ECONOMICS PROJECT

TURKEY

SUBMITTED TO

Professor Dharmendra
United World School of Law (UWSL),
Karnavati University
(Faculty- Economics)

SUBMITTED BY

Name: - Prem Patel

Roll NO: - 26
Semester: - 2 B
PESTEL ANALYSIS OF INDIA

This PESTEL analysis of India aims to address some of the political, economic, social,
technological, environmental, and legal issues concerning the country.

Political environment of India

India is one of the most powerful countries in the world. It is the largest democracy in the world
and enjoys a relatively stable political environment. New Delhi is the capital of India. India
neighbours two powerful countries i.e. China and Pakistan. Other neighbouring countries are
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan, & Sri Lanka.

Democratic will of the people reflected in the local and national elections is mostly respected and
accepted by the political parties and people in general. This political culture of tolerance
contributes immensely to maintain a stable political climate which is in fact a very important
factor to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). However, sporadic political unrest is not very
uncommon in India.

A major area of concern in India is corruption. It badly affects the country’s business and
political environment, posing a challenge to the country’s economic growth. Corruption
increases the cost of business operations and often affects foreign direct investment. However, a
growing public awareness and government initiatives are combating the challenges of corruption.

Economic environment of India

According to the IMF 2017 economic forecast, India’s GDP is worth $2.4 trillion making it the
7thlargest economy in the world by nominal GDP. The GDP will grow by 7.0% in FY18 which is
expected to increase to 7.4% by FY20 (The World Bank Group, 2018).

The current corporate tax rate in India is 30% (as of February 2018). It is worth noting that the
country witnessed frequent corporate tax rate changes over the years. For example, the tax rate in
2010 was 33.99%, while it reached an all time high of 38.95% in 2001 (Trading Economics,
2018).
India is one of the top countries in many industries. For example, it is the 7th largest coffee
producing countries in the world (International Coffee Organisation, 2017). It is also one of the
top agriculture producing countries in the world.

India’s key exports are petroleum products, jewellery, pharmaceutical products, transport
equipment, machinery and readymade garments to name but a few. On the other hand, India
imports crude petroleum, gold and silver, electronic good, pearls and precious stones and many
other things. Some of the top trading partners of India are China, UAE, Switzerland, Saudi
Arabia, USA, and Qatar (Guardian News and Media Limited, 2016).

The Indian economy has held up better than other emerging countries to the global economic
slowdown and has benefited from low oil prices in recent years. According to the IMF, the
Indian economy grew by 7.3% in 2018, which is the highest growth in two years and strongest
since the first quarter of 2016, driven by a rebound in industrial activity, especially
manufacturing and construction, and an expansion in agriculture. Sectors which registered
growth of over 7% include manufacturing; electricity, gas and water supply; construction, and
public administration and defence. India also registered the third highest growth in the world in
2018. Growth is expected to remain strong in the next couple of years, reaching 7.4% in 2019
and 7.7% in 2020.

India’s fiscal deficit stood at USD 101.93 billion by the end of November 2018. That amounted
to 114.8% of the budgeted target for that year, mainly due to lower revenue realization and rise
in expenditure, with the debt to GDP ratio remaining high (67%). That was a slight increase from
the previous year's 112% of the budgeted target. The inflation rate increased from 3.6% in 2017,
to 4.7% in 2018. However, the economy is aiming to move towards a more stable price regime.
Also, in 2018 the government deficit stood at -6.6% of the GDP ans is expected to remain at the
similar level in coming years. In 2018, Prime Minister Narendra Modi continued his programme
of reforms aimed at consolidating public accounts, promoting investment and industrial
development and improving the business climate. The government has passed a key goods and
services tax bill (which aims at turning the 29 states into a common market) and raised foreign
direct investment caps in some sectors, with various economic reforms focusing on
administrative and governance changes. In case Prime Minister Narendra Modi continues in
power after the 2019 elections, the foundations upon which new policies would be built should
remain largely unchanged.  Modi’s biggest reform push, with the greatest impact to public
finances, and the strongest tool against tax evasion was the introduction of the goods and
services tax (GST). Another major decision taken by the government was to suddenly declare
that India’s highest-denomination banknotes – accounting for 86% of cash – would no longer be
legal tender and so they had to be deposited in banks. This policy aimed at tackling the black
economy and, after a first period of uncertainty, it is expected to have positive effects on the
country’s economy (as an example, since April 2017 over twice as many Indians have filed tax
returns than in the same period of the previous year). However, long-term challenges remain
significant, including: India's discrimination against women and girls, an inefficient power
generation and distribution system, ineffective enforcement of intellectual property rights,
inadequate transport and agricultural infrastructure, limited non-agricultural employment
opportunities, high spending and poorly targeted subsidies, insufficient availability of quality
basic and higher education, constant rural-to-urban migration.

India is expected to overtake China as the world’s most populous country by 2024. It has the
world’s largest youth population, nevertheless according to the OECD over 30% of India's youth
are NEETs (not in employment, education or training). India continues to suffer from a low GDP
per capita, almost 25% of the population still lives below the poverty line (about one-third of the
world’s population living on under USD 1.90/day lives in India) and the country's inequalities
are very strong: the richest 1% of the population own 53% of the country’s wealth. According to
ILO reports, the unemployment rate stood at 3.5% 2018 and should remain unchanged in 2019.

Social environment of India

India has a gigantic consumer market with a total population of approximately 1.2 billion. Such a
huge market is a great opportunity for multinational companies. No wonder why so many
multinationals are operating in India! India offers cheap labour and the labour force is expected
to reach 160-170 million by 2020 (IBEF, 2018). Accessible and affordable labour force has
encouraged many multinational companies to outsource some of their business operations to
India.
India is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, and multi-religious country. Communal harmony is a great
strength; however, the country sometimes witnesses tensions in ethnic lines. India has a world-
renowned film industry. It is also world renowned for some of the sports e.g. Cricket and
Hockey. IPL (Indian Premier League) attracts cricket legends and talents to India.

