Chapter

1
Properties of Radio Waves

Introduction. . . .3
The Radio Navigation Syllabus . . . .3
Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation . . . .3
Polarization . . . .4
Radio Waves. . . .5
Wavelength . . . .6
Frequency Bands . . . .8
Phase Comparison .9
Practice Frequency (f) - Wavelength (λ) Conversions . . . 11
Answers to Practice Frequency (f) - Wavelength (λ) Conversions . . . 12
Questions . . . 13
Answers . . . 16

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1 Properties of Radio Waves

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 Properties of Radio Waves
1
Introduction
Radio and radar systems are now an integral and essential part of aviation, without which
the current intensity of air transport operations would be unsustainable. In the early days of
aviation aircraft were flown with visual reference to the ground and flight at night, in cloud or
over the sea was not possible. As the complexity of aircraft increased it became necessary to
design navigational systems to permit aircraft to operate without reference to terrain features.

The early systems developed were, by modern standards very basic and inaccurate. They
provided reasonable navigational accuracy for en route flight over land, but only a very
limited service over the oceans, and, until about 40 years ago, flight over the oceans used the
traditional seafarer’s techniques of astro-navigation, that is using sights taken on the sun, moon,
stars and planets to determine position. Developments commenced in the 1910s, continued
at an increasing rate during the 1930s and 1940s and up to the present day leading to the
development of long range systems which by the 1970s were providing a global navigation
service.

It is perhaps ironic that, having forsaken navigation by the stars, the most widely used navigation
systems in the last few years are once again space based, that is the satellite navigation systems
we now take as being the norm. Whilst global satellite navigation systems (GNSS) are becoming
the standard in aviation and many advocate that they will replace totally all the terrestrial
systems, the ICAO view is that certain terrestrial systems will have to be retained to back up
GNSS both for en route navigation and runway approaches.

The development of radar in the 1930s allowed air traffic control systems to be developed
providing a control service capable of identifying and monitoring aircraft such that aircraft
operations can be safely carried out at a much higher intensity than would be otherwise
possible. Modern satellite technology is being used to provide a similar service over oceans
and land areas where the provision of normal radar systems is not possible.

The Radio Navigation Syllabus

The syllabus starts by looking at the nature of radio waves and how they travel through the
atmosphere. This is essential to understand why different radio frequencies are selected for
particular applications and also the limitations imposed. The introductory chapters also cover
how radio waves are produced, transmitted, received and how information is added to and
recovered from radio waves.

Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation

If a direct electric current (DC) is passed through a wire then a magnetic field is generated
around the wire perpendicular to the current flow.

If an alternating electric current (AC) is passed through the wire then, because the direction of
current flow is changing, the polarity of the magnetic field will also change, reversing polarity as
the current direction reverses. At low frequencies the magnetic field will return to zero with the
current, but as frequency increases the magnetic field will not have collapsed completely
before the reversed field starts to establish itself and energy will start to travel outwards from
the wire in the form of electromagnetic radiation i.e. radio waves.

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1 Properties of Radio Waves

The resulting EM energy is made up of two components, an electrical (E) field parallel to the
wire and a magnetic (H) field perpendicular to the wire.

Figure 1.1 Vertical polarization

Polarization
The polarization of radio waves is defined as the plane of the electric field and is dependent
on the plane of the aerial. A vertical aerial will emit radio waves with the electrical field in
the vertical plane and hence produce a vertically polarized wave, and a horizontal aerial will
produce a horizontally polarized wave.

To receive maximum signal strength from an incoming radio wave it is essential the receiving
aerial is in the same plane as the polarization of the wave, so a vertically polarized radio wave
would require a vertical aerial.

Circular polarization can be produced in a variety of ways, one of which is using a helical antenna.
In circular polarization the electrical (and hence magnetic) field rotates at the frequency of the
radio wave. The rotation may be right handed or left handed dependent on the orientation
of the aerial array.

For reception of a circularly polarized wave an aerial of the same orientation is required, or a
simple dipole aerial. There are two significant advantages. Firstly in radar systems, if circular
polarization is used, when the energy is reflected from water droplets the circularity is reversed
and therefore the ‘clutter’ caused by precipitation can be eliminated. Secondly, if a dipole
aerial is used the orientation of the aerial is no longer critical, as it is with linear polarization,
and, clearly, this will be a major advantage in mobile systems, such as cellular phones and
satellite communication and navigation systems.

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 Properties of Radio Waves
1
Radio Waves
The length of time it takes to generate one cycle of a radio wave is known as the period
and is generally signified by the Greek letter tau ( τ), and measured in microseconds (µs). (1
µs = 10-6 second).

Figure 1.2 Sinusoidal wave - period

If, for example, the period of one cycle of a radio wave is 0.125 µs then the number of cycles
produced in one second would be the reciprocal of this giving:

1 1
τ = = 8 000 000 cycles per second which are known as hertz (Hz)
0.125 ×10-6

This is known as the frequency (f) of the wave; hence:

1
f = (1)
τ

The frequency of radio waves is expressed in hertz (Hz). Since the order of magnitude of the
frequency of radio waves is very high, for convenience, the following terms are used to express the
frequency:

Kilohertz (kHz) = 103 Hz = 1 000 Hz

Megahertz (MHz) = 106 Hz = 1 000 000 Hz

Gigahertz (GHz) = 109 Hz = 1 000 000 000 Hz

So in the example above the frequency would be expressed as 8 MHz.

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1 Properties of Radio Waves

Wavelength
The speed of radio waves (c) is the same as the speed of light (which is also EM radiation) and is
approximately:

300 000 000 ms-1 (= 300 × 106 ms-1), or 162 000 nautical miles per second

Wavelength (λ )

Figure 1.3 Sinusoidal wave - wavelength

If a radio wave travels at 300 × 10 6 ms-1 and the period is 0.125 µs, then the length (λ) of each
wave will be:

λ = c. τ (2)

300 × 106 × 0.125 × 10-6 = 37.5 m

This is known as the wavelength. From equation (1) this can also be stated as:

λ = c (3)
f

Giving:
300 × 106
λ = = 37.5 m
8 × 106

Hence if the frequency is known then the wavelength can be determined and if the wavelength is
known then the frequency can be calculated from:

f = c (4)
λ

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 Properties of Radio Waves
1
Examples:

1. If the frequency of a radio wave is 121.5 MHz calculate the wavelength.

c 300 × 106
λ = = = 2.47 m
f 121.5 × 106

2. If the wavelength is 1515 m, what is the corresponding frequency?

c 300 × 106
f = = = 198 000 Hz = 198 × 103 Hz = 198 kHz
λ 1515

For ease of calculation we can simplify the formulae:

300
f = MHz
λ (m)

300
λ = m
f (MHz)

But we must ensure that our input arguments are correct, i.e. to calculate the frequency the
wavelength must be in metres and to calculate the wavelength the frequency must be input
in MHz.

Examples:

3.
Determine the frequency corresponding to a wavelength of 3.2 cm.

Noting that 3.2 cm = 0.032 m the calculation becomes:

300
f = = 9375 MHz (or 9.375 GHz)
0.032

4. Determine the wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 357 kHz.

Noting that 375 kHz = 0.375 MHz the calculation is:

300
λ = = 800 m
0.375

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1 Properties of Radio Waves

Frequency Bands
The radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. For convenience
it is divided into 8 frequency bands. These are shown below with the frequencies, wavelengths
and the uses made of the frequency bands in civil aviation. Note that each frequency band is
related to its neighbouring band(s) by a factor of 10.

