Chapter 1

Environmental Management & Sustainable Development

Introduction

In this millennium organizations are rapidly changing their structures, systems, work processes and
activities. This changing environment calls for enterprising managers to manage and respond to the
changes in an appropriate manner. It is therefore necessary for them to develop a clear focus and
direction to facilitate proper decision making process.

The emerging trends that characterize this millennium are:

 An era of information revolution, which has influences the new economy.

 The traditional supply chains are fast disappearing, paving way to new virtual supply chains.
This change calls for an entire revamping of the internal processes and procedures, so far
followed in the organization.
 The relationship among organizations, their customers, suppliers and manufacturers is also
undergoing a drastic change.
 There is an increasing concern about the environmental performance and reporting
practices. There is also a move towards looking at environmental performance as
competitive advantage. There is an increase in demand from the stakeholders for
environmentally responsible behavior from the companies across the globe.

Key Terms

Environment: Environment as a term is very widely used and means different things to different
people. It is used in management literature to refer to the external environment in which the
organization functions. Ecologically, environment refers to the sum of all the external conditions
and influences affecting the life and development of organisms (Webster, 1961). Two main aspects
of the environment are biotic and abiotic (living and non-living organisms).

Environment refers to the sum of identified and identifiable natural resources, existing in finite
quantities on earth. It is the sum of surrounding things, conditions or influences. A thin layer of life
supporting systems called biosphere, divided into physical and biological environment.

Human Environment: The term human environment denotes those aspects of man’s activities that
by affecting the natural biological and ecological systems of man- of which he is a part- affect his
own life and well-being. To quote Lynton Keith Caldwell (United Nations Preparatory Committee
on Human Environment), “Human environment is a matrix of elements derived by evolution
through nature and contained by men through culture”

Environmental Issue: Areas of human activity that have potentially adverse and direct impact on
public health or the environment.

1
Environmental pollution: The reduction in the quality of the environment due to disposal of the
residuals. It refers to the presence of any substance in excess, which is harmful to the living beings,
and hence termed as pollutants due to the ill effects of their presence.

Environmental degradation: Increase in the air, water, noise and soil pollution that affects the
quality of environment.

Environmental management: Environmental management is the optimal utilization of the finite

resources between different possible uses. Environmental criteria and economic considerations
demand that such an allocation be efficient. Simultaneously, the available resources should be
protected from degradation, and scarce and diminishing resources should be conserved.
Environmental quality can be defined as the level and composition of the stream of all the
environmental, with the aim to protect these finite resources for the future.

Environmental Management is not “management of the environment”; it is the management of

activities within tolerable constraints imposed by the government with full consideration of
ecological factors. The objective is to meet basic human needs within the potential and constraints
of environmental systems. Environmental management introduces three new dimensions into
traditional socioeconomic development, namely: it

1. Broadens the concept in scope to include development and enhancement of environmental

quality;
2. Extends the concept of time to include sustainable long-term feasibility; and
3. Assesses the costs to the society and the environment in achieving the desired balance
between dimension 1 and 2 mentioned above.

Environmental Conflict

Conflict results from the use of the resources and functions by one party at the expense of the other
parties. It may also result from the overuse or abuse of environmental resources and functions.

Conflict between the enterprise and the community or government may result from incompatible
values and goals or scarcity of resources. Successful environmental management internalizes
environmental management internalizes environmental concern through measures taken at the
decision making stage. Recognition of environmental issues and the “actors” and their influence on
economic, social and political factors in the first stage towards resolving conflicts.

Sustainable Development

The concept of Sustainable development, given by Bruntland Commission in 1972, broadly means
that the development initiatives be initiated in such a way that the future generations can enjoy the
benefits of nature without any compromise. It reiterates that we must use the resources only to the
extent to which it is sustainable.

2
The principles listed below serve as a source of inspiration to evolve action areas by the national
government, depending upon their capacity.

Principle 1: Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are
entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

Principle 2: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of
international law, the full rights to exploit their own resources.

