A CRITICAL REVIEW ON THE K-T BOUNDARY PROBLEM OF
THERRIAGHAT SECTION, CHERRAPUNJI, MEGHALAYA
A literature review submitted to the Department of Applied Geology,
Dibrugarh University
Of
MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN APPLIED GEOLOGY
Submitted by
Nabin Adhikari
ROLL NO-19
M.SC 4TH SEM
CONTENTS: Page No.
Acknowledgement i
List of Diagrams ii
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Study Area 1
1.3 Physiography and Climate 2
1.4 Objective 2
CHAPTER 2
Stratigraphy 3-4
CHAPTER 3
Previous Work 5
CHAPTER 4
Materials and Method 6
CHAPTER 5
Literature Review 7-13
CHAPTER 6
Discussion and Conclusion 14-15
REFERENCES 16-17
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The preparation of this literature review has received a great deal of love, affection, support, guidance
and encouragement from a numbers of peoples. First and foremost I would like to express my
heartfelt gratitude to my guide and Supervisor Dr. Diganta Bhuyan sir for his constant guidance,
moral support, intellectual inspiration, help and encouragement throughout the topic. The study has
provided me with an immense knowledge on the topic “a critical review on the K-T boundary
problem of Therriaghat section, Cherrapunji, Meghalaya”, which would not have been complete
without his immense support and supervision. I feel to acknowledge my indebtedness and deep sense
of gratitude to my supervisor.
I would also like to extend my indebtedness gratitude to all the faculty members of the Department of
Applied Geology, for giving continuous suggestion, guidance, constant support and encouragement. I
would also like to extend my humble gratitude to Dibrugarh University for providing me such a
wonderful opportunity to write a literature review.
I also convey my gratefulness to my parents for constantly supporting me. My Sincere thanks to
my friends and my sister for their motivation and support throughout my work.
Lastly, I thank our God, for providing me with wisdom and knowledge which enabled me to
complete this work.
i
LIST OF DIAGRAMS
Sl.No. Title Page No.
1. Geological map of South Shillong Plateau (after Ghosh, 1940) 1
2. Stratigraphic succession of South Shillong Plateau (after Tewari, 4
Lokho, Kumar and Siddaiah, 2010)
3. Location of Meghalaya (after Mukopadhyay, 2008) 7
4. Location of Therriaghat around Um-Sohrynghkew 7
(after Mukopadhyay, 2008)
5. Lithology of K-T boundary along with fossils (after Pandey, 1990) 8
6. Micula prinsii (Image Source- Perch-Nielsen 1977 DSDP39 S Atlantic) 9
7. Orbitoides sp. 10
8. Siderolites calcitrapoides (after Lamarck, 1801) 10
9. Guembelitria Cushman from the K/T transition strata of Meghalaya 11
(after Mukopadhyay, 2012
10. Dinoflagellate cysts (after Garg and Teequzzaman,2000) 12
ii
CHAPTER-1
1.1 Introduction
The K-T boundary marks the end of the Cretaceous period and marks the beginning of the Palaeogene
Period. The transition between the Cretaceous and Tertiary Period of geologic time characterized by a
mass extinction of flora and fauna. Many hypothesis have been offered by the geologists over the
years to delineate the possible causes of mass extinction of flora and fauna, which also includes
dinosaurs. Strong evidence exists that the extinction was happened due to meteoritic impact.
1.2 Study Area
The area of study is located in Southern part of East Khasi Hills; the study area is broadly
restricted along Therriaghat section, Cherrapunji, Meghalaya. In this section K-T boundary is well
exposed. Um Sohryngkew river flowing along the boundary. Field evidences are well exposed in
this section for interpretations and to delineate K-T boundary. The interpretation is based on the
examination of boundary from Mahadek to Langpar Formation.
Fig.1-Geological map of South Shillong Plateau (after Ghosh,1940)
1
1.3 Physiography and Climate
Therriaghat is situated in the East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya. The River Um Sohryngkew flows along the
Therriaghat. East Khasi Hills forms a Central part of Meghalaya and covers a total geographic area of
2,478sq kms. The Northern portion of the district is bounded by the plain of Ri-Bhoi district gradually
rising to the rolling grasslands of the Shillong Plateau. The most important physiographic feature of
this region is the river valley, which surrounds the entire area then fall sharply in the Southern portion
forming deep gorges and ravine. The region is mainly inhabited by Tribals and Khasi.
The climate of the district ranges from temperate in the Plateau region to warmer tropical and sub-
tropical and sub-tropical pockets on the Northern Southern regions. The whole of the district is
influenced by South-West monsoon which begins generally from May and continues till September.
