FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Assignment No 1

Name ELESTINA SHAMUDZARIRA

Programme BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

AND DEVELOPMENT

Module title & Code THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT (BEE1102)

Module Tutor/Lecturer Mrs. D. Ramphiring

Due Date
QUESTSION

5. Theories (Behavioral Child Development) by John B. Watson

ANSWER

1. PRINCIPLES

Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of stimulus-response. All

behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be
explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.

Thorndike and Pavlov provided important contributions to behavioral psychology, but

it was John B. Watson (1878-1958) who championed the popular behaviorist
movement. Pavlov’s contribution was made from the discipline of physiology and
was somewhat indirect. His connection with American behavioral psychology was
initially made by Watson, who felt that Pavlov’s experiments provided a good
example of a sound experimental method used to observe the conditioning process
of the secretory reflex, by monitoring the flow of saliva. As for Thorndike, it is unlikely
that he would have labeled himself a behaviorist, since it was not until 1913 that the
term began to come into vogue. This new term, and the perspective on the study of
psychology to which it referred, quickly became the dominating school of psychology
in American universities. It was in his article entitled, Psychology as the Behaviorist
Views It, that Watson (1913) positioned behavioral psychology as a purely objective
experimental branch of natural science with a theoretical goal of prediction and
control of behavior.

Watson (1928) more plainly defined behaviorism by saying that, Behaviorism is the
scientific study of human behavior. Its real goal is to provide the basis for prediction
and control of human beings. Given the situation, to tell what the human being will
do; given the man in action, to be able to say why he is reacting in that way.
Watson’s initial research focused on animal subjects such as rats (1903), rabbits
(Watson & Watson, 1913), birds (e.g., 1907; 1908a; 1910), and monkeys (1908b;
1909). But by the year 1919 he had been able to apply the same experimental
procedures to the study of man—the goal he had established for himself in his 1913
article. This article has come to be referred to as the Behaviorist Manifesto.

Through his own efforts and through the reports of other researchers working in the
same field, Watson collected data through daily observation of several hundred
infants from birth, through the first thirty days of infancy and of a smaller number
through the first years of childhood. From this data, he concluded that “young
children taken at random from homes of both the poor and of the well-to-do do not
make good subjects” because their behavior was too complex. His solution to this
problem was to study hospital-reared children belonging to wet nurses. Perhaps his
most famous experiments were those conducted to establish conditioned emotional
responses in “Little Albert” by exposing him to various small animals and
simultaneously sounding a loud noise that had been found to elicit crying. Through
repeated pairing of the animals with the noise, the animals themselves came to elicit
responses of fear, crying, and avoidance behavior where previously they had not.
Several other experiments conducted with children are accounted in Watson’s 1930
publication entitled, Behaviorism. Watson’s perspective on learning i.e., his theory of
habit formation is illustrated in the following example generalized from his
observations of several children in similar situations:

To make the whole process a little more concrete, let us put in front of the three-
year-old child, whose habits of manipulation are well established, a problem box, a
box that can be opened only after a certain thing has been done; for example, he
has to press inward a small wooden button. Before we hand it to him, we show him
the open box containing several small pieces of candy and then we close it and tell
him that if he opens it he may have a piece of candy. This situation is new to him.
None of his previously learned formed manipulation habits will completely and
instantly work in this situation. None of his unlearned reactions will help him very
much. What does he do? That depends upon his previous organization. If well
organized by previous handling of toys, he goes at the problem at once

(1) he picks the box up,

(2) he pounds it on the floor,
(3) he drags it round and round,
(4) he pushes it up against the base-board,
(5) he turns it over,
(6) he strikes it with his fist. In other words,

He does everything he has learned to do in the past in similar situations. He displays

his whole repertoire of acts brings all of his previously acquired organization to bear
upon the new problem. Let us suppose that he has 50 learned and unlearned
separate responses at his command. At one time or another during his first attempt
to open the box, let us assume that he displays, as he will, nearly all of them before
he pushes the button hard enough to release the catch. The time the whole process
takes, we will say, is about twenty minutes. When he opens it, we give him his bit of
candy, close up the box and hand it to him again. The next time he makes fewer
movements; the third time fewer still. In 10 trials or less he can open the box without
making a useless movement and he can open it in two seconds.
John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal
originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson believed that human
behavior resulted from specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. Watson's basic
premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on
observation of overt behavior rather than speculation about subconscious motives or
latent cognitive processes. Watson's view of learning was based in part on the
studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).