Frequency Band Frequencies Wavelengths Civil Aeronautical Usage

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 - 30 kHz 100 - 10 km Nil

Low Frequency (LF) 30 - 300 kHz 10 - 1 km NDB/ADF

NDB/ADF, long range

Medium Frequency (MF) 300 - 3000 kHz 1000 - 100 m communications

long range
High Frequency (HF) 3 - 30 MHz 100 - 10 m
communications

Short range
Very High Frequency communication, VDF,
30 - 300 MHz 10 - 1 m
(VHF)
VOR, ILS localizer, marker
beacons

ILS glide path, DME, SSR,

Ultra High Frequency
300 - 3000 MHz 100 - 10 cm Satellite communications,
(UHF)
GNSS, long range radars

Super High Frequency RADALT, AWR, MLS, short

3 - 30 GHz 10 - 1 cm
(SHF) range radars

Extremely High
Frequency (EHF)
30 - 300 GHz 10 - 1 mm Nil

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 Properties of Radio Waves
1
Phase Comparison

Some radio navigation systems use the comparison of phase between two signals to define
navigational information. The first important point is that the two signals being compared
must have the same frequency, otherwise any phase comparison would be meaningless. The
second point is that one signal will be designated the reference signal and the other a variable
signal and that the comparison must yield a positive result.

Figure 1.4 Sinusoidal wave - phase comparison

To determine the phase difference between 2 signals, first identify the position of (for example)
zero phase on each of the waves, then move in the positive direction from the chosen point on
the reference wave to measure the phase angle through which the reference wave has
travelled before zero phase is reached on the variable wave.

In this example, starting at zero phase on the reference wave (point A), we observe that the
reference wave has travelled through a phase angle of 270° before zero phase is reached on
the variable wave (point B), hence the phase difference is 270°.

The relationship can also be found mathematically. At the origin the phase of the reference
wave is 0° (= 360°) and the phase of the variable wave is 090°. Subtracting the instantaneous
phase of the variable wave from the instantaneous phase of the reference wave gives the same
result, note the result must always be positive.

Reference - variable = 360° - 90° = 270°

Note: The phase difference must be positive, so if the calculation yields a negative result simply add 360° to
get a positive answer.
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1 Properties of Radio Waves

10
 Questions
1
Practice Frequency (f) - Wavelength (λ) Conversions
In each of the following examples, calculate the frequency or wavelength as appropriate and
determine in which frequency band each of the frequencies lies.

Wavelength Frequency Frequency Band

1 198 kHz

2 2.7 m

3 5.025 GHz

4 137.5 m

5 137.5 MHz

6 3 km

7 329 MHz

8 29 cm

9 500 kHz

10 5 cm

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1 Answers

Answers to Practice Frequency (f) - Wavelength (λ) Conversions

Wavelength Frequency Frequency Band

1 1515 m 198 kHz LF

2 2.7 m 111.1 MHz VHF

3 5.97 cm 5.025 GHz SHF

4 137.5 m 2181.8 kHz MF

5 2.18 m 137.5 MHz VHF

6 3 km 100 kHz LF

7 91.2 cm 329 MHz UHF

8 29 cm 1034 MHz UHF

9 600 m 500 kHz MF

10 5 cm 6 GHz SHF

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 Questions
1
Questions
1. A radio wave is:

a. an energy wave comprising an electrical field in the same plane as a magnetic

field
b. an electrical field alternating with a magnetic field
c. an energy wave where there is an electrical field perpendicular to a magnetic
field
d. an energy field with an electrical component

2. The speed of radio waves is:

a. 300 km per second

b. 300 million metres per second
c. 162 NM per second
d. 162 million NM per second

3. The plane of polarization of an electromagnetic wave is:

a. the plane of the magnetic field

b. the plane of the electrical field
c. the plane of the electrical or magnetic field dependent on the plane of the
aerial
d. none of the above

4. If the wavelength of a radio wave is 3.75 metres, the frequency is:

a. 80 kHz
b. 8 MHz
c. 80 MHz
d. 800 kHz

5. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 125 MHz is:

a. 2.4 m
b. 24 m
c. 24 cm
d. 24 mm

6. The frequency which corresponds to a wavelength of 6.98 cm is:

a. 4298 GHz
b. 4.298 GHz
c. 429.8 GHz
d. 42.98 GHz

7. The frequency band containing the frequency corresponding to 29.1 cm is:

a. HF
b. VHF
c. SHF
d. UHF

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1 Questions

8. To carry out a phase comparison between two electromagnetic waves:

a. both waves must have the same amplitude

b. both waves must have the same frequency
c. both waves must have the same amplitude and frequency
d. both waves must have the same phase

9. The phase of the reference wave is 110° as the phase of the variable wave is 315°.
What is the phase difference?

a. 205°
b. 025°
c. 155°
d. 335°

10. Determine the approximate phase difference between the reference wave and the
variable wave:
(The reference wave is the solid line and the variable wave is the dashed line)

a. 045°
b. 135°
c. 225°
d. 315°

11. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 15 625 MHz is:

a. 1.92 m
b. 19.2 m
c. 1.92 cm
d. 19.2 cm

12. Which frequency band is a wavelength of 1200 m?

a. UHF
b. LF
c. HF
d. MF

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Questions
1

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1 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c b b c a b d b c c c b

16
 Chapter

2
Radio Propagation Theory

Introduction. . . 19
Factors Affecting Propagation . . . 19
Propagation Paths 21
Non-ionospheric Propagation . . . 21
Ionospheric Propagation . . . 24
Sky Wave 27
HF Communications. . . 32
Propagation Summary . . . 34
Super-refraction. . . 35
Sub-refraction . . . 35
Questions . . . 37
Answers . . . 40

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Introduction
In the context of radio waves the term propagation simply means how the radio waves travel
through the atmosphere. Different frequency bands use different propagation paths through
the atmosphere; the propagation path often determines the uses to which a particular
frequency band can be put in either communication or navigation systems. The different
propagation paths associated with particular frequencies can also impose limitations on the
use of those frequencies.

Factors Affecting Propagation

There are several factors which affect the propagation of radio waves and need to be considered
when discussing the propagation paths:

Attenuation
Attenuation is the term given to the loss of signal strength in a radio wave as it travels outward
from the transmitter. There are two aspects to attenuation:

Absorption
As the radio wave travels outwards from a transmitter the energy is absorbed and scattered by
the molecules of air and water vapour, dust particles, water droplets, vegetation, the surface of
the earth and the ionosphere. The effect of this absorption, (except ionospheric) increases as
frequency increases and is a very significant factor above about 1000 MHz.

Inverse Square Law

The EM radiation from an aerial spreads out as the surface of a sphere so the power available
decreases with increasing distance from the transmitter. For example, if, at a certain distance
from a transmitter, the field intensity is 4 Wm -2 at double the distance that energy will be
spread over an area of 4 m2 and the field intensity will be 1 Wm-2. That is, power available is
proportional to the inverse of the square of the range.