The weather is humid for the major portion of the year expect for the relative dry spell usually
between December and March. Cherrapunji is considered one of the wettest places in the world.
1.4 Objective
The objective of the present study is to review the literatures already published on the K-T boundary
along Therriaghat section, Cherrapunji, Meghalaya and to perceive a better understanding of the most
important geological problems of the earth history.The present review work is carried out after
thorough study and analysis of the published research works as well as other informative literature.
2
CHAPTER-2
Stratigraphy
The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary is best exposed at Therriaghat, Cherrapunji in the state of
Meghalaya. It is exposed in East-West trending narrow belt close to the Southern edge of the state and
the Southern fringe of the Plateau. K-T boundary at Therriaghat section consists of Mahadek
Formation directly overlain by Langpar Formation.
Poorly bedded, medium to coarse grained arkose, glauconite, quartz, minor clay intercalations and
conglomerate are the characteristic lithology of Mahadek Formation. Several fossiliferous horizons
containing invertebrates are developed in the Mahadek Formation. It includes Conulus, Galerites,
Globator, Bivalve like Oysters, Inoceramiids, Pectinids, Heteromorphic ammonites and Gastropods.
Based on these Fossil assemblages, it was concluded that Mahadek Formation represents
Maastrichtian age.
Langpar Formation is enriched in diverse lithology such as alteration of calcareous and arenaceous
units with minor argillaceous components. On the other hand, presence of sandy siltstone,
carbonaceous, sandy claystone, calcareous siltstone etc are the important lithology of this formation.
The major fossils content of this formation are the Gastropods like Ampulina, Nerita, Naticiids. On the
basis of these fossils, Langpar Formation represents the Uppermost Maastrichtian and Paleogene.
3
Fig.2- Stratigraphic succession of South Shillong Plateau (after Tewari, Lokho, Kumar and Siddaiah,
2010)
4
CHAPTER-3
Previous Work
Detailed study of the geological works carried out by the geologists of Geological Survey of India in
and around the Therriaghat section, Cherrapunji. Their main emphasis was to delineate K-T boundary
on the basis of mega and micro fossils.They also tried to demarcate with the help of Iridium that was
found around this section. Apart from the GSI, role of other organization, universities and educational
institution are also well counted.
Medlicott (1869) was the eminent geologist, who thoroughly studied the Therriaghat sections.In his
entire course of study, he investigated that coal was present in between the Mahadek and Langpar
Formation. He also put forwarded the stratigraphic succession of Shillong Plateau. He classified the
Cretaceous rocks of Khasi Hills into four units e.g. Bottom conglomerate, Mahadeo Band, Lanpar
band and Cherra Band overlain by Eocene Nummilitic series.
Nagappa (1959) recognized three stages in South Shillong Front,these stages were ‘Langpar Stage’,
‘Theria Stage’ and ‘Lakadong Stage’.Thus marking his important contribution on Tertiary
biostratigraphy, which he carried out through his detailed study on foraminifera. Langpar stage
characterized by the presence of Danian index fossils,whereas Mahadek formation recorded
Maastrichtian microfossils. He favoured to delineate the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in between
Langpar and Mahadek stage.
Jain et al. (1975), Shah and Singh (1977) studied the distribution of phytoplanktons and palynology
within Mahadeo and Langpar Formation. They favoured the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary at the base
of Langpar Formation.
Garg and Jain (1995) working in the Um Shoryngkew river, recorded the characteristic Maastrichtian
calcareous nannofossil marker (Micula prinsii) from the horizons immediately below the Iridium-rich
clay layer followed by its abrupt disappearance, confirming not only the existence of the youngest
Maastrichtian in this section but also suggesting demarcation of K/T boundary below the Iridium rich
layer.
5
CHAPTER-4
Materials and Method
The present chapter deals with materials and method, which is used to achieve the goal of the
literature review. The proposed study is descriptive explanatory and qualitative in nature. The
data used in the study is based upon secondary sources such as books, journals, research papers,
reports etc. The search for the research papers were carried out using online platform; different
websites were accessed such as: Science Direct, Research Gate, Jstor and Sci-Hub etc. The
literature search produced a 16 research papers, these papers solely based upon fossils content
along Therriaghat section, Cherrapunji. The images of the fossils that are used in the review of
literature are collected from research papers. On the other hand, locational map of Therriaghat
and stratigraphy of South Shillong Plateau are also taken from research papers. Whereas fossils
content and name of the fossils are also put forwared in this review with the help of research
papers. Based on the secondary sources, a detailed study on the K-T boundary was carried out.