2. CRITIQUE

This theory has latterly been criticized as overly simplistic. Nevertheless, its influence
can be seen in educators’ insistence that feedback is critical to learning. The
stimulus-response method is used frequently in adult learning situations in which the
students must learn a time sensitive response to a stimulus. Aircraft emergency
procedures, for example, are divided into two parts. The first, the time sensitive
portion, must be immediately performed by rote memory upon recognition of a
stimulus – a warning light, horn, buzzer, bell, or the like. These procedures are
taught and reinforced with rote drills and successfully passing the tests is the
reinforcement. The second portion of the procedure, which may be viewed as
diagnostic action is performed with mandatory reference to checklists and other
reference material and depends on what may be viewed as higher level learning and
understanding of aircraft systems and performance characteristics. Behaviorist
Theory maintains a focus on the change in observable behaviors as the
manifestations of learning. The theory emphasizes changes in behaviors due to the
influence and control of the external environment, rather than the internal thought
process of the subject. Simply put, people will learn desired behaviors due to stimuli
from their external environment that recognize and reinforce the behavior in a
positive manner. Undesired behaviors can be controlled or eliminated by an absence
of attention to or recognition of such. Behaviorism is comprised of several individual
theories that have a common theme functioning within them. This common theme is
found in the ways the theorists define what learning is, and how it is accomplished.
The common assumptions of these theorists are threefold, as explained by Merriam
and Caffarella (1999). The first common assumption is the emphasis on observable
behavior rather than internal thought processes create learning. Second, ultimately it
is the environment that creates learning and it determines what is learned, not the
individual learner. Lastly it is the ability to understand the overall process, and the
ability to repeat or reinforce that process that is a common thread. This theory is
most commonly seen in adult learning when organizations take repeatable training
steps and systematize them into manageable tasks. Behavioral theory is a key
component of animal training and skill training in humans. Teaching animals to sit for
a kibble is very similar to clapping and hugging your child for their first steps or bike
ride. Slot machines are based on intermittent reinforcement, which in turn leads
gamblers to put more quarters in the machine to be reinforced by the ching of
winning. As students, we are reinforced by the 100 points or A we receive on the test
or paper, or by the removal of the F on the grade card. Source.
3. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior

that is desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from
behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences,
reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification.

Contracts, Consequences, Reinforcement, and Extinction

Simple contracts can be effective in helping children focus on behavior change. The
relevant behavior should be identified, and the child and counselor should decide the
terms of the contract. Behavioral contracts can be used in school as well as at home.
It is helpful if practitioners and parents work together with the child to ensure that the
contract is being fulfilled. Two examples of behavior contracts are listed below:

 A child is not completing homework assignments. The practitioner and the

child design a contract providing that the child will stay for extra help, ask
parents for help, and complete assigned work on time. Practitioner will be
available after school, and during free periods for additional assistance.
 A child is misbehaving in class. The practitioner and child devise a behavioral
contract to minimize distractions. Provisions include that the child will be
punctual, will sit in front of the practitioner, will raise hand with
questions/comments, and will not leave his seat without permission.

Consequences occur immediately after a behavior. Consequences may be positive

or negative, expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, extrinsic or intrinsic,
material or symbolic (a failing grade), emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious.
Consequences occur after the "target" behavior occurs, when either positive or
negative reinforcement may be given. Positive reinforcement is presentation of a
stimulus that increases the probability of a response. This type of reinforcement
occurs frequently in the classroom. Practitioner may provide positive reinforcement
by:

 Smiling at child after a correct response.

 Commending children for their work.
 Selecting them for a special project.
 Praising children’s' ability to parents.

Reinforcement and punishment comparison

REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
(Behaviour Increases) (Behaviour Decreases)
POSITIVE
Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment
(Something is
Something is added to increase Something is added to
added)
desired behaviour decrease undesired behaviour
Ex: Smile and compliment Ex: Give child detention for
student on good performance failing to follow the class rules
Modeling, Shaping, and Cueing

Modeling is also known as observational learning. Albert Bandura has suggested

that modeling is the basis for a variety of child behavior. Children acquire many
favorable and unfavorable responses by observing those around them. A child who
kicks another child after seeing this on the playground, or a child who is always late
for class because his friends are late is displaying the results of observational
learning.

Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. The desired
behavior is broken down into discrete, concrete units, or positive movements, each
of which is reinforced as it progresses towards the overall behavioral goal. In the
following scenario, the classroom practitioner employs shaping to change child
behavior: the class enters the room and sits down, but continue to talk after the bell
rings. The practitioner gives the class one point for improvement, in that all children
are seated. Subsequently, the child must be seated and quiet to earn points, which
may be accumulated and redeemed for rewards.

Cueing may be as simple as providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to

the appropriateness of a behavior. For example, to teach a child to remember to
perform an action at a specific time, the practitioner might arrange for him to receive
a cue immediately before the action is expected rather than after it has been
performed incorrectly. For example, if the practitioner is working with a child that
habitually answers aloud instead of raising his hand, the practitioner should discuss
a cue such as hand-raising at the end of a question posed to the class.
References: -

 (Watson, 1916, p. 92; 1928, p. 35; 1930, p. 50)

 (Watson, 1930, p. v)
 (Robbins 1998).
 (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999).
 B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).
 Grippin and Peters (1984)
 (Shaffer, 2000).
 (Leahey, 2000, p. 686).
 (Overskeid, 2008).
 (Webb, 2007, p. 1086).
 (Thomas, 1997)
 (Webb, 2007, p. 1086).
 (Watson & Rayner, 1920).