India is one of the most attractive markets in the world in many sectors. Standard of living is
gradually improving and the country has a growing middle class with good disposable income.
However, it is worth noting that India still suffers from poverty and according to the World
Bank, 1 in 5 people in India are still poor.

Technological environment of India

India is one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world. In fact, according to
some sources, it is the 3rd most technologically advanced country in the world. No wonder why
more and more tech giants including but not limited to Facebook, Microsoft, and Apple are
investing in the country! India is a key destination for outsourcing work in IT. With an advanced
IT infrastructure and highly skilled IT work force, India offer enormous opportunities for
entrepreneurs to embark upon technological projects such as software development and
upgrades, e-commerce, mobile apps, business solutions, and many more.

Environmental issues of India

While India has made a lot of progress over the years, the country still faces a number of
environmental challenges e.g. air pollution, water pollution, floods, resource depletion such as
water and forest, loss of biodiversity, and diversion of consumer waste into rivers. Expatriates
may sometimes find it difficult to live under some of these environmental challenges.

Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; desertification; air

pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage and
runoff of agricultural pesticides; tap water is not potable throughout the country; huge and
growing population is overstraining natural resources. For the environment of India to be
sustainable in the long run, it should be broad-based and inclusive of a large part of the region's
labor force. [Source: CIA World Factbook]
 Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-
Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-
Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical
Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling.

 India is vulnerable to various natural hazards, particularly cyclones and annual monsoon floods,
and various combinations of poverty, population growth, increasing individual consumption,
industrialization, infrastructural development, poor agricultural practices, and resource
maldistribution have led to substantial human transformation of India’s natural environment. An
estimated 60 percent of cultivated land suffers from soil erosion, waterlogging, and salinity. It is
also estimated that between 4.7 and 12 billion tons of topsoil are lost annually from soil erosion.
From 1947 to 2002, average annual per capita water availability declined by almost 70 percent to
1,822 cubic meters, and overexploitation of groundwater is problematic in the states of Haryana,
Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Forest area covers 19.4 percent of India’s geographic area (63.7
million hectares). Nearly half of the country’s forest cover is found in the state of Madhya
Pradesh (20.7 percent) and the seven states of the northeast (25.7 percent); the latter is
experiencing net forest loss. Forest cover is declining because of harvesting for fuel wood and
the expansion of agricultural land. [Source: Library of Congress, 2004*]

 These trends, combined with increasing industrial and motor vehicle pollution output, have led
to atmospheric temperature increases, shifting precipitation patterns, and declining intervals of
drought recurrence in many areas. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute has estimated that a
3̊ C rise in temperature will result in a 15 to 20 percent loss in annual wheat yields. These are
substantial problems for a nation with such a large population depending on the productivity of
primary resources and whose economic growth relies heavily on industrial growth. *

 Civil conflicts involving natural resources—most notably forests and arable land—have
occurred in eastern and northeastern states. By contrast, water resources have not been linked to
either domestic or international violent conflict as was previously anticipated by some observers.
Possible exceptions include some communal violence related to distribution of water from the
Kaveri River and political tensions surrounding actual and potential population displacements by
dam projects, particularly on the Narmada River. *
 Salinization affects 11 percent of the irrigated land in India. An estimated 7 million acres of land
has been damaged by salt. Saltwater intrusion is a problem in some coastal areas. Mangroves
have been cut down and underground water has been tapped out.

 According to a survey of expatriates living in Asia, India, China, Vietnam, the Philippines,
Indonesia and Hong Kong were regarded as the dirties countries in Asia while Singapore, Japan
and Malaysia were regarded as the cleanest. Thailand, South Korea and Taiwan were in the
middle.

Legal environment of India

The last element to address in the PESTEL analysis of India is the legal landscape. As mentioned
above, India is a famous destination for foreign direct investment. Depending on the scope and
the business needs, foreign investors can set up a company, branch, or a limited liability
partnership in India. Indian companies are governed by the Companies Act, 2013. There are a
number of labour laws that regulate employment relations in India e.g. Employees’ State
Insurance Act 1948 (ESI Act), Industrial Disputes Act 1947 (ID Act), Maternity Benefit Act
1961 (MBA) and the Payment of Bonus Act 1965 (PBA).
Steeple Analysis of Turkey

STEEPLE is advanced as it deals with macro-environmental external factors and also offers an
overview of various external fields. It is an acronym for Social, Technological, Environmental,
Political, Legal and Ethical.

Social Life of Turkey

Istanbul is a multi-layered and a multi-cultural city. It is huge and it is home to approximately 15

million people. The reason expats feel comfortable in Istanbul is that they can find any kind of
activity from international concerts to Broadway musicals, from sports tournaments to art
festivals. You can easily watch your home country’s soccer or basketball team in Istanbul!

These activities are mainly held in districts such as Taksim, Beşiktaş, Levent, Karaköy and
Kadıköy. Such spots are kind of the hubs of Istanbul and they can be reached via bus, tram,
metro, metrobüs or ferry. Taxi fares are also quite reasonable in Istanbul; so you can just take a
taxi without any hesitation.

Most tickets are sold on websites called “Biletix” or “My Bilet”. The site also has an English
version; so you can easily buy your tickets without going to a kiosk. Even if you go to a kiosk,
you can easily communicate in English. Similarly, the hosts and the attendants of the events
usually know English pretty well.

When it comes to the security, the events in Istanbul are as safe as any event in Europe or US.
You can just take the general precautions and enjoy the event from beginning to the end! We
highly recommend you to buy your ticket beforehand and not to carry too much money or
valuable stuff with you.