Principle 3: The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and
environmental needs of present and future generations.

Principle 4: In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute

an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.

Principle 5: All states and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty, as
they are the most affected adversely.

Principle 6: The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed
and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority.

Principle 7: States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore
the health and integrity of the contributions to global environmental degradation.

Principle 8: States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patters of production and consumption
and promote appropriate demographic policies.

Principle 9: States, and their firms, should invest in improving scientific understanding through
investment in research and development activities.

Principle 10: Transparency amongst all the stakeholders should be increased. All information related
to environment should be exchanged freely amongst all stakeholders.

Principle 11: States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental standards,
management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and developmental context
tow which they apply.

Principle 12: States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic
system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries, to better
address the problems of environmental degradation. Environmental measures addressing trans-
boundary or global environmental problems should as far as possible be based on International
consensus.

Principle 13: States should develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims
of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more
determined manner to develop further International law regarding liability and compensation for

3
adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to
areas beyond their jurisdiction.

Stakeholder Concept

Stakeholders are generally defined as individuals or groups with a legal, economic, moral and/or
self-perceived opportunity to claim ownership, rights or interests in a firm and its past, present or
future activities. Stakeholders with identical interests, claims or rights can be classified into different
categories, e.g. employees, shareholders, customers, suppliers, regulators, NGOs, etc. These can be
further classified into primary and secondary stakeholders.

Primary stakeholders: Stakeholders without whose continuing and direct participation or input the
firm cannot survive as a going concern. Such stakeholders include owners, investors, employees,
suppliers, customers and competitors.

Secondary stakeholders: Are those who, in the past, present or future influence or might be
influenced by the firm’s operations without being directly engaged in transactions with the firm in
question and thus not essential for its survival. Such stakeholders include local communities, local
government, social activities groups, and business support groups.

According to Carroll (1992), a stake can be (i) an interest, (ii) a right (legal or moral), and/or (iii) an
ownership. Some stakeholder groups, e.g. the company’s shareholders, mainly have one type of stake
(i.e. an ownership), whereas other stakeholders can have more than one. An example of the latter is
local authorities, which have a legal obligation, as defined in regulations and common interests, to
create an active business climate as well as to maintain a healthy social and physical environment.

Stakeholder Management

Stakeholder management is about handling stakeholder relationships and the multiple, and often,
conflicting interests within the complex and dynamic web of persons and/or groups that at all times
surround any company. The critical strategic issue here is that interactions, coalitions, differences in
behavior, attitudes and preferences within and across the various group of stakeholders are not
static, but in a constant state of flux.

In practice, it is often difficult and costly to identify and meet all the demands of a company’s
stakeholders. Consequently, it is crucial for management to identify, analyze and assess the meaning
and significance of each individual group of generic stakeholders, and to determine their respective
power, in order to be prepared for the conflict that may follow from the prioritizing of competing
groups of stakeholders.

There has been a steady increase in the number of environmental issues to be tackled in all the
developing countries. It is necessary here to clarify the term environmental issue. Environmental issue
refers to areas of human activity that have potentially adverse and direct impact on public health or
the environment. It encompasses specific environmental concerns or problems, or perceived
problems, for which an adequate policy or a technological response has yet to be properly planned.
4
 Chapter 2

Environmental Impact Assessment

Definition: A formal process used to predict the environmental consequences of any development
project. EIA thus ensures that the potential problems are foreseen and addressed at an early stage in
the projects planning and design.

Purpose of the environmental assessment process is:

1. To support the goals of environmental protection and sustainable development.

2. To integrate environmental protection and economic decisions at the earliest stages of
planning and activity.
3. To predict environmental, social, economical, and cultural consequences of a proposed
activity and to assess plans to mitigate any adverse impacts resulting from the proposed
activity.
4. To provide to the stakeholders a balanced assessment of effects on the environment. Based
on the nature and scope of the project, the assessment may include ecological, economic,
cultural, aesthetic, health and safety, social considerations.

