Notes 1
Chapter 1: The particulate nature of matter
Solids, Liquids and Gases
Solids
Strong forces of attraction between particles, particles are packed very closely together in a
fixed and regular pattern.
Atoms vibrate in position but can’t change position or move.
Solids have a fixed volume, shape and high density.
Liquids
Weaker attractive forces in liquids than in solids, particles are close together in an irregular,
unfixed pattern.
Particles can move and slide past each other which is why liquids adopt the shape of the
container they’re in and also why they are able to flow.
Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape and have a moderate to high density.
Gases
No intermolecular forces and, since particles are in random movement, there is no defined
pattern.
Particles are far apart and move quickly (around 500 m/s) in all directions, they collide with
each other and with the sides of the container (this is how pressure is created inside a can of
gas).
No fixed volume, since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases can be compressed
into a much smaller volume. Gases have low density.
The arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases
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State Changes
Melting
Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid.
Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move.
Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.) which is unique to each
pure solid.
Boiling
Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas.
Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing for
liquid particles to escape from the surface and within the liquid.
Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.) which is unique to each pure
liquid.
Freezing
Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid.
This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence
the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water for example
freezes and melts at 0ºC.
Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a
specific temperature which is unique for each pure substance.
Evaporation
When a liquid changes into a gas. Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high
energy particles can escape from the liquid’s surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the
liquid.
The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more quickly a liquid can
evaporate
For most liquids evaporation occurs readily over a range of temperatures and without the need
for heating as the particles at the surface absorb heat from the surroundings. The addition of
heat will accelerate the process and boiling occurs if the temperature exceeds the boiling point
of the liquid.
Condensation
When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling. When a gas is cooled its particles lose
energy and when they bump into each other, they lack energy to bounce away again, instead
grouping together to form a liquid.
No energy is required for condensation to occur and it takes place over a range of temperatures.
Sublimation
When a solid changes directly into a gas.
This happens to only a few solids such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide.
The reverse reaction also happens and is also called sublimation (sometimes called deposition
or desublimation).
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Sublimation occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for a pure substance.
Interconversion of solids, liquids and gas
Gaseous Particles
Gaseous particles are in constant and random motion.
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of each particle, as the thermal energy
is transformed to kinetic energy, so they move faster.
Decreasing the temperature has the opposite effect.
The pressure that a gas creates inside a closed container is produced by the gaseous particles
hitting the inside walls of the container. As the temperature increases, the particles in the gas
move faster, impacting the container’s walls more frequently.
Therefore an increase in temperature causes an increase in pressure.
Moving particles of gas colliding with each other and with the walls of container
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Brownian Motion and Diffusion
Brownian Motion
Brownian motion is defined as the random movement of particles in a liquid or a gas produced
by large numbers of collisions with smaller, often invisible particles.
The observation of Brownian motion proves the correctness of the kinetic particle theory.
An example of Brownian motion is the observed jerky and erratic motion of smoke particles as
they are hit by the unseen molecules in the air which can be seen under a microscope.
In 1905, physicist Albert Einstein explained that pollen grains in water were being moved by
individual water molecules.
In all cases, larger and visible particles are caused to move by the random bombardment of
smaller, invisible particles.
Large particles show jerky and erratic movement caused by many collisions with smaller particles
Diffusion
This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix and is due to the random
motion of their particles.
Diffusing particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to occupy all of the available
space.
Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required although it occurs faster at higher
temperatures.
The diagram below shows Diffusion of potassium manganate (VI) in water. After a few hours the
concentration of KMnO4 is the same everywhere in the solution
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Changes in State and the Kinetic theory
When substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is converted into
kinetic energy. This is the basis of the kinetic theory of matter.
Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature increases, they
vibrate so much that the solid expands until the structure breaks and the solid melts.
On further heating, the now liquid substance expands more and some particles at the surface
gain sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular forces and evaporate.
When the b.p. temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to escape and the
liquids boils.
These changes in state can be shown on a graph which is called a heating curve.
Cooling down a gas has the reverse effect and this would be called a cooling curve.
These curves are used to show how changes in temperature affect changes of state.
Heating & cooling curve for water with interconversions of state
Diffusion and Molecular Mass
Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move much quicker
than liquid particles.
At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate.
This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses
Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further, therefore: the lower its relative mass,
the faster a gas will diffuse.
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NH3 molecules have less mass than the HCl molecule, so diffuse faster, hence the product (a white
cloud of NH4Cl) forms closer to the end where the HCl is
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