When you attend to an event, you will see that there are many tourists and expats out there.
Expats and tourist are especially interested in international music festivals or concerts. Apart
from such events, expats in Istanbul generally socialize in areas such as Nişantaşı, Cihangir,
Ortaköy, Bebek, Kadıköy, Bostancı, and Çengelköy, Beylerbeyi. These districts have so many
beautiful and friendly cafes that they all be in your to-do list in a short time!
Istanbul is also home to many high-level nightclubs. As a single expat or as a couple, you can
eat, drink and dance seeing the beautiful Bosphorus or historical peninsula view!

Here are some recommendations made by our expat customers:

● Karaköy Lokantası & Bej Lokantası – easy to reach

● Ferah Feza – with a beautiful views
● 360 – Bosphorus view, shows and meals
● Leb’i Derya – Bosphorus view
● Anemon Hotel Roof – The historical peninsula view
● Latera Restaurant – beautiful view
● Nicole – gourmet meals
● Ara Cafe – a famous photographer’s cafe
● Kız Kulesi – a historic tower in the middle of Bosphorus
● Forneria – quite popular in Karaköy
● Unter – cosy atmosphere
● Karabatak – for those who don’t prefer alcoholic venues
● Karakoy’s classical venues: Liman Lokantası, Akın Balık, Tarihi Karaköy Balıkçısı,
Namlı Gurme, Güllüoğlu Baklava
● Nublu and Zelda Zonk – beautiful view and atmosphere, quite popular with celebrities

Social Interaction

Every city has low-profile and high-profile districts. They are divided mainly by socio-economic
status or cultural reasons. We recommend all our expat customers high profile districts such as
Etiler, Ulus, Ortaköy, Levent, Nişantaşı, Cihangir, Maslak, Göktürk, Zekeriyaköy. In these
districts, you will find locals or expats similar to your status and world vision.

In terms of meeting new people, you don’t need to hesitate more than in your home country in
Istanbul as an expat. It is important to know that Turkish people are quite welcoming and
friendly. We recommend you not to doubt everyone you meet but to be on the safe side in the
beginning. As you know, there are ill-intentioned people everywhere around the world.
There are also many online platforms that you can check before relocating in Istanbul. Such
platforms are generally formed on Facebook and they are quite helpful to get a glimpse of the
new culture you’re about to meet! Here are some online platforms that expats share information
and recommendation:

● Turkey Relocation: https://www.facebook.com/turkeyrelocation

● Internations Connecting Global Minds: http://www.internations.org/istanbul-expats
● Expats in Istanbul: https://www.facebook.com/groups/istanbulexpats/
● Expats Events in Istanbul: https://www.facebook.com/ExpatEvents?ref=ts&fref=ts
● Istanbul Expat Club: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Istanbul-Expat-
Club/331900636866207?ref=ts&fref=ts
● Istanbul Expat Runners: https://www.facebook.com/groups/303819145089/?
ref=ts&fref=ts
● Expat Istanbul Social Community: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Expat-Istanbul-
Social-Community/128597617292814?ref=ts&fref=ts
● Expat In Istanbul: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Expats-in-Istanbul/283645471052?
ref=ts&fref=ts

Although not a social platform, you may also want to note The Guide Istanbul,  which lists the
most popular venues/ events in Istanbul. It is quite informative and the articles are English.

Social Life of Kids

Although most of the activities are for adults, there are still some other activities that expats can
enjoy as a family. There two major aquariums in Istanbul, both on the Europe side. They are one
of the biggest aquariums of Europe and you can easily socialize with expat or local families out
there.

Apart from aquariums, there are many parks and gardens, which help you to get away from the
hustle and bustle of the city and enjoy the beautiful weather of Istanbul. You also learn about the
civilizations once dwelled in Istanbul while visiting one of the hundreds of museums in Istanbul.
Moreover, there is a big theme park a little outside the city called Vialand. You can also see
minor theme parks in many districts. In almost every mall, there are special game areas for the
kids where they can enjoy many different games individually or with their peers.

If you want your kids to socialize expat kids, you can send them to international kindergartens
after relocating in Istanbul. While you kids get to know new kids, you can spare some time for
yourself or your hobbies! 🙂

Here are some daytime activities for you to enjoy as a family:

● Vialand
● Turkuazoo Aquarium
● Istanbul Aquarium
● Miniaturk Museum
● Istanbul Dolphinarium
● Istanbul Aviation Museum
● Belgrade Forest – Belgrad Orman
● Gulhane Park
● Ulus Park
● Fenerbahce Park
● Yildiz Park
● Istanbul Toy Museum
● Topkapi Palace
● Istanbul Archeology Museum

Technology of Croatia

Turkey has invested heavily in technology over the past two decades. The number of internet
users in Turkey has surged from just three percent in 2000 to 44% today, and 96% of the
population now owns a mobile phone. The Turkish people are increasingly interconnected and
technologically advanced, and it’s having a ripple effect across many aspects of life in the
country – from education and infrastructure to business and research.
Over a quarter of Turkey’s population is under the age of 15, and the Turkish government has
proactively engaged youth by creating opportunities for more technology education. For
example, the Turkish Ministry of National Education implemented the FATIH Project in 2011 to
provide training and infrastructure, and to ensure a generation of technologically literate
children. Classrooms across Turkey have been equipped with state-of-the-art technology, and by
the completion of the project in 2019, over 680,000 teachers from 42,000 schools across will
have received training. Hundreds of thousands of new ‘Smart’ whiteboards, which are
manufactured by a Turkish company, have also been installed to help make learning more
interactive. In addition, the Turkish government has provided tablets to both teachers and
students with educational software to help children gain greater technological literacy.