1m 1W 1W
4W 1 m 2m
1W 1W
2m

2×R

Figure 2.1 Inverse Square Law

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2 Radio Propagation Theory

1
P ∝
R2

The practical effect of this is that if it is required to double the effective range of a transmitter
then the power would have to be increased by a factor of 4.

Static Interference
There is a large amount of static electricity generated in the atmosphere by weather, human
activity and geological activity. The effect of static interference is greater at lower frequencies
whereas at VHF and above the effect of interference is generally negligible. However, radio
waves travelling through the ionosphere will collect interference at all frequencies. Additionally
the circuitry in the receivers and transmitters also produces static interference. The static, from
whatever source, reduces the clarity of communications and the accuracy of navigation systems.
The strength of the required signal compared to the amount of interference is expressed as a
signal to noise ratio (S/N) and for the best clarity or accuracy the unwanted noise needs to be
reduced to the lowest possible levels.

Fading
Transmissions following different paths can occur for a number of reasons, e.g. reflections,
and can arrive at a receiver simultaneously; however, the two signals will not necessarily be in
phase. In extreme cases the two signals will be in anti-phase and will cancel each other out.
Signals going in and out of phase are indicated by alternate fading and strengthening of the
received signal.

Power
An increase in the power output of a transmitter will increase the range, within the limits of the
inverse square law. As noted above, to double the range of a radio transmitter would require the
power to be increased by a factor of 4.

Receiver Sensitivity
If internal noise in a receiver can be reduced then the receiver will be able to process weaker
signals hence increasing the effective range at which a useable signal can be received. However, this
is an expensive process.

Directivity
If the power output is concentrated into a narrow beam then there will be an increase in range, or a
reduction in power required for a given range. However the signal will only be usable in the
direction of the beam.

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Propagation Paths

There are four propagation paths of which four need to be considered for aviation purposes:

PROPAGATION

NON-IONOSPHERIC IONOSPHERIC

Surface Wave Sky wave

20 kHz-50 MHz 20 kHz-50 MHz
(Used 20 kHz-2 MHz) (Used 2-30 MHz)

Space Wave SatComm

> 50 MHz Direct Wave
(UHF, SHF)

Figure 2.2

Ionospheric propagation is propagation affected by the properties of the ionosphere. At this

stage it is only necessary to discuss sky wave, satellite propagation will be considered in
conjunction with global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) in Chapter 18. Knowledge of
propagation below 30 kHz is not required.

Non-ionospheric propagation covers the other propagation paths.

Non-ionospheric Propagation
Surface Wave
Surface wave propagation exists at frequencies from about 20 kHz to about 50 MHz (from the
upper end of VLF to the lower end of VHF). The portion of the wave in contact with the surface of
the earth is retarded causing the wave to bend round the surface of the earth; a process known
as diffraction.

Figure 2.3 Surface Wave

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The range achievable is dependent on several factors: the frequency, the surface over which
the wave is travelling and the polarization of the wave. As the frequency increases, surface
attenuation increases and the surface wave range decreases; it is effectively non-existent above
HF.

The losses to attenuation by the surface of the earth are greater over land than over sea,
because the sea has good electrical conductivity. Hence greater ranges are attainable over the
sea. A horizontally polarized wave will be attenuated very quickly and give very short ranges;
therefore, vertical polarization is generally used at these lower frequencies.

10 k

LAND SEA

100 k

f (Hz)

1M

10 M

100 M
1 10 100 1000 10 000
NM

Figure 2.4

This is the primary propagation path used in the LF frequency band and the lower part of the
MF frequency band (i.e. frequencies of 30 kHz to 2 MHz).

An approximation to the useable range achievable over sea and land for an MF transmission at a
frequency of 300 kHz is given by:

Sea: range ≈ 3 × √Power

Land: range ≈ 2 × √Power

So, for example, a 300 kHz transmitter with a power output of 10 kW would give a surface
wave range of about 300 NM over the sea and 200 NM over the land.

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Space Wave
The space wave is made up of two paths, a direct wave and a reflected wave.

Figure 2.5 Space wave

At frequencies of VHF and above radio waves start to behave more like visible light and as we
have a visual horizon with light we have a radio horizon with the radio frequencies. So the only
atmospheric propagation at these frequencies is line of sight.

RX

TX

Figure 2.6 Maximum theoretical range

There is some atmospheric refraction which causes the radio waves to bend towards the
surface of the earth increasing the range slightly beyond the geometric horizon. Since the
diameter of the earth is known and the atmospheric refraction can be calculated it is possible to
determine the maximum theoretical range at which a transmission can be received. The
amount of refraction decreases as frequency increases but for practical purposes for the EASA
syllabus the line of sight range can be calculated using the formula:

Range (NM) = 1.23 × (√hTX + √hRX)

: Transmitter height in feet
hTX
h : Receiver height in feet
RX

At VHF and above it does not matter how powerful the transmitter is, if the receiver is below the line of sight
range, it will receive nothing.

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2 Radio Propagation Theory

For example:

What is the maximum range a receiver at 1600 ft can receive VHF transmissions from a
transmitter at 1024 ft?

Range = 1.23 × (√1600 + √1024) = 1.23 × (40 + 32) = 88.6 NM

Note 1: Regardless of the possible propagation paths, if a receiver is in line of sight

with a transmitter, then the space wave will be received.

Ionospheric Propagation
Before studying ionospheric propagation it is necessary to know about the processes which
produce the ionization in the upper atmosphere and the properties of the ionosphere that
produce sky wave.

The Ionosphere
The ionosphere extends upwards from an altitude of about 60 km to limits of the atmosphere
(notionally 1500 km). In this part of the atmosphere the pressures are very low (at 60 km the
atmospheric pressure is 0.22 hPa) and hence the gaseous atoms are widely dispersed. Within
this region incoming solar radiation at ultra-violet and shorter wavelengths interacts with the
atoms raising their energy levels and causing electrons to be ejected from the shells of the
atoms. Since an atom is electrically neutral, the result is negatively charged electrons and
positively charged particles known as ions.

The electrons are continually attempting to reunite with the ions, so the highest levels of
ionization will be found shortly after midday (about 1400) local time, when there is a balance
between the ionization and the decay of the ionization with the electrons rejoining the ions
and the lowest just before sunrise (at the surface). In summer the ionization levels will be
higher than in winter, and ionization levels will increase as latitude decreases, again because of the
increased intensity of the solar radiation.

Increased radiation from solar flares is unpredictable but can give rise to exceptionally high
levels of ionization, which in turn can cause severe disruption of communication and navigation
systems, particularly those which are space based. It is not unusual for communication (and
other) satellites to be shut down during periods of intense solar flare activity to avoid damage.

As the incoming solar energy is absorbed by the gaseous atoms the amount of energy available
to ionize the atoms at lower levels reduces and hence the levels of ionization increase with
increase in altitude. However, because the normal atmospheric mixing processes associated
with the lower levels of the atmosphere are absent in the higher levels, gravitation and terrestrial
magnetism affect the distribution of gases. This means that the increase in ionization is not
linear but the ionized particles form into discrete layers.

