Longkutoy, Sherina Tasya

Paralel K

SUMMARY
Unit 1
Simple Present and Present Continous
Simple Present is a verb tense with two main uses. Simple present is used when an action is
happening right now,or when it happens regularly (or unceasingly,wich is why it’s sometimes
called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed by using
the root form or by adding -s or -es to the end.
Example: I feel great! Sherina loves pie. I’m sorry to hear that you’re sick
Typically, when we want to describe a temporary action that is currently in progress, we use the
present continuous.
Example: Sherina can’t come to the phone right now because she is brushing her teeth.

How to form the simple present:

In the simple present, most regular verbs use the root form, except in the third-person singular
(wich ends in -s).
First-person singular: I write
Second-person singular: You write
Third-person singular: He/She/it writes (note the -s)
First-person flural: we write
Second-person flural: You write
Third-person flural: They write
For a few verbs, the third-person singular ends with -es instead of -s. Typically, these are verbs
whose root form ends in o, ch, sh, th, ss, gh, or z.
First-person singular: I go
Second-person singular: You go
Third-person singular: He/she/it goes (note the -es)
For most regular verbs, you put the negation of the verb before the verb,
Example: “She won’t go” or “I don’t smell anything”.
The verb to be is irregular:
First-person singular: I am
Second-person singular: You are
Third-person singular: He/she/it is
First-person plural: we are
Second-person plural: You are
Third-person plural: They are

Present Continous (also called present progressive) is a verb tense wich used to show that an
ongoing anction is happening now, either at the moment of speech or now in a larger sense. The
present continuous can also be used to show that an action is going to take place in the near
future.

Present continuous forms:

The present continuous is formed using am/is/are + present participle. Questions are indicated
by inverting the subject and am/is/are. Negatives are made with not.
Statement: You are watching TV
Question: Are you wathing TV?
Negative: You are not watching TV

Present contious uses

Use 1, Now
Use the present continuous with normal verbs to express the idea that something is happening
now, at this very moment. Is can be also used to show that is something is now happening now.
Examples:
- You are learning English now
- You are not swimming now
- Are you sleeping?
- I am sitting
- I am not standing
Use 2, Longer actions in progress now
In English, “now” can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on.
Sometimes, we use the oresent continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer
action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.
Examples: (all of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant)
- I am studyng to become a Nurse
- I am not studyng to become a Doctor
- Are you working on any special projects at work?
- Aren’t you teaching guitar lessons at the university now?
Use 3, Near future
Sometimes, speakers use the present continuous to indicate that something will or not will
happen in the near future.
Examples:
- I am meeting some friends after work
- I am not going to the party tonight
- Is she visiting her parents next weekend?
Use 4, Repetition and irritation with “Always”
The present continuous with words such as “always” or “constantly” expresses the idea that
something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like simple present,
but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words “always” or “constantly” between “be”
and “verb+ing”.
Examples:
- She is always coming to class late
- He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up
- I don’t like them because they are always complaining
Present continuous tips
It is important to remember that non-continuous verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses.
Also, certain non-continuous meanings fr mixed verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using present continuous with these verbs, you must put simple present.

Zero Conditional
We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the ‘if clause’
and one in the ‘main clause’):
If + present simple,…..present simple
This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it
always boils. It’s a fact. I’m talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of
the ‘if clause’ is always the main clause.
The ‘if’ in this conditional can usualy be replaced by ‘when’ without changing the meaning.
Example: if water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

UNIT 2
Past continuous and simple past
The past continuous and the simple past help us to show how two past actions or situations are
connected.
The Past continuous show us that the action was already in progress at a certain time in the past.
Example : what were you doing at 8 p.m last night?
I was studying
This means that is started studying before 8 p.m and I continued after 8 p.m
The past continuous can also show that an activity was in progress for some time,not just for a
moment.
Example : we were cleaning the house all morning
We make the past continuous with was or were and the -ing form of the verb.
Example:
- She couldn’t come to the party. She was working
- Three years ago, we were living in my home town
- What were you doing this time last year?

