UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering
Program: Electronics Engineering

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)
Course/Subject: EE 531/L– Principles of Communication

Name of Teacher: Mary Jean A. Bantan

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT

FOR REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS
INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF
THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE
COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
Cover Page ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
Course Outline…………………………………………………………………………………………... 4
Course Outline Policy………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Course Information…………………………………………………………………………………… 7

Topic/ Activity
Unit Learning Outcomes- Unit 1…………………………………………………………………. 8
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a…………………………………………………………………..….. 8
Metalanguage…………………………………………………………………………………... 8
Essential Knowledge………………………………………………………………………… 9
Self-Help………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
In a Nutshell…………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Q & A List ………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
Keywords Index………………………………………………………………………………. 22
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b…………………………………………………………………..….. 23
Metalanguage…………………………………………………………………………………... 23
Essential Knowledge………………………………………………………………………… 23
Self-Help………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
In a Nutshell…………………………………………………………………………………….. 33
Q & A List ………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
Keywords Index………………………………………………………………………………. 34
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c…………………………………………………………………..….. 34
Metalanguage…………………………………………………………………………………... 34
Essential Knowledge………………………………………………………………………… 35
Self-Help………………………………………………………………………………………….. 48

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 In a Nutshell…………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
Q & A List ………………………………………………………………………………………… 52
Keywords Index………………………………………………………………………………. 52
Unit Learning Outcomes- Unit 2…………………………………………………………………. 53
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a…………………………………………………………………..….. 53
Metalanguage…………………………………………………………………………………... 53
Essential Knowledge………………………………………………………………………… 54
Self-Help………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
In a Nutshell…………………………………………………………………………………….. 71
Q & A List ………………………………………………………………………………………… 71
Keywords Index………………………………………………………………………………. 71
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b…………………………………………………………………..….. 72
Metalanguage…………………………………………………………………………………... 72
Essential Knowledge………………………………………………………………………… 73
Self-Help………………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
In a Nutshell…………………………………………………………………………………….. 83
Q & A List ………………………………………………………………………………………… 84
Keywords Index………………………………………………………………………………. 84

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Course Outline: EE 531 – Principles of Communications

Course Coordinator: Engr. Mary Jean A. Bantan

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: By online (LMS) or thru text, email, or calls
Mobile: 0942-9907484
Phone: (082) 296-1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: May 25, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 108 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3.0 units Lecture, 1.0 unit Laboratory
Attendance A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
Requirements: scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit lecture and 1-unit laboratory course self-
instructional manual is designed for blended learning
mode of instructional delivery with scheduled face to
face or virtual sessions. The expected number of hours
will be 108 including the face to face or virtual sessions.
The face to face sessions shall include the summative
assessment tasks (exams) since this course is crucial in
the licensure examination for teachers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task, the name of the course coordinator,
date of submission and name of the student. The
document should be emailed to the course coordinator.
It is also expected that you already paid your tuition and
other fees before the submission of the assessment
task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.

4
 Since this course is included in the licensure examination
for engineers, you will be required to take the Multiple-
Choice Question exam inside the University. This should
be scheduled ahead of time by your course coordinator.
This is non-negotiable for all licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission Resubmission of assignment will not be allowed in this
class.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program coordinator your intention to appeal or
contest the score given to an assessment task. The
letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points to
contest the grade. The program coordinator shall

5
 communicate with the students on the approval and
disapproval of the request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and
traditional contact

Lecture: 70 %
Course discussions/exercises –30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions

(TBA):

Final exam – 40%

Laboratory: 30%
A. Laboratory Performance/Written Report - 30%
B. Laboratory Experiment - 40%
C. Practical Exam – 30%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the

usual University system and procedures.
Referencing Style IEEE referencing style

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email

account which is a requirement to access the
BlackBoard portal. Then, the course coordinator
shall enroll the students to have access to the
materials and resources of the course. All
communication formats: chat, submission of
assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the
portal and other university recognized platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in

person through the scheduled face to face
sessions to raise your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student

email, please contact the course coordinator or
program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Canesares
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 local 133
6
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Rolieven P. Canizares
Head Email: [email protected]
Phone: 09286383164
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
the course coordinator with the approval of the
program coordinator may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
Help Desk Contact outcomes.
CEE BLACKBOARD ADMINISTRATOR
Engr. Jethron J. Adtoon
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 09055267834

CEE
Frida Santa O. Bacani
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: 09562082442
Phone: 082-2272902

LIC
Brigada E. Bacani
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: 0951-376-6681

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
Email: [email protected]
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
Email: [email protected]
09060757721

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello students! Imparting self-directed learning through on-line delivery is
very challenging but timely as we start this new educational system.
Welcome to this course EE531/L – Principles of Communication. This course
is about electronic communication, and how electrical, and electronic
principles, components, circuits, equipment, and systems facilitate and
improve our abilities to communicate.

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CO CO1. Explain basic principles and components of communication system.

CO2. Analyze the effect of noise, AM, SSB and FM Modulation/

Demodulation techniques that are typically used in electronic communication
systems.

CO3. Solve problems on noise, amplitude and angle modulation

transmitters and receivers and electromagnetic waves and polarization.

CO4. Perform hands-on laboratory exercises on the influence of noise in a

communication system, different modulation, and multiplexing techniques.

Let us begin!

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. explain the basic concepts and principles of electronic communication

systems and its elements,
b. describe the different types and sources of noise and its effect on the
electronic communication system, and
c. explain the principles of amplitude modulation

Big Picture in Focus

ULOa. Explain the basic concepts and principles of electronic

communication systems and its elements.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles, and concepts in the study of principles
of communication systems will be discussed to demonstrate ULOa. Please refer to the
definitions below as you will encounter these key terms and concepts as we through our
discussion.