Planning: This, EIA is, in its simplest form, a ‘planning tool’ that is now generally regarded as an
integral component of sound decision-making. It is both information gathering and a decision
making component, which provides the decision makers with an objective basis for granting or
denying approval for a proposed development.

Relevance

One of the aims is to prevent environmental degradation; but this is done in two parts. The EIA is
the first part, and all it does is to give planners and decision- makers better information about the
consequences, which development actions could have on the environment. The second step is to
make sure that weight is given to such information, and that decisions are taken in a direction that
gives

Principles of Environmental Analysis

Several basic principles underpin the concept of environmentally sound management practices. To
ensure that such principles are effectively applied, an environmental analysis must be undertaken
early in the project cycle. In this way, adverse impacts can be identified, minimized or mitigated to
avoid costly remedial measures. Alternatives can be given due consideration and the positive aspects
of all programmes, policies and development proposals can be optimized.

Compliance with environmental principles during development means accountable decision making
process- an open participatory approach in the planning of proposals and consultation with
interested and affected parties. It also provides an opportunity for public and specialist input

5
throughout the evolution of the project. Thus an attempt is made to ensure that the long term social
benefits of the project outweigh the social costs.

The introduction of environmental analysis procedures into the project cycles ensures that all the
principles mentioned above are taken care of in the beginning of the project and delays in
implementation due to unanticipated environmental problems are avoided.

Categorization

The categorization of each project is made according to the physical and ecological characteristics of
the site and its surroundings, the current land use and landscape characteristics, cultural resources,
socio-economic characteristics of the affected public, infrastructure services, existing social and
community services and facilities, health and safety risks, and current and predicted pollution levels
as well as the availability of cost-effective mitigation measures.

Category A: Projects with significant adverse environment impacts. These require a full
Environmental Impact Assessment.

Category B: Projects with adverse environmental impacts but of a lesser degree and/or significance
than category A impact. In this case, the IEE (Initial Environmental Evaluation Report) will
determine what are the issues the EIA
should address. If necessary, the analysis
may be upgraded to Category A during the
assessment.

Category C: Projects unlikely to have

adverse environmental impact or those that
will improve the environment. An EIA is
not normally required. The categorization
of the project is based on the conclusions
of the IEE and project classification will be
included in the Project Proposal Report.

Steps in EIA

EIA represents a systematic process that

examines the environmental consequences
of the development actions, in advance.
The emphasis of a EIA is on prevention
and, therefore, is more proactive than
reactive in nature. The EIA process

6
involves a number of steps, some of which are listed below:

1. Project screening: This entails the application of EIA to those projects that may have
significant environmental impacts. It is quite likely, however, that screening is done partly by
the EIA regulations, operating in a country at the time of assessment.
2. Scoping: This step seeks to identify, at an early stage, the key, significant environmental
issues from among a host of possible impacts of a project and all the available alternatives.
3. Consideration of alternatives: This seeks to ensure that the proponent has considered other
feasible approaches, including alternative project locations, scales, processes, layouts,
operating condition and the no-action option.
4. Description of the project/development action: This step seeks to clarify the purpose and
rationale of the project and understand its various characteristics, including the stages of
development, location and processes.
5. Description of the environmental baseline: This includes the establishment of both the
present and future state of the environment, in the absence of the project, taking into
account the changes resulting from natural events and from other human activities.
6. Identification of key impacts: This brings together the previous steps with a view to ensuring
that all potentially significant environmental impacts (adverse and beneficial) are identified
and taken into account in the process.
7. The prediction of impacts: This step aims to identify the likely magnitude of the change (i.e.,
impact) in the environment when the project is implemented in comparison with the
situation when the project is not carried out.
8. Evaluation and assessment of significance: This seeks to assess the relative significance of
the predicted impacts to allow a focus on key adverse impacts. Formal definition of
significance is the product of consequence and likelihood as Significance =consequence X
Likelihood
9. Mitigation: This involves the introduction of measures to avoid, reduce, remedy or
compensate for any significant adverse impacts.
10. Public consultation and participation: This aims to assure the quality, comprehensiveness
and effectiveness of the EIA, as well as to ensure that the public’s views are adequately taken
into consideration in the decision-making process.
11. EIS presentation: This is a vital step in the process. If done badly, much good work in the
EIA may be negated. Review: This involves a systematic appraisal of the quality of the EIS,
as a contribution to the decision-making process.
12. Decision-making: At this stage, decisions are made by the relevant authority of the EIS
(including consultation responses) together with other material considerations as to whether
to accept, defer or reject the project.
13. Post-decision monitoring: This involves the recording of outcomes associated with
development impacts, after the decision to proceed with the project. It can contribute to
effective project management.