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2
F LAYER

E  LAYER
Km

D  LAYER

e  ‐

Figure 2.7 Effect of ionisation with height

The ionization is most intense at the centre of the layers decreasing towards the lower and
upper edges of the layers. The characteristics of these layers vary with the levels of ionization.
The lowest of these layers occurs at an average altitude of 75 km and is known as the D-region
or D-layer. This is a fairly diffuse area which, for practical purposes, forms at sunrise and
disappears at sunset. The next layer, at an average altitude of 125 km, is present throughout the
24 hours and is known as the E-layer. The E-layer reduces in altitude at sunrise and increases in
altitude after sunset. The final layer of significance is the F-layer at an average altitude of 225
km. The F-layer splits into two at sunrise and rejoins at sunset, the F 1-layer reducing in altitude
at sunrise and increasing in altitude after sunset. The behaviour of the F 2-layer is dependent
on time of year, in summer it increases in altitude and may reach altitudes in excess of 400 km
and in winter it reduces in altitude.
25
2 Radio Propagation Theory

Figure 2.8 Layers of the ionosphere

Although, overall the levels of ionization increase from sunrise to midday local time and then
decrease until sunrise the following morning, the levels are continually fluctuating as the
intensity of high energy radiation from the sun fluctuates. So it would be possible for the
ionization levels to decrease temporarily during the morning, or increase temporarily during the
afternoon.

The structure of the ionosphere gives stable conditions by day and by night. Around dawn
and dusk, however, the ionosphere is in a transitional state, which leads to what can best be
described as electrical turbulence. The result is that around dawn and dusk, radio navigation
and communication systems using the ionosphere are subject to excessive interference and
disruption.

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Sky Wave
The ionization levels in the layers increase towards the centre of the layer. This means that as a
radio wave transits a layer it encounters an increasing density of ions as it moves to the centre of
the layer and decreasing density as it moves out of the layer. If the radio waves travel across the
layer at right angles they will be retarded, but will maintain a straight path. However, if the
waves penetrate the layer at an angle they will be refracted away from the normal as they enter,
then back towards the normal as they exit the layer.

Figure 2.9 Sky wave propagation - critical angle

The amount of refraction experienced by the radio waves is dependent on both the frequency
and the levels of ionization. If the radio wave refracts to the (earth) horizontal before it reaches
the centre of the layer then it will continue to refract and will return to the surface of the earth as
sky wave; this is total internal refraction at the layer.

Starting from the vertical at the transmitter, with a frequency which penetrates the ionosphere, as
the angle between the vertical and the radio wave increases, an angle will be reached where total
internal refraction occurs and the wave returns to the surface. This is known as the first returning
sky wave and the angle (measured from the vertical) at which this occurs is known as the critical
angle. The distance from the transmitter to the point where the first returning sky wave appears
at the surface is known as the skip distance. As sky waves occur in the LF, MF and HF frequency
bands there will also be some surface wave present. From the point where the surface wave is
totally attenuated to the point where the first returning sky wave appears there will be no
detectable signal, this area is known as dead space.

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Figure 2.10 Sky wave propagation - dead space

The height at which full internal refraction occurs is dependent on frequency, but, as a
generalization frequencies up to 2 MHz will be refracted at the E-layer and from 2 - 50 MHz at
the F-layers. Sky wave is only likely to occur above 50 MHz when there are abnormal ionospheric
conditions associated with intense sunspot or solar flare activity, therefore, VHF frequencies
used for navigation systems do not produce sky waves.

Effect of Change in Ionization Intensity

Since the reason for the refraction is the ionization of the upper atmosphere it follows that if
ionization intensity changes, then the amount of refraction of radio waves will also change.
At a given frequency, as ionization increases the refractive index and hence the amount of
refraction affecting the radio waves will also increase. This means that refraction will take place
at a smaller critical angle and the skip distance and dead space will decrease. Conversely, a
decrease in ionization will result in an increase in critical angle, skip distance and dead space.

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2

HIGH
IONIZATION

LOW
IONIZATION

Figure 2.11 Sky wave propagation - effect of increased ionization

Effect of Change of Frequency

For a given ionization intensity, the amount of refraction of radio waves decreases as frequency
increases, because as frequency increases the energy contained in the radio wave increases and
therefore refraction decreases. So, as frequency increases, the critical angle will increase and
the skip distance and dead space will also increase. As frequency increases, the surface wave
range will decrease, so there is an increase in dead space caused by both the increase in skip
distance and decrease in surface wave range. Conversely, a decrease in frequency will give a
decrease in critical angle, skip distance and dead space.

Height of the Layers

The skip distance will also be affected by the altitude of the refracting layers. As the altitude of
the layer increases then the skip distance will also increase and greater ranges will be
experienced by refraction at the F-layer than the E-layer.

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LF and MF Sky Wave Propagation

During the day the D-layer absorbs radio energy at frequencies below about 2 MHz (LF and
MF bands). At night the D-layer is effectively non-existent so, at these frequencies, sky waves,
refracted at the E-layer are present. This means the sky waves at LF and MF are not reliable for
continuous long range use and the presence of sky waves at night at the relatively short ranges
associated with these lower frequencies will cause interference with short range navigation
(and broadcasting) systems relying on surface wave reception. This affects ADF and will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.

E LAYER

D  LAYER

Sky  Wave

Surface  Wave
EARTH
DAY

E LAYER

EARTH

NIGHT

Figure 2.12 LF/MF Sky wave propagation

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 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Achievable Ranges

The maximum range for sky wave will be achieved when the path of the radio wave is tangential at
the surface of the earth at both the transmitter and receiver.

A simple calculation shows that the average maximum range for refraction from the E-layer at 125
km is 1350 NM, and the average maximum range from the F-layer at 225 km is 2200 NM. These
ranges will obviously change as the height of the ionized layers changes.

Multi-hop sky wave occurs when the wave is refracted at the ionosphere then the sky wave is
reflected back from the surface of the earth to the ionosphere etc. Multi-hop sky wave can
achieve ranges of half the diameter of the earth.

Figure 2.13 Multi-hop Sky wave propagation

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HF Communications
Over inhabited land areas VHF communications are ideal for all communications between
aircraft and ground. However, over oceans and uninhabited land areas, long range systems
are required. Satellite Communications (SatCom) are not yet the norm, so long range
communication must be provided by surface wave or sky wave propagation.

To achieve ranges of 2000 - 3000 NM using surface wave propagation would require low
frequencies either from the lower end of LF band or the upper end of VLF band. Communication
systems utilizing these frequencies would require relatively complex equipment with an
associated weight penalty. Lower frequencies are also subject to greater static interference
than higher frequencies, making such systems somewhat tedious to use. Furthermore, data
rates associated with low frequencies are notoriously low.

Currently, therefore, the only practical solution is HF Communications utilizing sky wave
propagation. In the future, no doubt, SatCom will become commonplace.

Figure 2.14

The maximum usable frequency (MUF) for a given range will be that of the first returning sky
wave and this is the ideal frequency for that range because it will have had the shortest path
through the ionosphere, and therefore, will have experienced less attenuation and contain less
static interference. However, since the ionization intensity fluctuates, a decrease in ionization
would result in an increase in skip distance and hence loss of signal. So a compromise frequency is
used, known as the optimum working frequency (OWF), which by decades of experimentation
and experience has been determined to be 0.85 times the MUF.

Since ionization levels are lower by night than by day it follows that the frequency required
for use at a particular range by night will of necessity be less than the frequency required for
use by day. A good rule of thumb is that the frequency required at night is roughly half that
required by day.