Economy of Turkey

Economy Outlook

The lira has again come under severe stress in recent weeks, due to concerns over monetary and
fiscal policy, with last year’s currency crisis still fresh in the minds of investors. In late March,
the offshore overnight swap rate sky-rocketed and the Central Bank’s international reserves
plummeted in attempts to prevent short-selling of the currency. The local elections, in which the
AKP lost control over Ankara and Istanbul, took place against the background of a battered
economy, which contracted sharply at the close of last year on collapsing domestic demand,
undermined by deteriorating sentiment, high inflation and tougher financial conditions. Data on
Q1 2019 remained grim, with consumer sentiment and the manufacturing PMI remaining
depressed through March, suggesting the economy shrank in the quarter; however, fiscal
stimulus should have alleviated some pains.

Economy Growth

The economy will likely contract this year amid feeble domestic demand due to persistently high
inflation, rising unemployment and currency weakness. In H2, the economy should recover
somewhat, which would provide room for the Central Bank to loosen monetary policy and spur
activity. Currency volatility and lingering geopolitical tensions cloud the outlook.
FocusEconomics Consensus Forecast panelists expect the economy to shrink 0.8% in 2019,
which is down 0.5 percentage points from last month’s forecast, and to expand 3.0% in 2020

Environmental factors of Turkey

Introduction
Turkey's economic emergence has brought with it fears of increased environmental degradation.
As Turkey's economy experienced high levels of growth in the mid-1990s, the country's boom in
industrial production resulted in higher levels of pollution and greater risks to the country's
environment. With domestic energy consumption on the rise, Turkey has been forced to import
more oil and gas, and the resultant increase in oil tanker traffic in the Black Sea and Bosporus
Straits has increased environmental threats there.

With Turkey now a formal candidate for membership in the European Union, Turkey's
environmental record will come under heavy scrutiny. In 1983, Turkey promulgated the
country's overarching "Environmental Law," and a national Ministry of Environment was created
in 1991. Turkey is building an extensive network of hydroelectric energy sources in the southeast
part of the country, and cleaner-burning natural gas is moving to replace coal in power
generation.

The importance of strong environmental protection measures, as well as the fragility of Turkey's
environment, was driven home recently by catastrophe that struck the Tisza and Danube rivers in
southeast Europe. After a reservoir wall at a gold mine in Romania collapsed, cyanide-tainted
water was dumped into the Tisza River, and the toxic spill killed thousands of fish in Hungary as
it flowed downstream into the Danube. Although the spill was supposed to be diluted by the time
it reached the Black Sea, and it was not expected to cause any damage there or in the Marmara
Sea, Turkey took no chances, taking water samples in the Bosporus Straits to measure any
effects from the toxic spill.

Politics of Turkey
The politics of Turkey takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the
President of Turkey is the head of government and the head of state who holds executive powers
to issue executive decrees, appoint judges and heads of state institutions.

Turkey's political system is based on a separation of powers. Executive power is exercised by the
Council of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.
The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Its current constitution was
adopted on 7 November 1982 after the Turkish constitutional referendum. A major reform was
passed in Parliament in 21 January 2017 and approved by referendum the following April
reinforcing the role of the president.

The Economist Intelligence Unit has rated Turkey as "hybrid regime" in 2017.[1]

Military Involvement in Turkey

Since Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founded the modern secular Republic of Turkey in 1923, the
Turkish military has perceived itself as the guardian of Atatürkçülük, the official state ideology.
The TAF still maintains an important degree of influence over Turkish politics and the decision
making process regarding issues related to Turkish national security, albeit decreased in the past
decades, via the National Security Council.

The military has had a record of intervening in politics. Indeed, it assumed power for several
periods in the latter half of the 20th century. It executed coups d'état in 1960, in 1971, and in
1980. Most recently, it maneuvered the removal of an Islamic-oriented prime minister,
Necmettin Erbakan, in 1997.[5]

On 27 April 2007, in advance of 4 November 2007 presidential election, and in reaction to the
politics of Abdullah Gül, who has a past record of involvement in Islamist political movements
and banned Islamist parties such as the Welfare Party, the army issued a statement of its
interests. It said that the army is a party to "arguments" regarding secularism; that Islamism ran
counter to the secular nature of the Turkish Republic, and to the legacy of Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk. The Army's statement ended with a clear warning that the Turkish Armed Forces stood
ready to intervene if the secular nature of the Turkish Constitution is compromised, stating that
"the Turkish Armed Forces maintain their sound determination to carry out their duties stemming
from laws to protect the unchangeable characteristics of the Republic of Turkey. Their loyalty to
this determination is absolute."[6]

Contrary to outsider expectations, the Turkish populace is not uniformly averse to coups; many
welcome the ejection of governments they perceive as unconstitutional. [7][8] Members of the
military must also comply with the traditions of secularism, according to the US Commission on
International Religious Freedom report in 2008, members who performed prayers or had wives
who wore the headscarf, have been charged with “lack of discipline”.[9]

Paradoxically, the military has both been an important force in Turkey's continuous
Westernization but at the same time also represents an obstacle for Turkey's desire to join the
EU. At the same time, the military enjoys a high degree of popular legitimacy, with continuous
opinion polls suggesting that the military is the state institution that the Turkish people trust the
most.[10]

Legal System of Croatia

Legal system: civil law system based on various European legal systems, notably the Swiss civil
code