The Simple past shows us that an action was in the past, not in the present. Regular past
simpleverbs have -ed at the end (example: called, played, arrived). Irregular verbs havea
different form, usually with a different vowel sound (example: wake > woke, break > broke, feel
> felt).
Examples:
- My parents called me yesterday
- I woke up early this morning
- Vergio played guitar when he was at home
We make the negative with didn’t and the infinitive verb
Example: My parents didn’t call me yesterday
We make the question form with did and then thesubject and infinitive verb
Example: Did you wake up early this morning?

Participal Adjectives
Participal Adjectives ins a traditional term for an adjective that has the same form as the
participle (that is, a verb ending in -ing or -ed/-en) and that usually exhibits the ordinary
properties of an adjective or a deverbal adjective.
Example:
- I was really bored during the flight (NOT: I was really boring during the flight)
- She’s interested in history (NOT: She’s really interesting in history)
- Sherina’s frightened of spiders (NOT: Sherina’s frightening of spiders)

UNIT 3
Used To
We use used to when we refer to things in the past wich are no longer true. It can refer to
repeated actions or to a state or situation.
Example:
- He used to play football for the local team, but he’s too old now
- That red house over there used to belong to my family. (it belong to my family in the
past, but not anymore)
Warning: In statements, the form used to does not change. We do not use the verb be before it. It
always refers to past time
Example: We used to go to the seaside every summer when I was a kid.
Not: “We are used to go”, or “We used to go”, or “We were used to go”

Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something –
information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining
relative clause usually come immediately after the noun it describes.
We usually use a relative pronoun (example: who, that, which, and whom) to introduce a
defining relative clause.
Example:
- They’re the people who want to buy our house
- Here are some cells which have been affected
- They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most

UNIT 4
Present perfect
The Present perfect is a grammatical combination of the present tense and perfect aspect that is
used to express a past event that has present consequences.
In modern English, the auxiliary verb used to form the present perfect is always to have. A
typical present perfect clause thus consists of the subject, the auxiliary have/has, and the past
participle (third form) of main verb.
Example:
- I have done so much in my life
- He has already arrived in Tompaso
- Lovely tales that we have heard or read

Actions started in the past and continuing in the present:

- We have lived in Winangun for five years
When the time period reffered to has not finished:
- It has rained a lot this year
Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now:
- We have eaten at that restaurant many times
Actions completed in the very recent past(+just) :
- Have you just finished work?
When the precise time of the action is not important or not known:
- She has studied Korean, Japanese and English

Present perfect vs Simple past

Use the simple past when the action started in the past, finished in the past, and is not continuing
now. Use the present perfect when the action started in the past and is continuing now.
The simple past tells us that an action happened at a certain time in the past, and is not
continuing anymore. It doesn't tell us anything about when an action happened, so more
information needs to be given with this verb form, such as when the action took place.

The present perfect tells us that an action started in the past and it is still happening now, or it is
something that happens regularly. We may need more information to tell us how long it has been
going on. It may also tell us that the time period it started in is still going on.
The following example sentences show the different meanings when using the two verb tenses.