32
 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Because skip distance increases as frequency increases, the range at which communication is
required will also influence the selection of the frequency to be used. Short ranges will require
lower frequencies and longer ranges will require higher frequency.

A typical example of the sort of problem that may appear is:

An aircraft on a flight from London, UK to New York, USA is in mid-Atlantic at sunrise.

The pilot is in communication with the UK on a frequency of 12 MHz. What frequency

can the pilot expect to use with the USA? (See Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.15 HF Communications Mid-Atlantic

Answer: 6 MHz.

The wave will be refracted halfway between the aircraft and the UK, and halfway between
the aircraft and the USA. Midway between the aircraft and the UK it is day, so a relatively high
frequency will be required. Midway between the aircraft and the USA it is night so a relatively
low frequency will be required.

33
2 Radio Propagation Theory

Propagation Summary
The propagation characteristics of each of the frequency bands are summarized below, where
propagation paths are in brackets this indicates that the path is present but not normally
utilised.

Frequency Band Propagation Path

Surface Wave
LF (Sky Wave)
Surface Wave
MF
(Sky Wave)
Sky Wave
HF
(Surface Wave)

VHF Space Wave

UHF Space Wave

SHF Space Wave

EHF Space Wave

Figure 2.16

34
 Radio Propagation Theory
2
Super-refraction

This is a phenomenon which is significant at frequencies above 30 MHz (that is VHF and
above). Radio waves experience greater refraction, that is, they are bent downwards towards the
earth’s surface more than in normal conditions, giving notable increases in line of sight range
to as much as 40% above the usual.

The conditions which give rise to super-refraction are:

• Decrease in relative humidity with height

• Temperature falling more slowly with height than standard

• Fine weather and high pressure systems

• Warm air flowing over a cooler surface

In extreme cases when there is a low level temperature inversion with a marked decrease in
humidity with increasing height (simply, warm dry air above cool moist air), a low level duct
may be formed which traps radio waves at frequencies above 30 MHz giving extremely long
ranges. This phenomenon is known as duct propagation and can lead to exceptionally long
ranges. When interference is experienced on UK television channels from continental stations, the
reason for this is the forming of such a duct.

This phenomenon is most common where warm desert areas are bordering oceanic areas, e.g.
the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas. It can also occur in temperate latitudes when high
pressure predominates, particularly in the winter months when the dry descending air in the
high pressure system is heated by the adiabatic process and is warmer than the underlying cool
and moist air.

Sub-refraction
Much rarer than super-refraction, but still of significance in radio propagation, sub-refraction
causes a reduction in the normal refraction giving a decrease in line of sight range by up to
20%.

The conditions which give rise to sub-refraction are:

• An increase in relative humidity with increasing height

• Temperature decreasing with increasing height at a greater rate than standard

• Poor weather with low pressure systems

• Cold air flowing over a warm surface

35
2 Radio Propagation Theory

36
 Questions
2
Questions
1. The process which causes the reduction in signal strength as range from a transmitter
increases is known as:

a. absorption
b. diffraction
c. attenuation
d. ionisation

2. Which of the following will give the greatest surface wave range?

a. 243 MHz
b. 500 kHz
c. 2182 khz
d. 15 MHz

3. It is intended to increase the range of a VHF transmitter from 50 NM to 100 NM.

This will be achieved by increasing the power output by a factor of:

a. 2
b. 8
c. 16
d. 4

4. The maximum range an aircraft at 2500 ft can communicate with a VHF station at 196
ft is:

a. 79 NM
b. 64 NM
c. 52 NM
d. 51 NM

5. What is the minimum height for an aircraft at a range of 200 NM to be detected by a

radar at 1700 ft AMSL?

a. 25 500 ft
b. 15 000 ft
c. 40 000 ft
d. 57 500 ft

6. Determine which of the following statements concerning atmospheric ionization are

correct:

1. The highest levels of ionization will be experienced in low latitudes

2. Ionization levels increase linearly with increasing altitude
3. The lowest levels of ionization occur about midnight
4. The E-layer is higher by night than by day because the ionization levels are lower
at night

a. statements 1, 2 and 3 are correct

b. statements 1, 3 and 4 are correct
c. statements 2 and 4 are correct
d. statements 1 and 4 are correct

37
2 Questions

7. The average height of the E-layer is …… and the maximum range for sky wave will be
……

a. 60 km, 1350 NM
b. 125 km, 2200 km
c. 225 km, 2200 km
d. 125 km, 1350 NM

8. Concerning HF communications, which of the following is correct?

a. The frequency required in low latitudes is less than the frequency required in
high latitudes
b. At night a higher frequency is required than by day
c. The frequency required is dependent on time of day but not the season
d. The frequency required for short ranges will be less than the frequency required
for long ranges

38
Questions
2

39
2 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c b d a b d d d

40
 Chapter

3
Modulation

Introduction. . . 43
Keyed Modulation . . . 43
Amplitude Modulation (AM). . . 44
Single Sideband (SSB). . . 45
Frequency Modulation (FM) . . . 46
Phase Modulation. . . 47
Pulse Modulation . . . 47
Emission Designators . . . 47
Questions . . . 50
Answers . . . 52

41
 Modulation

42
 Modulation

Introduction
Modulation is the name given to the process of adding information to a radio wave or the
formatting of radio waves for other purposes. Of the main forms of modulation, five have
application in aviation:

Keyed Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Phase Modulation

Pulse Modulation

The modulation of a radio frequency is generally associated with the transmission of audio
information, although the transmission of data, including that in satellite navigation systems,
and the determination of bearing in VOR, for example, require modulation for other purposes.

Before an audio signal can be added to a radio wave it must be converted to an electrical
signal. This will be achieved by the use of a microphone, which is quite simply a device that
converts sound waves to an electrical current.

It will be assumed for AM and FM that this conversion has already been accomplished.

Keyed Modulation
The simplest way to put information onto a carrier wave is to quite simply interrupt the wave to
give short and long bursts of energy.

‘K’

Figure 3.1 Morse ‘K’ in keyed modulation

By arranging the transmissions into short and long periods of carrier wave transmission we can
send information using the Morse code. This is known as telegraphy and until the development
of other forms of modulation was the only means of passing information. Keyed modulation
is still used by some non-directional beacons (NDBs) for identification and will be discussed
further in Chapter 7.

43
 Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In AM the amplitude of the audio frequency (AF) modifies the amplitude of the radio frequency
(RF).

Figure 3.2 Amplitude modulation

As can be seen from the diagram above, positive amplitude in the AF gives an increase in
amplitude in the RF and negative amplitude in the AF gives a decrease in amplitude in the RF.

The process of combining a radio frequency with a current at audio frequencies is known as
heterodyning. Looking in more detail at the process; the heterodyning process combines the
two frequencies, leaving the RF unchanged but producing new frequencies at the sum and
difference of the RF and AF. For example an audio frequency of 3 kHz is used to amplitude
modulate a radio frequency of 2182 kHz. The RF remains unchanged but the AF is now split
into 2 sidebands extending upwards from 2182.001 kHz to 2185 kHz - the upper sideband
(USB) and a lower sideband (LSB) extending downwards from 2181.999 kHz to 2179 kHz. The
spread of frequencies is from 2179 kHz to 2185 kHz giving a bandwidth of 6 kHz, i.e. double
the audio frequency used.