Definition: This entry provides the description of a country's legal system. A statement on
judicial review of legislative acts is also included for a number of countries. The legal systems of
nearly all countries are generally modeled upon elements of five main types: civil law (including
French law, the Napoleonic Code, Roman law, Roman-Dutch law, and Spanish law); common
law (including United State law); customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law
(including Islamic law). An additional type of legal system - international law, which governs the
conduct of independent nations in their relationships with one another - is also addressed below.
The following list describes these legal systems, the countries or world regions where these
systems are enforced, and a brief statement on the origins and major features of each.
Civil Law - The most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in
approximately 150 countries. Also referred to as European continental law, the civil law system
is derived mainly from the Roman Corpus Juris Civilus, (Body of Civil Law), a collection of
laws and legal interpretations compiled under the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Justinian I
between A.D. 528 and 565. The major feature of civil law systems is that the laws are organized
into systematic written codes. In civil law the sources recognized as authoritative are principally
legislation - especially codifications in constitutions or statutes enacted by governments - and
secondarily, custom. The civil law systems in some countries are based on more than one code.
Common Law - A type of legal system, often synonymous with "English common law," which
is the system of England and Wales in the UK, and is also in force in approximately 80 countries
formerly part of or influenced by the former British Empire. English common law reflects
Biblical influences as well as remnants of law systems imposed by early conquerors including
the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Normans. Some legal scholars attribute the formation of the
English common law system to King Henry II (r.1154-1189). Until the time of his reign, laws
customary among England's various manorial and ecclesiastical (church) jurisdictions were
administered locally. Henry II established the king's court and designated that laws were
"common" to the entire English realm. The foundation of English common law is "legal
precedent" - referred to as stare decisis, meaning "to stand by things decided." In the English
common law system, court judges are bound in their decisions in large part by the rules and other
doctrines developed - and supplemented over time - by the judges of earlier English courts.
Customary Law - A type of legal system that serves as the basis of, or has influenced, the
present-day laws in approximately 40 countries - mostly in Africa, but some in the Pacific
islands, Europe, and the Near East. Customary law is also referred to as "primitive law,"
"unwritten law," "indigenous law," and "folk law." There is no single history of customary law
such as that found in Roman civil law, English common law, Islamic law, or the Napoleonic
Civil Code. The earliest systems of law in human society were customary, and usually developed
in small agrarian and hunter-gatherer communities. As the term implies, customary law is based
upon the customs of a community. Common attributes of customary legal systems are that they
are seldom written down, they embody an organized set of rules regulating social relations, and
they are agreed upon by members of the community. Although such law systems include
sanctions for law infractions, resolution tends to be reconciliatory rather than punitive. A number
of African states practiced customary law many centuries prior to colonial influences. Following
colonization, such laws were written down and incorporated to varying extents into the legal
systems imposed by their colonial powers.
Ethical System of turkey

Over the past five years the pressure on Turkish journalism has continued to grow in the midst of
national and regional crises that have stretched the credibility of Turkey as a working democracy
to breaking point. Many journalists and dissidents have fled the country, fearing prosecution, and
gone into exile.

But some journalists and media activists are not giving up. Even in the face of intimidation,
victimisation and loss of jobs, a spirit of resistance is being displayed as journalists groups
regroup and look for fresh solutions to the news crisis.

As of February 19, 2018, 156 journalists are in jail, around 200 media shut down, hundreds of
press cards and passports cancelled. The leftist and Kurdish news agencies and online news
organisation are constantly banned by Information and Communication Technologies Authority.
They try to survive through changing their URL.

The Afrin operation of the Turkish Army in Syria led to a new assault on journalism with
writers, political opposition and social media critics of the war targeted by the government on the
grounds of making “terror propaganda”.

According to the Ministry of the Interior, 786 people have been taken into custody for being
against the Afrin Operation – or operation “Olive Branch” as the government terms it.

Media owners and the editors were called to a meeting and warned by the Prime Minister about
how to cover the operation within “national interests” and given 15 principles to be followed in
reporting. The government has restricted coverage of critical statements or comments from
Kurdish or political opposition as well as any mention of foreign media’s critical news about
Turkey (Ahval, January 21, 2018). As the Spectator reporter Alice Beale noted, “the days of free
reporting from northern Syria are over.” Even foreign journalists have been issued with a stiff set
of instructions from Ankara on covering the Afrin operation.

In recent months, the government has come under heavy criticism for its crackdown on freedom
of media and freedom of expression by European governments and international journalists
associations. However, according to the President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, imprisoned journalists
are “gardeners” of terrorism (Deutsche Welle, January 5, 2018). Six journalists including
prominent columnists Ahmet Altan, Mehmet Altan and Nazlı Ilıcak were sentenced to life in
prison over their alleged role in the failed coup attempt because of their television appearances
and newspaper columns.

On the other hand, same time Turkish-German Deniz Yücel was released after a year in prison
without any charges brought against him thanks to the efforts of the German Government even
though Erdoğan labelled him as “German agent and terrorist”.

These two recent cases once more showed that the government will criminalise journalism to
silence critical voices and use foreign journalists as hostage for international issues.

In these circumstances self-censorship is rampant and ethical journalism has been cowed with
the focus of activism on efforts to free jailed journalists and support those facing prosecution.

Many journalists are jobless or working in precarious conditions. They face huge risks. Not
surprisingly, the mood in the mainstream media is one of near hopelessness. Editors and
reporters think that there is no chance to do real journalism in the country.

The scale of the problem is reflected in a series of interviews carried out with 14 journalists from
mainstream, independent and international media and in the discussions around two media
roundtables organised in İstanbul and in Ankara in February 2018.

The journalists in the survey spelled out a series of actions that they felt were needed to help
keep an ethical flame alive in the world of Turkish journalism. In particular, they pointed to

Actions to combat censorship: Censorship and self- censorship is widespread. Some journalists
admitted that they deliberately avoid some issues to survive;

Improving solidarity: Journalists, media and human rights activists are notoriously divided.
Actions are needed to create more co-operation.
Tips on reporting restricted subjects (human rights journalism, child abuse, gender,
migration): Reliable reporting is difficult when many journalists are excluded from government
press meetings, and are not getting insider information. Their only sources are lawyers and
NGOs.