- The sun rose at 6:00 am. (Simple Past: We know that the sun came up at a time in the
past and it is not rising now. The sun may or may not be in the sky when this statement is
made. The time is important to add.)
- The sun has risen. (Present perfect: We know that the sun already rose, and it is still in
the sky now.)
- Princess ate lunch early. (Simple Past: Eating lunch has started and ended in the past.
Someone might say this when the time for eating lunch has also ended. Lunch happened
early, and it is over now.)
- Andre has eaten lunch. (Present Perfect: Andre started and finished eating lunch in the
past, but lunch time is still going on. Someone might say this when others are preparing
to eat lunch, and they want to know whether Jackson will join them.)
- Vergio was friends with Sherina when he was a kid. (Simple Past: This tells us that
Vergio is not friends with Vergio anymore, and the additional information tells us when
he was friends with her in the past.)
- Vergio has been friends with Sherina since he was a kid. (Present perfect: This tells us
that Vergio was friends with Sherina before now and is still friends with her now. The
friendship is continuing, and the additional information tells us how long it has been
going on.)
- She lived in Paris for a year. (Simple Past: This action started and finished in the past.
She no longer lives in Paris. It is important to know the action lasted for a year.)
- She has lived in Paris for a year. (Present perfect: This action started in the past and is
still going on now; it has not finished. She lives in Paris now, and additional information
tells us how long she has lived there.)
- Sherina ran two marathons last year. (Simple Past: We know Sherina ran two marathons
in the past, and the time period the action started in and finished in—last year—has
ended.)
- Sherina has run two marathons this year. (Present perfect: We know Sherina started
running marathons this year. However, this year has not ended and she may run more
marathons before the end of the year.)

UNIT 5

Comparisons with adjectives and nouns

Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they modify
(larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences where two nouns are compared, in
this pattern:
Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object).

EXAMPLES:

- My house is larger than hers.

- This box is smaller than the one I lost.
- Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog.
- The rock flew higher than the roof.
- Jim and Jack are both my friends, but I like Jack better. ("than Jim" is understood)

Superlatives with adjectives nouns

Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a
quality (the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest). They are used in sentences where a
subject is compared to a group of objects.

Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object).

EXAMPLES

- My house is the largest one in our neighborhood.

- This is the smallest box I've ever seen.
- Your dog ran the fastest of any dog in the race.
- We all threw our rocks at the same time. My rock flew the highest. ("of all the rocks" is
understood)

UNIT 6

Present tenses used for future

Present tenses are used to talk about future actions and events that have some present reality. If
we say that something ‘is going to happen’ or ‘is happening’, we are usually referring to an
action that is already planned or decided.

Example:

- ‘What are you doing this weekend?’ ‘I am visiting my grandparents.’

- ‘Look out! We are going to crash.’

Note that we do not usually use the simple present tense to talk about the future.
The present continuous tense is mostly used to talk about personal arrangements and fixed plans,
especially when their time and place have been decided.

Example:

- We are going to France next week.

- I am seeing John tomorrow.
- What are you doing this evening?
- What are we having for lunch?

Requests; promises and offers with “will”

“Will” is a modal auxiliary verb, meaning that there is no “s” on the third person singular
conjugations. The main verb in the sentence is in the infinitive form (without “to”). The negative
form is “will not” which is usually contracted in spoken English and we say “won’t”. Similarly
“will” is sometimes contracted to “‘ll” when speaking.

Examples:
- I’ll bring a bottle of wine.
- You’ll enjoy the club!
- He won’t sign the document.
- She will find it difficult.
- We will do our homework!
- They’ll probably stay the night.

How to use “will” to express willingness – offers

Willingness is a complicated word to explain, however, it is clear that it is derived from the word
“will”. If I want to do something, if I am happy to volunteer to do something, I am willing to
help. So when I speak to express that I am willing to help or to offer to do something I use
“will”.
Examples:
- Don’t worry, I’ll go shopping tomorrow.
- I’ll help you make dinner!
- (Doorbell rings) “ I’ll get it!”
- I’ll talk to him if you like
- David will finish painting the garage for you.

All of the above examples are offers to help, even the last sentence, where David is being
volunteered by someone else.
We use “will” to make promises
We often use words like “I promise, I swear, I assure you… ” to emphasise a promise about the
future with will. Here are some examples:
- I swear I’ll never cheat on you again.
- I assure you we will do our best to get to the bottom of this.
- I promise, my dog won’t pee in your garden again

We use “Will you…?” to make requests:

With this type of question, we are asking if someone is willing to carry out the request.
Examples:
- Will you help me on this project, please?
- Will you sign this petition?
- In reality, we use “Will you…” and “Would you…” to express that we are annoyed and
we want someone to behave in a certain way:
- Will you please be quiet!
- Will you please just sign the form so that we can all go home!
- Would you please get your dog to stop barking!