Synthesis and integration of data have been done from the research papers for interpretation.
According to research papers, field visits as well as collection of samples were done. These
samples were further processed and analysed in the laboratory. A detailed study from the research
papers put forwarded that K-T boundary consists of Mahadek Formation directly overlain by
Langpar Formation, which is located in Um Sohryngkew river section at Therriaghat on the
Southern foot of the Shillong Plateau. These formations are rich in diverse litholgy and fossil
assemblages. Presence of micro and mega fossils, Iridium content in the K-T rocks and their
interpretation had played a pivotal role to delineate the K-T boundary.
6
CHAPTER-5
Literature Review
K-T boundary is located in Um Sohryngkew river section at Therriaghat on the Southern foot of the
Shillong Plateau (Fig.5a and 5b). The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (Fig.5c) of Therriaghat section
consists of Mahadek Formation directly overlain by Langpar Formation. Lithology of Langpar
basically consists of shale, mudstone, siltstone, whereas Mahadek Formation consist of galuconitic
sandstone. Langpar and Mahadek Formation are rich in micro as well as megafossils. Various
assemblages of invertebrates and planktonic fossils concludes that Mahadek Formation is of Upper
Maastrichtian in age and continues upward in the Langpar Formation. On the other hand, planktonic
and benthic foraminiferal assemblages that were found in the Langpar Formation is of Late
Maastrichtian in age. Upper Maastrichtian Mahadek and Langpar Formation also recorded dominant
genera of Echiniod, Gastropod, Bivalve and Cephalopod.
Fig.5a-Location of Meghalaya (after Mukopadhyay, 2008)
Fig.5b-Location of Therriaghat around Um-Sohrynghkew (after Mukopadhyay, 2008)
7
Fig.5c-Lithology of K-T boundary along with fossils (after Pandey, 1990)
8
Several geologists have postulated their own opinion regarding the K-T boundary. Traces of Iridium
(Bhandari et al 1987) recorded from limonitic layer, which were further correlated with
Globotruncana. Lahiri et al. (1988) opined that Globotruncana continues high above the Iridium
anomaly and trangress into the Langpar Formation, thus his research works concluded that K-T
boundary lies 30m above the K-T boundary identified by Pandey (1981) within Langpar Formation.
Their highest Maastrichtian assemblages includes Globotruncana gangnebini, Globotruncana
gansseri and Early Paleocene assemblage comprises Globigerina fringa, G.triloulinoides,
G.pseudobulloides.
On the basis of field samples collected by Garg and jain (1995) along Um Sohrynghkew river section,
it was concluded that nanofossils marker (Micula prinsii) (Fig.5d) of Maastrichtian age was found
below Ir rich clay layer followed by its abrupt disapperance. This marker fossil delineated that K-T
boundary basically found below Ir-rich layer.
Fig.5d-Micula prinsii (Image Source- Perch-Nielsen 1977 DSDP39 S Atlantic)
Garg and Jain (1995) on their work traced that K-T boundary lies within Langpar Formation. They
delineated the boundary on the basis of lithology which was found within Ir-rich layer. Increase in
9
concentration of Ir along K-T rocks section have increased due to the impact of meteorite. Presence of
coal with the elimination of foraminifera at the K-T boundary concluded that a small hiatus is present
at the Mahadek-Langpar contact. Impact of extraterrestrial body, which has been enriched with Ir
helped us to discern that K-T boundary is exposed in a 1.5cm thick limonitic layer in the Um
Sohryngkew river section, which is marked by enhanced concentration of Ir, Co, Ni, Os, Fe, Zn, Sb
and REE. In Therriaghat section, Nagappa (1959) recorded the larger benthic assemblages of
Orbitoides sp. and Siderolites calcitrapoides (Fig.5e and 5f) of Maastrichtian age on the top of
Mahadek Formation from the calcareous bands. Further he correlated from the Upper Maastrichtian of
the Haymana-Polatli area of Central Turkey. On the other hand, Langpar Formation yielded planktonic
foraminiferal species which established zonal equivalence with planktonic zone ‘Globigerina’ and
Planorotalites pusilla-Acarinina uncinata zone. In Therriaghat section, Globigerina pseudo-bulloides
and Globigerina triloculinoides of Danian age were found in Langpar Formation. On the other hand,
fauna of Campanian to Maastrichtian age were recorded from the Mahadek Formation.