2185 kHz

(25 W) ⇧ Upper Sideband

(USB)

(100 W) RF 2182 kHz 2182.001 kHz

(100 W) 2182 kHz

(50 W) AF 3 kHz 2181.999 kHz

Lower Sideband
(25 W)
(LSB)

2179 kHz

Figure 3.3 AM sideband production

44
 Modulation

As can be seen from the table the power that is in the AF is divided equally between the two
sidebands, furthermore the information in the AF is contained in both sidebands. It should
also be noted that only one third of the signal is carrying the information.

Single Sideband (SSB)

There is redundancy in double sideband transmissions in that the information is contained in
both the upper and lower sidebands. Additionally, the original RF carrier wave having served its
purpose to get the audio information into radio frequencies is now redundant. So it is
possible to remove one of the sidebands and the carrier wave because the remaining sideband
contains all the information. This is known as single sideband (SSB) operation.

2185 kHz

(25 W)
(150 W) ⇧ Upper Sideband
(USB)

(100 W) RF 2182 kHz 2182.001 kHz

(100 W) 2182 kHz

(50 W) AF 3 kHz 2181.999 kHz

Lower Sideband
(25 W)
(LSB)

2179 kHz

Figure 3.4 Single sideband

When using sky wave propagation for communication, the differing refraction occurring at
different frequencies leads to an increase in distortion if the bandwidth is too large. The
ionosphere comprises electrically charged particles which cause high levels of static interference
on radio waves, the use of SSB significantly reduces the effect of this interference. The MF &
HF frequencies used for long range communication are in great demand, hence the use of
SSB transmissions increases the number of channels available. The use of SSB also reduces the
amount of power required.

Thus the main advantages of SSB are:

• Double the number of channels available with double sideband

• Better signal/noise ratio (less interference)

• Less power required hence lighter equipment

45
 Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM)

In Frequency Modulation, the amplitude of the audio frequency modifies the frequency of the carrier
wave.

Figure 3.5 Frequency modulation

The change in the carrier wave frequency is dependent on the rise and fall of the amplitude of the
modulating wave/audio frequency: the greater the amplitude, the greater the frequency
deviation. The frequency of the modulating wave determines the rate of change of frequency within
the modulated carrier wave.

When FM is used for sound broadcasting (for example, music radio stations), the bandwidth
permitted by international agreements is 150 kHz, compared to 9 kHz allowed for AM. In
general, therefore, FM is unsuitable for use on frequencies below VHF.

For voice communications the bandwidth can be considerably reduced whilst still maintaining the
integrity of the information; this is known as Narrow Band FM (NBFM). Typically, NBFM systems
have a bandwidth of 8 kHz, which is greater than the 6 kHz permitted for Aeronautical
Communications and the 3 kHz used in HF Communications; therefore, NBFM communication
systems are not yet used in aviation.

46
 Modulation

Phase Modulation
In phase modulation the phase of the carrier wave is modified by the input signal. There are
two cases: the first is where the input is an analogue signal when the phase of the carrier wave is
modified by the amplitude of the signal; secondly, with a digital signal it is known as phase shift
keying, the phase change reflects a 0 or 1; e.g. 0° phase shift indicates a zero and 180° phase
shift represents a 1. (Note: this is the simplest case as multiple data can be represented by using
many degrees of phase shift.)

There are two cases used in navigation systems, MLS and GPS. GPS uses binary phase shift
keying, MLS uses differential phase shift keying.

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Figure 3.6

Pulse Modulation
Pulse modulation is used extensively in radar systems and for data exchange in communications
systems. An intermittent carrier wave is formed by the generation and transmission of a
sequence of short period pulses.

Emission Designators
In order to easily identify the characteristics and information provided by electronic signals, a
list of designators has been devised. They comprise 3 alphanumerics, where the first letter
defines the nature of the modulation, the second digit the nature of the signal used for the
modulation and the third letter the type of information carried.

47
 EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

First Symbol Second Symbol Third Symbol

Type of modulation of the main carrier Nature of signals modulating the main carrier Type of information transmitted
Emissions of an unmodulated
N 0 No modulating signal N No information transmitted
carrier
Single channel containing quantized or
Amplitude modulation - Double digital information without the use of a
A 1 A Telegraphy for aural reception
sideband modulating sub-carrier, excluding time
division multiplex
Single channel containing quantized
H Amplitude modulation - Single or digital information with the use of a Telegraphy for automatic
sideband, full carrier 2 B
modulating sub-carrier, excluding time reception
division multiplex
J Amplitude modulation - Single Single channel containing analogue
3 C Facsimile
sideband - suppressed carrier information
D Data transmission, telemetry,
telecommand

F Frequency modulation Two or more channels containing Telephony, including sound

7 E
quantized or digital information broadcasting
G Phase modulation Two or more channels containing
8 F Television (video)
analogue information
Composite system with one or more
channels containing quantized or
9 digital information, together with one W Combinations of the above
or more channels containing analogue
information
P Sequence of unmodulated pulses
Sequence of pulses modulated in
K X Cases not otherwise covered X Cases not otherwise covered
amplitude
 Modulation

For example, VHF radio telephony communications have the designation A3E.

Reference to the table gives the following breakdown:

A - Amplitude modulation - Double sideband

3 - Single channel containing analogue information E -

Telephony, including sound broadcasting

This means an RF carrier wave is being amplitude modulated with speech.

HF radio telephony communications have the designation J3E, this gives:

J - Amplitude modulation - single sideband with suppressed carrier

3 - Single channel containing analogue information

E - Telephony, including sound broadcasting

This means an RF carrier wave is being amplitude modulated with speech then the RF carrier
wave is being removed along with one of the sidebands.

It is not necessary to know the details of the table.

Other designators relevant to the equipments discussed in phase 2 are:

ADF N0NA1A or N0NA2A

VHF RTF A3E

HF RTF J3E

VOR A9W

ILS A8W

Marker Beacons A2A

DME P0N

MLS N0XG1D

With the exception of ADF it is unlikely that knowledge of these designators will be examined.

49
 Questions

Questions
1. The bandwidth produced when a radio frequency (RF) of 4716 kHz is amplitude
modulated with an audio frequency (AF) of 6 kHz is:

a. 6 kHz
b. 3 kHz
c. 12 kHz
d. 9 kHz

2. Which of the following statements concerning AM is correct?

a. The amplitude of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF

b. The amplitude of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF
c. The frequency of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF
d. The frequency of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF

3. Which of the following is an advantage of single sideband (SSB) emissions?

a. More frequencies available

b. Reduced power requirement
c. Better signal/noise ratio
d. All of the above

4. Which of the following statements concerning FM is correct?

a. The amplitude of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF

b. The amplitude of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF
c. The frequency of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF
d. The frequency of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF

50
Questions

51
 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4
c b d d

52
 Chapter

4
Antennae

Introduction. . . 55
Basic Principles 55
Aerial Feeders . . . 56
Polar Diagrams . . . 57
Directivity . 58
Radar Aerials 60
Modern Radar Antennae. . . 61
Questions . . . 63
Answers . . . 64

53
4 Antennae

54
 Antennae
4
Introduction
Antennae or aerials are the means by which radio energy is radiated and received. The type of
antenna used will be determined by the function the radio system is required to perform.
This chapter will look at the principles which are common to all antennae and at the specialities
required for particular radio navigation systems.