UNIT 7
Adverbs modifying adjectives and verbs
Adverb modifying adjectives
An adverb can tell to what extent an adjective modifies a noun. An adverb that modifies an
adjective is called an intensifier.
Example:
That is an  unusually  tall tree. (Unusually tells how tall the tree is.)
Jared's sister is exceptionally  smart.  (Exceptionally tells how smart the sister is.)

Position of Adverbs
Adverbs that modify adjectives must go directly before the adjectives they modify.
The  strangely  quiet classroom made the teacher wonder what had happened.

Adverb modifying verb

You know that words that modify nouns (or pronouns) are adjectives. Words that modify verbs,
adjectives, or adverbs are adverbs.
Definition: An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Adverbs answer the questions when, where, how, and to what extent (how much or how long).
- when: Yesterday we went to school.
- where: We saw the bird there.
 - how: The car drove fast.
- how much: We mostly agree with you.

They also confirm that something was or was not done.

- positive: He certainly does feel that way.

- negative: You should not be late.
Hint: When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they are usually answering the
question to what extent?

Position of Adverbs
Generally, adverbs make sense directly after the verbs they modify, but they can also be moved
around the sentence. It can go at the beginning of the sentence, before the verb, or between a
helping verb and the main verb.
- I walk my dog daily.
- Daily I walk my dog.
- I  daily walk my dog.
- I have daily walked my dog.
Hint: Do not put an adverb between parts of an infinitive verb. Be careful not to move it to a
place where it could be confused with a different meaning.
- I like to often read good books. (incorrect - You like it only when you can do it
often.)
- I like to read often good books. (incorrect - The books aren't often good but
sometimes not good.)
- I like to read good books often. (correct)

Present perfect with ‘for’ and ‘since’

Using the present perfect, we can determine the time period before now by considering its
duration with for + time periods or by considering the initial time with since + time. FOR
and SINCE can also be used with past perfect. SINCE can only be used with perfect tense.
FOR can also be used with simple past.

FOR + TIME PERIOD

for six years, for a week, for a month, for hours, for two hours
I have worked here for five years.

SINCE + TIME
since this morning, since last week, since yesterday since I was a child, since Wednesday, since
2 o'clock.
I have worked here since 1990.

PRESENT PERFECT WITH FOR

- She has lived here for twenty years.
- We have taught at this school for a long time.
- Alice has been married for three months.
- They have been at the hotel for a week.

PRESENT PERFECT WITH SINCE

- She has lived here since 1980.
- We have taught at this school since 1965.
- Alice has been married since March 2nd.
- They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday.

UNIT 8
Quantifiers
A quantifier is a word or phrase which is used before a noun to indicate the amount or quantity:
'Some', 'many', 'a lot of' and 'a few' are examples of quantifiers.

Quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples:

- There are some books on the desk

- He's got only a few dollars.
- How much money have you got?
- There is a large quantity of fish in this river.
- He's got more friends than his sister.

Examples of quantifiers
With Uncountable Nouns

- Much
- a little/little/very little *
- a bit (of)
- a great deal of
- a large amount of
 - a large quantity of

With Both

- all
- enough
- more/most
- less/least
- no/none
- not any
- some
- any
- a lot of
- lots of
- plenty of

With Countable Nouns

- many
- a few/few/very few
- a number (of)
- several
- a large number of
- a great number of
- a majority of

NOTE: little, very little mean that there is not enough of something.

a little  means that there is not a lot of something, but there is enough.

NOTE: few, very few mean that there is not enough of something.

a few means that there is not a lot of something, but there is enough.

