments

Consider a vibrating mass m suspended inside the casing of a vibration measuring instrument,
which in turn is attached to a vertically vibrating surface (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.9.

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Displace m in positive y-direction with positive velocity and draw a free-body diagram.
Assume weight of m is balanced by initial spring
k ( x − y) +ve y
force.
Equation of motion is
m
−c ( xɺ − yɺ ) − k ( x − y ) = mxɺɺ

Assume instrument gives an output signal

c ( xɺ − yɺ )
proportional to relative motion z = x-y.
If y = y0 sin ωt

then mzɺɺ + czɺ + kz = mω 2 y0 sin ωt

This is identical to the case of rotating unbalance, with z and mω2y replacing x and meω2.
So, if z = z0 sin (ωt − φ ) , then

z0 1
= (3.11)
β 2 y0 1
(1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ςβ ) 
2 2 2
 

When the natural frequency ωn of the instrument is high compared to that of the vibration
1

y = y0 sin ωt to be measured, β = ω / ωn ≪1 and (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ςβ )  approaches unity.

2 2 2
 

ω 2 y0 ɺɺy0 acceleration
Then z0 = β 2 y0 = = 2 =
ωn2 ωn ωn2

z0
Hence z is proportional to the acceleration to be measured. Fig. 3.11 is a plot of for
y0 / ωn2
ɺɺ

various damping ratios.

Fig. 3.10.

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

If we can choose ς = 0.7 , we can get a useful frequency range 0 ≤ ω / ωn ≤ 0.20 with a
maximum error of 0.01 percent.
But the widely used piezoelectric crystal accelerometers (barium titanate) have ς ≃ 0 and can

operate up to ω = 0.06ωn .

f n = ωn / 2π can be as high as 50,000 Hz, so instruments can operate to 3000 Hz. Fig. 3.11

shows the rugged construction of a piezoelectric accelerometer.

The crystal produces a charge q

proportional to z and so to
acceleration ω 2 y. But crystal has a
very small capacitance C, so voltage
V=q/C is greatly reduced if output
cable has a high capacitance. This is
overcome by using a charge
Fig. 3.11 Construction of a piezoelectric accelerometer.
amplifier.

3.4 Whirling
(This section is based largely on Thompson)

Rotating shafts, with or without rotors, tend to bow out at

certain critical speeds and whirl. Whirling is the rotation of the
plane made by the bent shaft and the line of centres of the
bearings. The shaft and rotor (and SG in the figure below)
rotate with angular velocity ω. Whirling (and rotation of OS)
occurs at angular velocity θɺ which may or may not be equal to
ω and can be in the same or the opposite direction to ω.

Whirling can be caused by mass unbalance, eccentricity, cyclic

fluid friction in bearings and gyroscopic forces. Synchronous
whirl is when θɺ = ω .

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

k
If ω = , the critical speed, the amplitude of whirl is limited only by the damping which is
m
usually small. Severe damage can occur. If rotor operation is above critical speed, run-up
must pass quickly through that speed.

x x

time time

Fast run-up Slow run-up

Long shafts without a rotor can whirl. This is a complicated problem to analyse because of
its distributed-parameter nature.

3.5 Spring Stiffness

Only linear springs are considered in this course. For small displacements, most materials
behave approximately linearly. This is an adequate assumption when calculating or
measuring natural frequencies.

Force, f = kx
k = spring stiffness f
x = displacement from unstretched position
x
Moment, T = ktθ
T
kt = torsional spring stiffness
θ = rotational displacement (rad)
from unstrained position
θ

Springs in series

f 1
k=
k1 k2 x 1/ k1 + 1/ k2

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

k1

f k = k1 + k2

k2

Example

Rotor

Shafts in bending are springs for unbalance in rotor. Are springs in series or parallel?

Shafts in torsion (length L)

Torsional spring stiffness,

T JG
kt = =
θ L
J = second polar moment of area. d

πd4 π
J=
32
J=
32
(d 4
o − di4 )

Shafts in bending
I = second cross-sectional moment of area

h bh 3
Neutral I =
axis 12
b

πd4
I =
64

Circular shaft, diameter d

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MECH7350 Rotating Machinery 3. Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration

Some material properties

Material Modulus of Elasticity, E Modulus of Rigidity (shear

modulus), G
Alloy or carbon steel 207 GPa 79 GPa
Copper 121 GPa 46 GPa

The following are spring stiffnesses for a range of configurations of beams in bending (from
Thompson).

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