Fig.5e - Orbitoides sp. Fig.5f- Siderolites calcitrapoides (after Lamarck,1801)
10
4.1 Using Guembelitria (Fig.5g) (Foraminifera) as an indicator to study K-T boundary
The genus Guembelitria which ranges geologically from Late Maastrichtian to Early Paleocene used
to recognise K-T boundary. This species also help us to interpret palaeoenvironment and to decrypt the
evolution of planktonic foraminifera of Early Paleocene. Apart from planktonic formaninifera, several
benthic formaminifera were also reported from Therriaghat section such as Globotruncana sp.,
Rugogloberina hexacamerata etc. Calcareous and glauconitic transition strata across the K-T
boundary contains more benthic than plankotic foraminifera indicating shallow marine deposition.
Fluctuation of sea level takes place, which we can infer from the ratio of planktonic to benthic
foraminifera. Phosphorites were recorded from the transition strata. The genus Guembelitria that was
reported from phosphorites also thrived in shelf environment.
Fig.5g – Guembelitria cushman from the K/T transition strata of Meghalaya (after
Mukopadhyay,2012)
11
4.2 Palynological evidence to demarcate the boundary
Field samples were collected from Um Sohrygkhew River section. After analysing these samples,
several palynofossils were reported. It includes Pulcheripolenites-Dinogymnium assemblage zone and
occurs in the uppermost part of the Mahadeo and basal part of the Langpar Formation. In Um
Sohrynghkew river section Pulcheripolenites-Dinogymnium assemblage zone is best exposed and
characterised by the presence of spores and pollens. Spinizonocolpites, Proxapertites,
Palmaepollenites, Triorites and Polypodiaceous spores were reported from the underlying zone. On
the other hand, microplaktons were also recorded such as Achomospaera, Thalassiphora, Fibrocsta
and Oligospharidium.
4.3 Significant Dinoflagellate cyst Biohorizons in the Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene succession of
the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
Dinoflagellate cysts (Fig.5h) have been used globally for precise dating and integrated biostratigraphic
interpretations, especially in the Cretaceous and Paleocene. Dinoflagellate cysts Biohorizons have
been used for identification in the Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene succession of the Khasi Hills.
12
Fig.5h-Dinoflagellate cyst ( after Garg and Teequzzaman,2000)
In Therriaghat section, first apperance of Cordosphaeridium fibrospinosum from Mahadek Formation
demonstrated that, this formation is of Late Early Maastrichtian in age. A coquina bed occurs towards
the Southern part of the Um Sohryngkew river and Northern part of Mawsmai-Shella. Coquina occurs
towards the top of the bed and act as a marker bed to correlate. Thus, the LAD of Xenascus
ceratioides, which occurs below the coquina bed served as an important tool to demarcate Early-Late
Maastrichtian boundary.
The Langpar Formation exposed in Therriaghat section along Um Sohryngkew river has yielded
richest dinoflagellate cysts assemblages, characterised by the successive First Appearance Datum. The
FAD of Disphaerogena carposphaeropsis, Fibrocysta licia of Upper Maastrichtian-Danian age occurs
in ascending order. Below the Iridium rich layer, the LAD of Dinogymnium spp. and Alisogymnium
euclaense coincides with the mass extinction of Cretaceous nannofossils and the planktonic
foraminifera.
The close succession of the Dinoflagellate cysts Biohorizons may prove to be extremely useful in
dating and correlation of various lithounits in upper Cretaceous-Paleocene succession in the South
Shillong Plateau.
13
CHAPTER-6
Discussion
The exact position of K-T boundary is a matter of controversy. Based on the research papers, K-T
boundary is precisely identified at the Therriaghat section. Fossil assemblages were discovered after
carrying out laboratory work. Invertebrate fossils were directly collected during field vists, on the
other hand, microfossils were proccessed and analysed in the laboratory. In Therriaghat section,
Langpar and Mahadek Formation are enriched in diverse lithology, based on the lithology and
incorporation of microfossils in the lithology help us to delineate K-T boundary.
Meteorites played a pivotal role in the extinction of flora and fauna. Meteorites of Therriaghat section
contain Iridium and were recorded in the different lithology. After a lot of introspection, demarcation
of K-T boundary was done.
Microfossils are boon to geologists because it acts as an indicator. It help us to study
palaeoenvironment, palaeoclimate etc. Based on these microfossils palaeoenvironment of K-T was
studied.