Online and offline security: Independent journalists, particularly Kurdish ones are at risk. They
don’t have press cards and never get accreditation. They can be easily targeted by police or army
forces. How do they survive and how do all learn the basics in use of digital security tools?

More investigative journalism: There are calls for creating and building local investigative
journalists networks;

Alternative media: More needs to be done to strengthen alternative media voices but it is still
needs a collaborative effort to remain on the agenda on social media to attract public opinion.
Division and political or historical baggage are still preventing solidarity among journalists.

New ways of telling stories: Social media are prominent news sources for readers and audience.
How can they be mobilised for quality and ethical story-telling?

Standards and respect for the audience: Many news stories don’t meet the basics of
journalism. Stories are defective, hate speech is common, and more effort is needed to build a
culture of standards.

These findings provide a challenging opportunity to confront the crisis overwhelming the entire
media landscape and are evidence that all is not lost. Independent journalists and media support
groups are still open to collaboration and are willing to work together to build new and creative
alliances to keep journalism alive.

Educational Condition of India

In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education in which anyone who wished to
study went to a teacher's (Guru) house and requested to be taught. If accepted as a student by the
guru, he would then stay at the guru's place and help in all activities at home. This not only
created a strong tie between the teacher and the student, but also taught the student everything
about running a house. The guru taught everything the child wanted to learn, from Sanskrit to the
Holy Scriptures and from Mathematics to Metaphysics. The student stayed as long as she wished
or until the guru felt that he had taught everything he could teach. All learning was closely linked
to nature and to life, and not confined to memorizing some information.

The modern school system was brought to India, including the English language, originally by
Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The curriculum was confined to “modern”
subjects such as science and mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were
considered unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link with nature was
broken, as also the close relationship between the teacher and the student.

The Uttar Pradesh (a state in India) Board of High School and Intermediate Education was the
first Board set up in India in the year 1921 with jurisdiction over Rajputana, Central India and
Gwalior. In 1929, the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana, was
established. Later, boards were established in some of the states. But eventually, in 1952, the
constitution of the board was amended and it was renamed Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE). All schools in Delhi and some other regions came under the Board. It was the
function of the Board to decide on things like curriculum, textbooks and examination system for
all schools affiliated to it. Today there are thousands of schools affiliated to the Board, both
within India and in many other countries from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe.

Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14 was a cherished
dream of the new government of the Republic of India. This is evident from the fact that it is
incorporated as a directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But this objective remains far
away even more than half a century later. However, in the recent past, the government appears to
have taken a serious note of this lapse and has made primary education a Fundamental Right of
every Indian citizen. The pressures of economic growth and the acute scarcity of skilled and
trained manpower must certainly have played a role to make the government take such a step.
The expenditure by the Government of India on school education in recent years comes to
around 3% of the GDP, which is recognized to be very low.

“In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of
affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum
Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements
are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To
support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there
would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes. (c) To ensure that
no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to
education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years. (e) To universalize
education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.

India Education Present Condition:

Soon after gaining independence in 1947, making education available to all had become a
priority for the government. As discrimination on the basis of caste and gender has been a major
impediment in the healthy development of the Indian society, they have been made unlawful by
the Indian constitution.

The 86th constitutional amendment has also made elementary education a fundamental right for
the children between the age group- 6 to 14. According to the 2001 census, the total literacy rate
in India is 65.38%. The female literacy rate is only 54.16%. The gap between rural and urban
literacy rate is also very significant in India. This is evident from the fact that only 59.4% of rural
population are literate as against 80. 3% urban population according to the 2001 census.
In order to develop the higher education system, the government had established the University
Grants Commission in 1953. The primary role of UGC has been to regulate the standard and
spread of higher education in India. There has been a marked progress in the expansion of higher
education if we look at the increase of higher educational institutes in India. The higher
education system in India comprise of more than17000 colleges, 20 central universities, 217
State Universities, 106 Deemed to Universities and 13 institutes of Natioanl importance. This
number will soon inflate as the setting up of 30 more central universities, 8 new IITs, 7 IIMs and
5 new Indian Institutes of Science are now proposed.

Education System in India:

The present education system in India mainly comprises of primary education, secondary
education, senior secondary education and higher education. Elementary education consists of
eight years of education. Each of secondary and senior secondary education consists of two years
of education. Higher education in India starts after passing the higher secondary education or the
12th standard. Depending on the stream, doing graduation in India can take three to five years.
Post graduate courses are generally of two to three years of duration. After completing post
graduation, scope for doing research in various educational institutes also remains open. 

Education System in turkey

Education in Turkey is governed by a national system which was established in accordance with
the Atatürk Reforms after the Turkish War of Independence. It is a state-supervised system
designed to produce a skillful professional class for the social and economic institutes of the
nation.[1]

Compulsory education lasts 12 years. Primary and secondary education is financed by the state
and free of charge in public schools, between the ages of 6 and 18, and by 2001 enrollment of
children in this age range was nearly 100%. Secondary or high school education is not
mandatory but required in order to then progress to universities. By 2011 there were 166
universities in Turkey.[2] Except for the Open Education Faculty (Turkish: Açıköğretim
Fakültesi) at Anadolu University, entrance is regulated by a national examination, ÖSYS, after
which high school graduates are assigned to university according to their performance.[3]

In 2002, the total expenditure on education in Turkey amounted to $13.4 billion, including the
state budget allocated through the National Ministry of Education and private and international
funds.[4]

Primary school (Turkish: İlköğretim Okulu) lasts 4 years. Primary education covers the education
and teaching directed to children between 6–14, is compulsory for all citizens, boys or girls, and
is given free of charge in public schools. Primary education institutions are schools that provide
eight years of uninterrupted education, at the end of which graduates receive a primary education
diploma.[5] The first four years of the Primary School is sometimes referred to as "First School, 1.
Level" (Turkish: İlkokul 1. Kademe) but both are correct.
There are four core subjects at First, Second and Third Grades which are; Turkish, Maths, Hayat
Bilgisi (literally meaning "Life Knowledge") and Foreign Language. At Fourth Grade, "Hayat
Bilgisi" is replaced by Science and Social Studies. The foreign language taught at schools
changes from school to school. The most common one is English, while some schools teach
German, French or Spanish instead of English. Some private schools teach two foreign
languages at the same time.