Basic Principles
There are two basic types of aerial used for receiving and transmitting basic communications,
the half-wave dipole and the Marconi or quarter-wave aerial.

λ
4
I

λ
4

Figure 4.1: Half-wave dipole

With the dipole aerial the power is fed to the centre of the aerial and radiates in all directions
perpendicular to the aerial. The Marconi aerial is set on, but insulated from, a metal surface
which acts as the second part of a dipole, with the radio energy radiating perpendicular to the
aerial. Because of the better aerodynamic qualities, Marconi aerials are used on aircraft.

λ
4

Figure 4.2: Marconi aerial

For an aerial to operate with maximum efficiency it must be the correct length for the
wavelength of the frequency in use. As the names imply the ideal length for an aerial is half or
quarter of the wavelength of the frequency being transmitted. However, whilst we regard the
speed of propagation of electromagnetic energy as being constant, this is only true in a
specified medium. If the energy passes from one medium to another the speed will change. In the
case of electromagnetic energy, the denser the medium the slower the speed. This needs to be
taken into account in the length of aerials.

55
4 Antennae

Example:

What is the optimum length for a Marconi aerial transmitting on a frequency of 125 MHz?

Recall from Chapter 1:

300 m
Wavelength (λ) =
f (MHz)

300 m
= = 2.4 m
125

With a wavelength of 2.4 m, the optimum length will be:

λ
2.4
4 = = 0.6 m or 60 cm
4

Aerial Feeders
The means by which energy is carried between the aerial and transmitter or receiver is
dependent on the frequency in use and the power levels. At low and medium frequencies a
simple wire is adequate to carry the signal over reasonable distances with little energy loss. As
frequency increases the power losses increase and into HF and VHF a twin wire feeder is more
efficient. At UHF frequencies, the power losses in these simple feeders becomes unacceptably high
and a coaxial cable is required.

In the upper part of the UHF band and in the SHF and EHF bands the use of dipole or Marconi
aerials is precluded because of the high energy losses and the way the energy is produced. At
these frequencies a waveguide is used to carry the energy to or from the aerial. The waveguide is a
hollow, rectangular metal tube. The internal dimensions of the tube are determined by the
frequency in use, being half the wavelength.

56
 Antennae
4
Polar Diagrams
A polar diagram is used to show the radiation or reception pattern of an aerial. It is simply a
line joining all points of equal signal strength and is generally a plan view perpendicular to the
plane of radiation or reception. From here on we will talk about radiation only, but the same
principle applies to reception.

A dipole aerial radiates most energy at right angles to the aerial with signal strength decreasing
towards the ends of the aerial, where there is no radiation. A three dimensional representation
of radiation from such an aerial would be a torus, centred on the centre point of the aerial:

VERTICAL PD COMPOSITE PD

Figure 4.3 3-D Polar Diagram (PD)

Clearly such diagrams would be cumbersome so a plan view of the plane of radiation is used:

HORIZONTAL PD VERTICAL PD

Figure 4.4 Plan view polar diagram

57
4 Antennae

Directivity
Many systems require the directional emission or reception of energy, for example; radar, ILS,
MLS and many more. How this directivity is achieved depends on the frequency and application.

The simplest way to achieve directivity is to add parasitic elements to the aerial. If we place a
metal rod 5% longer than the aerial at a distance of quarter of a wavelength from the aerial
and in the same plane as the aerial, it will act as a reflector.

Figure 4.5 Directivity using reflector

This reflector re-radiates the energy 180° out of phase, the resulting polar diagram is shown
above, with no signal behind the reflector and increased signal in front of the aerial.

This process can be taken further by adding other elements in front of the aerial. These elements
are known as directors and are smaller than the aerial itself.

Figure 4.6 Improved directivity using reflector and directors

All will recognize this as being the type of aerial array used for the reception of television
signals. The directors have the effect of focussing the signal into (or out of) the aerial, giving a
stronger signal than that which would be generated by a simple dipole.

58
 Antennae
4
However, directivity comes with its own price. As can be seen from the diagram, we have
produced a strong beam along the plane of the aerial, but have also produced many unwanted
side lobes which would receive (and transmit) unwanted signals. Signals received in these side
lobes produce characteristic ghosting on television pictures, usually caused by reflections from
buildings etc. These side lobes give major problems which have to be addressed in SSR and ILS,
and also produce problems in primary radars.

The Instrument Landing System (ILS) uses an extension of this idea to produce the narrow
beams (or lobes) of energy required to guide aircraft along the runway centre line: the ILS
‘localizer’ antenna which produces this is an array of 16 or 24 aerials placed in line with half
wavelength spacing. There is some modification to the way the signal is fed to the aerials but
the end result is that two narrow beams of energy are produced which are symmetrical, close to
the centre line of the runway as shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 ILS localizer lobes.

In the Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) a loop aerial is used to detect the direction of an
incoming signal.

LOOP

NULL

NULL

Figure 4.8 Loop aerial ‘Figure-of-eight’ polar diagram

When the loop is aligned with the incoming signal then there is a phase difference between
the signals in each of the vertical elements of the loop and there will be a net flow of current
from the loop. If the loop is placed at right angles to the incoming signal then the induced
currents will be equal and will cancel each other out giving a zero output.

59
4 Antennae

The resulting polar diagram will have two distinct nulls which can be used to determine the
direction from which the radio wave is coming. How this principle is utilized will be discussed in
detail in Chapter 7.

Radar Aerials
Radar systems operate in the UHF and SHF bands; the transmission of such frequency energy
requires the use of ‘waveguides’ rather than cables. The parabolic dish is widely used as a
‘reflector’: the open end of a waveguide (see Figure 4.9) is positioned at the focal point of
the parabola (the centre of curvature, designated by point F in Figure 4.10) and directs the
RF energy towards the dish. The energy from the open waveguide is reflected by the dish
as parallel rays; the path length FXB, FYA etc. will therefore be equal and the transmitted
wavefront will be made up of parallel rays that are all in phase.

Figure 4.9 Horn feed to Parabolic Reflector

Figure 4.10 Principles of the Parabolic Reflector

In principle a very narrow pencil beam should be produced as shown below, but apart from
the region very close to the antenna, the beam, in fact, diverges. In effect, the parabolic
reflector converts a point source of energy (the open waveguide) at the focal point into a
plane wavefront of uniform phase.

60
 Antennae
4
In addition, due to uneven reflection, some of the energy ‘spills out’ of the reflector to form
side lobes (shown in Figure 4.11); these contain sufficient energy to produce valid returns
outside the main lobe or beam.

Figure 4.11 Polar diagram of parabolic reflector

Modern Radar Antennae

Modern radar development has introduced a different type of aerial: the Flat Plate Array,
Phased Array, or Slotted Antenna (see Figure 4.12). The antenna is a ‘flat plate’ with numerous
waveguide-size slots cut into it. The individual slots are fed with RF energy from behind the
plate; the transmitted radar beam is therefore a result of the interaction of the numerous
individual beams.