First Conditional
Conditional sentences in English are used to talk about events and their results. The first (1st)
conditional is the possible conditional. It is used to talk about possible future events and
their likely results.

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:

= if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what
will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.
Examples:

- If it rains, I won't go to the park.

- If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
- If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
- She'll be late if the train is delayed.
- She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
- If I see her, I'll tell her.

UNIT 9

Expressions with infinitives

So, what is an infinitive? It's a "to + verb" construct. When "to" is attached to a verb in this
manner, it's no longer working as a preposition. Rather, it becomes part of the verb. Examples
include, "to walk," "to read," or "to eat." Infinitives can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

As a noun, they might act as the subject of the sentence. For example:

"To travel is the only thing on her mind."

As an adjective, they'll modify a noun. For example:

"Sherina always brings a book to read. "

As an adverb, they'll modify verbs, other adjectives, or other adverbs. For example:

"Katherine braved the windstorm to search for her lost dog."

With a firm grasp on infinitives and their "to + verb" constructions, let's explore the world of
infinitive phrases.

Modals of speculating
Modals of speculation are modal auxiliary verbs which express degrees of certainty. In other
words, they describe a fact or situation that is definite, probable, possible, or impossible from the
speaker's point of view. (As the speaker is speculating, he/she may be wrong.

Look at these examples to see how must, might, may, could and can't can be used.

- That must be the main entrance. I can see people queuing to get in.I've lost my keys.
- They might be at work or they could be in the car.
 - You can't be bored already! You've only been here five minutes. 
We can use modal verbs for deduction – guessing if something is true using the available
information.

UNIT 10
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are words ending in -self or -selves that are used when the subject and the
object of a sentence are the same (e.g., I believe in myself). They can act as either objects or
indirect objects. The nine English reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself,
oneself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.

A reflexive pronoun can be a direct object in a sentence when the subject and the direct object

are one and the same.

Example:

- Vergio decided to reward Sherina with a dinner out.

- Vergio decided to reward himself with a dinner out.

In the first sentence, Sherina is the object of reward. Vergio, the subject, is the object
of reward in the second sentence, so we use the pronoun himself.

Reflexive pronouns can also play the indirect object role in a sentence.

- Sherina pours a cup of tea for me every morning.

- Sherina pours a cup of tea for herself every morning.

It is worth noting that referring twice to the same noun as subject and object (rather than using
a reflexive pronoun for the object) sounds just a bit creepy. “Vergio decided to cook Vergio a
special supper,” for example, sounds unnerving to a native English speaker.

Second Conditional
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:

= if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).
It has two uses. First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going
to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.

- If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
- If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
- She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
- She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not
true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:

- If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible
for me to call him).
- If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

How is this different from the first conditional?

This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot more
unlikely. For example:

(second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty bedrooms and a
swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real)
But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more likely
that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes)

UNIT 11

Past Passive

Affirmative Form Object + was / were + verb3 (past participle)

Question Form Was / Were + Object + verb3 (past participle)?

Something was done by someone at some time in the past.

Active: The teacher corrected the mistakes.

Passive: The mistakes were corrected by the teacher.

Active: Did the little boy sell all the candy bars?
Passive: Were all the candy bars sold by the little boy?
Active: Sherina didn't eat any apples.
Passive: No apples were eaten by Sherina.

Present Perfect with ‘yet’ and ‘already’

Already means that something happened earlier than we expected. With Present Perfect already
usually goes after have or has and before the main verb.

Examples:
- We've already had our breakfast.
- When are you going to do your homework?
- But I've already done it!
- Do you want a cup of coffee?
- No, thanks. I've already had one."

Yet means that something that we expected has happened or hasn't happened. We usually put it
at the end of a sentence.

Examples:
- Has the post arrived yet?
- Have you done your homework?
- Not yet.
- Haven't you got ready yet? Look at the time!