Earlier the term "middle school" (tr: orta okul) was used for the three years education to follow
the then compulsory five years at "First School" (tr: ilk okul). Now the second four years of
primary education are sometimes referred to as "First School, 2. Level" (Turkish: İlkokul 2.
Kademe) but both are correct. Already primary schools may be public or private schools. Public
Schools are free but Private Schools' admission fees change from school to school. Foreign
languages taught at Private Schools are usually at a higher level than at Public Schools for most
Private Schools prefer hiring native speakers as teachers.

There are five core subjects at sixth and seventh grades; Turkish, maths, science, social studies
and foreign language. At eighth grade, social studies is replaced by "Turkish History of
Revolution and Kemalism" (tr: T.C. İnkılap Tarihi ve Atatürkçülük).

In the academic year 2001–2002, 10.3 million students were being educated and 375,500
teachers were employed in 34,900 schools.[10]

Secondary education includes all of the general, vocational and technical education institutions
that provide at least three years of education after primary school. The system for being accepted
to a high school changes almost every year. Sometimes private schools have different exams,
sometimes there are 3 exams for 3 years, sometimes there's only one exam but it is calculated
differently, sometimes they only look at your school grades. Secondary education aims to give
students a good level of common knowledge, and to prepare them for higher education, for a
vocation, for life and for business in line with their interests, skills and abilities. In the academic
year 2001–2002 2.3 million students were being educated and 134,800 teachers were employed
in 6,000 education institutions.[10]
General secondary education covers the education of children between 15–17 for at least three
years after primary education. General secondary education includes high schools, foreign
language teaching high schools, Anatolian High Schools, high schools of science, Anatolia
teacher training high schools, and Anatolia fine arts high schools.[10]

Vocational and technical secondary education involves the institutions that both raise students as
manpower in business and other professional areas, prepare them for higher education and meet
the objectives of general secondary education. Vocational and technical secondary education
includes technical education schools for boys, technical education schools for girls, trade and
tourism schools, religious education schools, multi-program high schools, special education
schools, private education schools and health education schools.[10]

Secondary education is often referred as high school education, since the schools are called
lyceum (tr: lise).

In public high schools and vocational high schools, students attend six classes each day, which
last for approximately 40 minutes each. In Anatolian high schools and private high schools, the
daily programme is typically longer, up to eight classes each day, also including a lunch period.
All 9th graders are taught the same classes nationwide, with minor differences in certain cases.
These classes are: Turkish language, Turkish literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry,
biology, geometry, world history, geography, religion & ethics, physical education, a foreign
language (in most cases English), a second foreign language (most commonly German but could
be French, Italian, Japanese, Arabic, Russian, or Chinese).

When students enter the 11th grade, they typically choose one of four tracks: Turkish language–
mathematics, science, social sciences, and foreign languages. In vocational high schools, no
tracks are offered, while in science high schools only the science tracks are offered. Different
schools may have different policies; some, but not many, schools offer electives instead of
academic tracks, giving students a wider range of options. For the 10th, 11th and 12th grade, the
compulsory courses are: Turkish language, Turkish literature, republican history, and
propaganda. In addition to that, students may be taught the following classes, depending on the
track they choose and/or the high school they attend: mathematics, geometry, statistics, physics,
biology, chemistry, geography, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economy, logic, arts and
music, traffic and health, computer, physical education, first and second foreign language.

The students used to be given a diploma for the academic track they had chosen, which gave
them an advantage if they wanted to pursue their higher education in the corresponding fields, as
the University Entrance Exam scores were weighted according to the student's track. (e.g. A
science student would have an advantage over a Turkish-Mathematics student when applying for
Medicine). As of the 2010–2011 educational year, all high school students are given the standard
high school diploma.[11]

At the end of high school, following the 12th grade, students take a high school finishing
examination and they are required to pass this in order to take the University Entrance Exam and
continue their studies at a university. There are four score types for different academic fields,
including but not limited to:

● Turkish language–mathematics: international relations, law, education, psychology,

economy, business management, and similar.
● Science: engineering, computer science, medicine, and other science-related professions.
● Social sciences: history, geography, and education.
● Foreign languages: language/linguistics and language teaching.

Consultancy Agency of India –

Trade –

● India exported services worth USD 188 billion and its services imports amounted to USD
153 billions in 2017.
● The largest services exports categories were other business and computer services and the
largest import categories were transport and other commercial services. India’s score on
the STRI index in the 22 sectors is presented below along with the average and the lowest
score among the 45 countries included in the STRI.
● India has a STRI score above average in all sectors. Services trade through FDI is
governed by the “Consolidated FDI Policy” (the current version in force since 28 August
 2017). Sectors are categorised into two groups: prohibited sectors and permitted sectors.
In the permitted sectors investment can take place either through the government route
through which prior approval is needed, or the automatic route where no approval is
required. In some sectors the automatic route applies up to a certain threshold beyond
which approval is needed. Additional horizontal measures affecting all sectors are
regulations on transfers of shares between residents and non-residents, which are subject
to pricing guidelines, and regulations on mergers and acquisitions, which usually take
place through the establishment of a holding company in India. India applies labour
market tests for natural persons seeking to provide services in the country on a temporary
basis as intra-corporate transferees, contractual services suppliers or independent services
suppliers. These categories may stay in the country for up to 24 months on their first
entry permit. However, multiple entry business visas are awarded for up to five years
with each stay limited to six months. At least one of the board members and the manager
in corporations must be residents of India. Finally, there are preferences for local
suppliers in public procurement.