This type of antenna is more efficient than the parabolic reflector: it ‘wastes’ much less energy in
the side lobes and, for a given frequency, the RF energy is concentrated into a narrower
beam. Since the flat plate array is a more efficient means of transmission, radars incorporating
this technology require less power.

Figure 4.12 Phased array or slotted antenna

61
4 Antennae

The advantages of phased/flat plate array over parabolic reflectors are: •

Narrow beam

• Reduced side lobes

• Less power required for a given range

• Narrower pulse

• Improved resolution

62
 Questions
4
Questions
1. The ideal length for a Marconi aerial for a frequency of 406 MHz is:

a. 36.9 cm
b. 35.1 cm
c. 17.5 cm
d. 18.5 cm

2. A disadvantage of directivity is:

a. reduced range
b. side lobes
c. phase distortion
d. ambiguity

3. Which of the following is not an advantage of a slotted antenna (phase array)?

a. Reduced side lobes

b. Improved resolution
c. Reduced power
d. Directivity

4. The ideal length of a half-wave dipole for a frequency of 75 MHz is:

a. 1.9 m
b. 95 cm
c. 3.8 m
d. 47.5 cm

63
4 Answers

Answers
1 2 3 4
c b d a

64
 Chapter

5
Doppler Radar Systems

Introduction. . . 67
The Doppler Principle. . . 67
Airborne Doppler . . . 68
Janus Array System . . . 69
Doppler Operation . . . 70
Doppler Navigation Systems . . . 70
Questions . . . 71
Answers . . . 72

65
5 Doppler Radar Systems

66
 Doppler Radar Systems
5
Introduction
The Doppler principle can be used to determine the relative speed between moving objects by
measuring the difference between transmitted and received frequencies; for example, police
forces all over the world use a form of Doppler radar to check vehicle speeds.

A Doppler navigation system uses the Doppler principle to measure an aircraft’s ground speed
and drift. The most modern systems combine the inherent accuracy of Doppler measurements
with information from other navigation systems (for example: IRS, VOR/DME or GPS) in various
configurations to suit customer requirements.

Using these additional navigation inputs helps to eradicate the problems associated with early
Doppler Navigation Systems, such as inaccurate heading references, and degradation (or loss) of
Doppler inputs when flying over large expanses of water.

The Doppler principle is utilized in many navigation systems, such as Radar, Doppler VOR and
VDF.

The Doppler Principle

The Austrian physicist, Christian Doppler, predicted the Doppler Effect in connection with
light waves in the 19th Century, but it also holds true for sound and radio waves: a received
frequency will only be the same as the transmitted frequency when there is no relative
movement between the transmitter and receiver.

A simple analogy would be a visit to the beach. Standing still in the water, the waves rolling in
splash you at, for example, four waves per minute. If you walk into the sea, you are progressively
reducing the space between each wave and therefore they splash you more frequently than
four times per minute. The rate at which the waves are produced has not changed, but you
perceive that the rate has increased. The faster you walk into the sea, towards the waves, the
greater the rate at which they will strike you.

Conversely, if you walk back towards the shore, you are effectively stretching out the distance
between each wave and therefore the waves will strike you less frequently.

The result is that you (as a receiver) perceive an increase in the frequency of the waves when there
is relative movement towards the waves (the sea as transmitter), and a decrease in the frequency
when the relative movement is away from the waves; there has been no actual change in the
frequency of the waves.

The difference between the frequency you perceive the waves striking you and the actual
frequency at which they roll in to shore is the ‘Doppler Shift’ or ‘Doppler Frequency’. That
difference varies with the speed at which you walk into or out of the sea - the relative motion.

The same effect occurs at radio frequencies: whenever there is relative motion between a
transmitter and a receiver, the receiver will perceive a Doppler frequency shift that is proportional
to their relative motion.

67
5 Doppler Radar Systems

Airborne Doppler
A typical airborne Doppler installation employs a slotted waveguide antenna in which the
transmitter and receiver elements are screened from each other but share the same aerial. It
is arranged that an array of beams is transmitted downwards towards the earth’s surface as
shown in Figure 5.1.

The diagram shows a commonly-adopted configuration: there are four beams, two pointing
forward and two pointing aft. This is known as a 4-Beam Janus Array, named after the Roman
God of Doorways who was reputed to be able to face both ways simultaneously.

Figure 5.1 Airborne Doppler.

68
 Doppler Radar Systems
5
Janus Array System

A Janus array normally comprises 3 or 4 beams. Figure 5.2, below, illustrates various ways that the
beams can be configured.

Figure 5.2 Janus Arrays

69
5 Doppler Radar Systems

Doppler Operation
The Doppler functions by continuous measurement of the frequency shift in the reflected
signal caused as a result of the aircraft’s motion over the ground. The equipment converts the
measured values into the aircraft’s speed along track (ground speed) and speed across track
(used to determine drift).

The frequency shifts detected in a four-beam Janus array of an aircraft travelling forwards with
zero drift will be equal (but opposite for fore and aft beams). In other words, the forward
beams detect an upward shift in the received frequency and the aft beams detect a downward
shift in the received frequency from the beams pointing aft; the magnitude of the shift will
be equal but opposite. The shift in both sets of beams is proportional to the aircraft’s ground
speed.

If the aircraft is drifting left or right, then there will be a difference in the frequencies received
from port and starboard beams. In a modern, fixed aerial system the differences in frequencies
are electronically processed to provide a continuous indication of drift and ground speed; the
information (together with a heading input) can also be provided to a navigation system that
can determine the aircraft’s position.

In earlier, mechanical systems (using pitch-stabilized, rotating aerials) the difference in frequency
shifts was converted to an electrical signal that actuated a motor. The motor then drove the
aerial until it was aligned with aircraft track, at which stage the port and starboard frequency
shifts would be equalized. A pick-off then measured the difference between the aircraft’s fore/ aft
axis (representing heading) and the alignment of the port and starboard beams (track); the
difference being drift.

Doppler Navigation Systems

The Doppler continuously updates the values of aircraft drift and ground speed. In early
systems, the aircraft’s departure point was loaded into a navigation computer. The values of
drift and ground speed, together with an input of aircraft heading, were also fed into the
computer, which converted them into aircraft position. The calculated position was then
displayed as latitude and longitude or as distances (in nautical miles) along and across track.

Figure 5.3 is the Control and Display Unit (CDU) for the B-52 system mentioned above.

Figure 5.3 Racal RNS 252 Navigation Computer Unit

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 Questions
5
Questions
1. Doppler operates on the principle that ...... between a transmitter and receiver will
cause the received frequency to ...... if the transmitter and receiver are moving ...

a. apparent motion, decrease, together

b. relative motion, decrease, apart
c. the distance, increase, at the same speed
d. relative motion, increase, apart

2. Due to ‘Doppler’ effect an apparent decrease in the transmitted frequency, which is

proportional to the transmitter’s velocity, will occur when:

a. the transmitter and receiver move towards each other

b. the transmitter moves away from the receiver
c. the transmitter moves towards the receiver
d. both transmitter and receiver move away from each other

3. The change in frequency measured in an aircraft from a radio transmission reflected

from the ground is used to determine:

a. the drift and ground speed of the aircraft

b. the aircraft’s track and speed
c. the across track wind component and heading
d. track error and ground speed

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5 Answers

Answers
1 2 3
b b a

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