7
 14. Auditing: This follows monitoring and involves comparing actual outcomes with predicted
outcomes, and can be used to assess the quality of predictions and the effectiveness of
mitigation. It provides a vital step in the EIA learning process.

Chapter 3

Environmental Ethics

“A decision is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic
community. It is wrong when it tends to be otherwise” this is how Aldo Leopold, a naturalist,
defined environmental ethics. Human health and welfare, and our concern about the remainder of
nature are two reasons we care for nature. Ancient civilizations, which depended completely on
nature for their sustenance, practice self-imposed restraint. However, with the dominance of
economic progress the idea of mankind’s dominance over earth and all its creatures has spread wide.
“The environmental crisis is an outward manifestation of mind and spirit…The crisis is concerned
with the kind of creatures we are, and what we must become in order to survive” says Lynton
Caldwell. The birth of environmental ethic as a force is partly a result of our concern for our own
long term survival as well as our realization that humans are but one form of life and that we should
share the earth with our fellow human beings.

An environmental ethic that takes into account the impact of human actions directly upon non-
human natural entities and nature as a whole is called an eco-centric environmental ethic. It is
supported by the evolutionary, ecological, foundational and cosmological dimensions of the
presently evolving post-modern, scientific worldview.

Among human being and other social mammals, moral sentiments are evolved to enable the
formation of communities. From an evolutionary point of view, Homo Sapiens is part of nature, not
set apart from it. We share the Earth with other forms of life, which we now know to be a small but
precious planet, like a tropical island paradise in an otherwise desert ocean. Further, ecology
presently portrays nature as a group of societies or biotic communities. From the subatomic to the
biological realms, all reality is interconnected, internally related, and mutually defining. But
relationship, kinship, and community membership traditionally imply strong moral obligations.

Ethical Positions

Anthropocentricism: The belief that human beings are the central or most significant species on
the planet. Anthropocentrism regards humans as separate from and superior to nature and holds
that human life has intrinsic value while other entities (including animals, plants, mineral resources,
and so on) are resources that may justifiably be exploited for the benefit of humankind.

8
Bio-Centric Individualism: All and only living beings, specifically individual organisms (not species
or ecosystems) have intrinsic value and moral standing. Humans are not superior to other life forms
nor privileged, and must respect the inherent worth of every organism. Humans should minimize
harm and interference with nature: eat vegetarian since less land needs to be cultivated. Biocentric
ethics calls for a rethinking of the relationship between humans and nature. It states that nature does
not exist simply to be used or consumed by humans, but that humans are simply one species
amongst many, and that because we are part of an ecosystem, any actions which negatively affect the
living systems of which we are a part adversely affect us as well, whether or not we maintain a
biocentric worldview.

Eco-centric Holism: This position maintains that the environment deserves direct moral
consideration, and not one that is merely derived from human (and animal) interests. The
terminology used to express this direct responsibility is varied. It is suggested that the environment
has direct rights, that it qualifies for moral personhood, that it is deserving of direct duty and that it
has inherent worth. Common to all of these claims is the position that the environment by itself is
on a moral part with humans.