Business –

● Economic growth of around 7½% makes India the fastest-growing G20 economy. The
acceleration of structural reforms, the move towards a rule-based policy framework and
low commodity prices have provided a strong growth impetus. Recent deregulation
measures and efforts to improve the ease of doing business have boosted foreign
investment. Investment is still held back by the relatively high corporate income tax rates,
a slow land acquisition process, regulations which remain stringent in some areas, weak
corporate balance sheets, high non-performing loans which weigh on banks’ lending, and
infrastructure bottlenecks.
● Quality job creation has been low, held back by complex labour laws. A comprehensive
tax reform would promote inclusive growth. Timely and effective implementation of the
Goods and Serv ices Tax wou ld support competitiveness, investment and economic
growth.
 ● Government’s plans to reduce the corporate income tax rate and broaden the base will
serve the same objectives. These two on-going reforms have been designed to be
revenue-neutral while India needs to raise additional tax revenue to meet social and
physical infrastructure needs. Property and personal income taxes, which are paid by very
few people, could be reformed to raise more revenue, promote social justice and
empower sub-national governments to better respond to local needs. Ensuring clarity and
certainty in tax legislation and employing more skilled tax officers would strengthen the
tax administration and make the system fairer and more effective.
● Spatial disparities in living standards are large. India is reforming relations across levels
of government to empower the states and make policies more responsive to local
conditions. Some states have taken the lead in improving the ease of doing business and
now enjoy higher productivity and income. Additional efforts to showcase reform efforts
at the state level and identify best practices will support the reform process and help
achieve better and balanced regional development. In rural areas, poverty rates are high
and access to core public services is often poor. Farm productivity is low owing to small
and fragmented land holdings, poor input management, and inefficient market conditions.
In urban areas, agglomeration benefits are quickly reduced by congestion costs, in
particular air pollution and long commuting times, all of which reduce well-being.

Consultancy agency of turkey

Trade

● Turkey is the EU's 4th largest export market and 5th largest provider of imports. The EU
is by far Turkey's number one import and export partner.
● EU exports to Turkey are dominated by machinery and transport material, chemical
products and manufactured goods.
● Turkey's exports to the EU are mostly machinery and transport equipment, followed by
manufactured goods.
 ● Turkey's main export markets are the EU (44.5%), Iraq, USA, Switzerland, United Arab
Emirates and Iran.
● Imports into Turkey come from the following key markets: the EU (38%), China, Russia,
USA, South Korea and Iran.
● The Customs Union entered into force on 31 December 1995. It covers all industrial
goods but does not address agriculture (except processed agricultural products), services
or public procurement. Bilateral trade concessions apply to agricultural as well as coal
and steel products.
● More information on Customs Union and preferential arrangements .
● In addition to providing for a common external tariff for the products covered, the
Customs Union foresees that Turkey is to align to the acquis communautaire in several
essential internal market areas, notably with regard to industrial standards.
● In December 2016, the Commission proposed to modernise the Customs Union and to
further extend the bilateral trade relations to areas such as services, public procurement
and sustainable development. The Commission proposal was based on comprehensive
preparatory work throughout 2016 which included a public consultation with
stakeholders, a detailed Impact Assessment and also a study by an external consultant.
The Commission's proposal is currently being discussed in Council.

Advertising

Turkey's Advertising Board ("Board") ruled on 302 cases during 2017, in the period up to
November. Among these decisions, the Board imposed administrative fines totalling 1.2 million
Turkish Liras. 63 cases (21%) resulted in detention, while 21 cases (7%) resulted in the Board
issuing an administrative fine, combined with a period of detention. The tourism sector received
the most fines during the period, followed by the health, food, then cosmetics sectors.

Given the consequences for breaching advertising in Turkey, which increase significantly for
repeat offences, it is crucial for companies to proactively and pre-emptively review their
commercial advertising, to ensure it does not inadvertently expose them to unnecessary legal
risks.
Advertising Board's powers and duties

Commercial advertising is defined in Turkey as "marketing communication through written,

visual or auditory forms aiming to reach a target market and create a willingness to buy or rent
a certain product or service related to commercial activities" (Article 61 of the Law on
Consumer Protection number 6502 ("Law"), dated 7 November 2017).

The Board was established in 1995, currently comprising 19 members, who represent trade
unions, non-governmental organizations and occupational organizations.

The Regulation on the Advertising Board ("Regulation"), published in Official Gazette number
29049 on 3 July 2014, outlines the Board's duties (Article 7). Accordingly, the Board has
authority to:

● Determine rules for advertising.

● Examine advertisements against its rules.
● Issue penalties involving:

o Up to three months detention.

o Precautionary penalties.
o Administrative monetary fines.

When determining principles for commercial advertising, the Board considers conditions in
Turkey, as well as universal advertising definitions and rules.

It can initiate ex officio examinations, or act on complaints about deceptive and unlawful
advertising from:

● Consumers.
● Institutions and organizations.
● Competitor companies.
The Board's cases are grouped into 13 categories: health, cosmetics and cleaning, food,
communication services, technology, durable consumer goods, tourism, financial services,
tobacco and alcohol, education, energy, surreptitious advertising and other sectors.