Conclusion
Thus, after studying research papers it can be concluded that in Therriaghat section, Cherrapunji, K-T
boundary is well exposed. The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary consists of Mahadek Formation overlain
by Langpar Formation. Diferent assemblages of fossils were discovered along this section. Planktonic
and benthic formanifera along with palynological fossils were also reported. Lithology of the above
mentioned formation consists of invertebrate fossils such as Gastropods, Echiniods etc.
Demarcation of K-T boundary was first carried out after traces of Iridium were reported. Based on the
research papers, Globotruncana gangenbii, Globotruncana gansseri were found within the Langpar
Formation and represents the Late Maastrichtian in age. , whereas Mahadek Formation consists of
Siderolites calcitrapoides and Orbitoides sp. and represents Maastrichtian in age.Guemelitria
(foraminifera) were used as an indicator to interpret palaeoenvironment. Evidence of spores and
14
pollens from the Mahadek and Langpar also helped us to delineate K-T boundary. Fossils such as
Spinozonocolpites, Proxapertites, Palmaepollenites, Triorites were reported. , whereas Dinoflagellate
cysts Biohorizons with its close succession helped the geologists to study the K-T boundary along
Therriaghat section.
Based on the presence of Iridium and fossils, geologists were able to delineated proper K-T boundary.
Still geologists are carrying out research activities, thus K-T boundary is a conspiracy theory which is
still to be solved. Some of them succeeded in solving, but some geologists claimed that the boundary
should be located at certain metre above and below the designated boundary.
15
REFERENCES
Bhandari, N., Shukla, P.N., and Castagnoli, Cini,G.,1993. Geochemistry of some K/T sections in
India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 104 (1993): 199-211.
Bhandari N, Gupta M, Pandey,J& Shukla PN 1994. Chemical profiles in K/Tboundary section of
Meghalaya, India; Cometary, asteroidal or volcanic. Chern. Geol. 113: 45-60.
Biswas, B. (1962) Stratigraphy of the Mahadeo, Langpar, Cherra and Tura formations, Assam,
India. Bull., QJGMMlSI, v.25,pp.1– 48.
Cushman, J.A. (1933) some new foraminiferal genera. Contrib. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., v.9,
pp.32–38.
Cushman, J.A. (1938) Cretaceous species of Guembelitria and related genera. Contrib. Cushman Lab.
Foram. Res., v.14,pp.2–28.
Garg, R. and Jain,K.P. (1995) Significance of the terminal Cretaceous calcareous nannofossil
marker Micllla prinsii at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in the Urn Sohryngkew section,
Meghalaya, India. CurroSci. v.66, pp.1O12-1017.
Jauhri A.K., 1997. Post-Cretaceous record of larger foraminifera from the Shillong Plateau, India an
evidence of environmental recovery during Early Cenozoic. Palaeobotanisr 46 (l,2) : 118-126.
Mukherjee,Debahauti,dec,2012.A diverse invertebrate assemblages from the Upper Maastrichitian of
Meghalaya and its biogeographic significance.Indian journal of Geoscience,volume
66,N0.4.oct-dec,2012;pp.233-246
Mukhopadhyay, S.K. 2008: Planktonic foraminiferal succession in Late Cretaceous to Early
Paleocene strata in Meghalaya, India. Lethaia , Vol. 41, pp. 71–84.
Mukhopadhyay, S.K. June2012: Guembelitria (Foraminifera) in the Upper Cretaceous-Lower
Paleocene Succession of the Langpar Formation, India and its Palaeoenvironmental Implication.
JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA,Vol.79, June 2012, pp.627-651.
Nandi,1990. Palynostratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous sediments, Meghalaya, Northeastern India,
Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 65 (1990): 119-129
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Lahiri, T.C., Sen, M.K., Raychaudhuri, A.K. & Acharyya, S.K.1988: Observations on
Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary and reported iridium enrichment, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.
Current Science 57, 1335–1336.
Pandey J 1981. Cretaceous foraminifera of Um Sohryngkew River section, Meghalaya. j.
palaeonl. Soc. India 25 : 53-74.
Pandey J1990. Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, Iridium anomaly and foraminiferal breaks in the
Um Sohryngkew River section, Meghalaya. Curro Sci. 59: 570-575.
Garg, R., Khowaja.A, Teequzzaman and Andanaprasad, V.,June 2016 Significant Dinoflagellate
Cyst Biohorizons in the Upper Cretaceous-Palaeocene Succession of the Khasi Hills,
Meghalaya, JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAVo1.67, June 2006, pp.737-747
Tewari V.C, Lokho.K, Kumar.K and Siddaiah N.S, 2010.Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Basin
Architecture and Evolution of the Shillong Shelf Sedimentation, Meghalaya, North East India.
17