Chapter 4

Environmental Risk Communication

Risk communication is a form of communication that is similar to other traditional forms of

communication. There is a source of communication that generates the message that goes through
the channel to the receiver. There are a number of approaches to the process of risk communication
and its components, including how messages are sent and received and how conflicts are managed,
and how divisions are made. Risk communications are significant for the reason that they affect the
effectiveness of the emergency situation that is handled and they type of audience. The implication
for risk communicators are that each of the model components needs to be considered when
developing risk communication.

Environmental risk communication is a complex, multidisciplinary, multidimensional, and evolving

process of increasing importance in protecting the public health. Risk communication is associated
with dialogue in environmental health decision-making about such community issues as air
pollution, hazardous waste sites, lead, pesticides, drinking water and asbestos. Risk communication
can also help promote changes in individual behavior.

The National Research Council defines risk communication as “an interactive process of exchange
of information and opinion among individuals, groups and institutions”. The discussion includes

9
“discussion about risk types and levels and about methods for managing risks.” Specifically, this
process is defined by levels of involvement in decisions, actions, or policies aimed at managing or
controlling health or environmental risks.

Communication with the Public: 10 questions to Ask

1. Why are we communicating?

2. Who is our audience?
3. What do our audiences want to know?
4. What do we want to get across?
5. How will we communication?
6. How will we listen?
7. How will we respond?
8. Who will carry out the plans? When?
9. What problems or barriers have we planned for?
10. Have we succeeded?

Constraints to Effective Risk Communication

Risk communicators need to be aware of constraints to communication so that they can recognize
and overcome the problems to increase their chance of communicating effectively. The same
organization that has asked you to communicate risks can put a number of roadblocks in your way,
such as

1. Inadequate resources
2. Management apathy or hostility
3. Difficult review and approval procedures
4. Conflicting organizational requirements
5. Insufficient information to plan further

Risk communication can never be effective unless it considers the emotions, beliefs, and political
leanings of the affected persons and the community at large. Hostility and outrage towards risk
messages from the audience can be a serious impediment to the communication process. The
hostility is reflected by way of fear, anger, frustration and contempt. Producing any form of
technical communication can result in ethical difficulties. Questions like how much information to
release, and to whom should it be released, and who makes those decisions are interconnected with
the dissemination of any time and type of information.

Social ethics comprises the code of ethics by which our society judges our behavior. Risk
communication has also evolved to meet changing societal demands. Social ethical issues also
include who uses the risk idiom, and whether the risk is being applied equally to all ethnic and social
groups, etc.

10
Principles of Risk Communication

1. Know your communication limits and purpose: To effectively communicate risk, you must
know why you are communicating and any limitations to your ability to communicate risk.

2. Whenever possible pre test your message: The message should be reviewed by a group of
people to determine the sustainability and to ensure that the risk message achieves the
desired results.

3. Communicate early, often and fully: This principle has two aspects: timing of
communication and amount of information to be released. Risk communication may be
timed to involve the people all along the process of communication.

4. Remember that perception is reality. This principle can be difficult for some technical
experts to apply. To the experts, reality is carefully built, constructed, tested on scientific
truths, and not based on someone’s possibly uninformed perceptions. So technical decisions
should be made more and more on people’s perception rather than technical soundness of
the decision alone.

5. Principles of presentation: This category represents a set of principles looking at how to

present the risk information ways that best communicate the risk to the people.

a. Know the people to whom the message is intended

b. Don’t limit yourself to one method or one form.

c. Simplify the language and presentation but not the content.

d. Be objective, not subjective.

e. Communicate honestly, clearly and compassionately.

f. Listen and deal with specific concerns.

g. Convey the same information to all segments of the community.

h. Deal with uncertainty.

Two variables you have to consider in communicating risk are why you are communicating the risk
(purpose), and what you hope to gain by it (objective). The purpose is a general statement; the
objectives are statements of specific measurable details to be accomplished. This formal agreement
can help you communicate risk more effectively because it:

 Gives everyone a common ground upon which to build,

 Let’s upper management know what you are doing, and why are your doing,
11
 Gives you a yardstick for measuring success.

12