1. Electronic Communication. The transmission, reception, and processing of

information between two or more locations using electronic circuits.

2. Information. The message or data that is being processed, transmitted, and received.
It is also referred as an intelligence, modulating signal or baseband signal.

3.Transmitter. An element of communications system that is responsible in converting

the original information into a signal compatible with the given communication channel.

8
4. Communication Medium. The path that the information travels from transmitter to the
receiver. It is also called as communication channel.

5. Receiver. An element of communications system that accepts the transmitted

message and converts it back into its original form.

6. Radio. A general term applied to any wireless communication from one point to
another.

6. Noise. A random signal that enters the communication channel and interferes the
transmitted signal.

7. Transducer. It converts physical characteristics (temperature, pressure, light intensity,

and so on) into electrical signals.

8. Transceiver. An equipment that incorporates both a transmitter and a receiver.

9. Cycle. It refers to each complete alternation of the waveform.

10. Channel. A specific band of frequencies allocated a particular service.

11. Modulation. It is the process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier
in accordance with the modulating signal.
12. Demodulation. The process of converting back the modulated signal into its original
form.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3)
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that
will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to
exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
research articles and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g.
ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.

Introduction to Electronic Communication Systems

Communications. It is the process of exchanging information from one person to
another. People communicate to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others. It
can be verbal, non-verbal (body language), print or electronic processes and the most
effective way of human communication is verbal (face to face). However, there are factors
that hinders the successful communication of two or more individuals, and these are
called the barriers to communication. The two main barriers to communication are
language and distance.

9
Language barrier occurs when there is a dissimilarity of language used especially of
different cultures or nationalities. Furthermore, communication over long distances from
the earlier times was a major problem in which people communicate by sending simple
signals like drumbeats, horn blast, and smoke signals then later it was done through
written word. However, as years passed, communication over long distances has
improved tremendously since the discovery of electricity. Shown below (Figure 1) is the
milestone of human and electronic communications.

Figure 1. Milestones of Human and Electronic Communications [1]

Elements of Communication Systems

The fundamental purpose of electronic communication system is to transfer information

from one place to another. Electronic communication is defined as the transmission,
reception, and processing of information between two or more locations using electronic
circuits. This information may be in a form of audio, video, or computer data and its
generation is the beginning of every communication process. Then it will be processed
by the different elements of communication system for it to be successfully sent and
received. The basic elements of electronic communications systems are the transmitter,
communication medium and the receiver as shown in figure 2.

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 Figure 2.A general model of all communications systems. [1]

Transmitter
❖ The first step in sending a message is to convert it into electronic form suitable
for transmission using a device called transducer. For example, a microphone is
used to convert the sound of a voice messages into an electronic audio signal
and in computer systems, the message is typed on a keyboard and converted to
binary codes that can be stored in memory or transmitted serially.
❖ Transmitter is designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for
transmission over a given communication medium. It is made up of oscillators,
amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency
synthesizers and other circuits. It encodes signals received and modulate the
signal to be compatible with the communication channel or medium. [1]
❖ It performs encoding and modulation.

Communication Channel
❖ The medium by which the electronic signal passes through and is sent from one
place to another. Nowadays, there are many different types of medium that are
used in communication systems. These include wire conductors, fiber-optic cable,
and free space (wireless).
❖ It is in the communication channel where noise; a random and undesirable
electrical energy enters the communication system and degrades the transmitted
information.

Receivers
❖ It accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into its
original form, it may be an audio signal sent to a speaker, or a binary data that is
received by a computer and then printed out or displayed on a video monitor.
❖ Receivers are made up of amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters,
and a demodulator or detector that is used to retrieve or recover the original
message or signal from the modulated carrier.
❖ It performs decoding and demodulation.

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Classifications Electronic Communication

1. Two basic types of electronic communication

a. One-way communications
➢ It is the simplest type of electronic communication where the information travels
in one direction only, examples are radio and television broadcasting, telemetry
system of satellite to earth, paging system, etc.
➢ It is also known as simplex.
b. Two-way communications.
➢ In two-way communications, information travels in both direction and there are
two forms of two-way communications and these are full-duplex, and half-
duplex.
b.1. Full duplex. In full-duplex communication, information travels in both
directions simultaneously. For example, two people communicating over the
telephone can talk and listen at the same time.

b.2. Half-duplex. It is a form of two-way communication in which the

communicating parties take turns in transmitting and receiving information.
Example is the radio communications used by military and BFP personnel.

2. Two types of signals

a. Analog Signal
➢ A time-varying voltage or currents that are continuously changing such as voice
signals, sine, and cosine waves.

A Sine Wave
b. Digital Signal.
➢ A signal (voltage or current) that change in discrete steps or levels which
mostly uses binary or two-state codes (on/off digital code).
➢ Example is a serial binary code as shown below,

3. Two types of transmission signals

a. Baseband signal.
➢ It is the original information signals (whether analog or digital) that can be sent
directly and unmodified over the medium.
➢ For example, in many telephone and intercom systems, it is the voice itself that
is placed on the wires and transmitted over some distance to the receiver.

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 b. Modulated Signal.
➢ A baseband signal that have undergone the process of modulation before it
can be transmitted.
➢ It is used for instances when baseband signal is incompatible with the
communication medium.
NOTE.
An ideal communication system would reproduce the information signal exactly
at the receiver, except for the inevitable time delay as it travels between
transmitter and receiver, and except, possibly, for a change in amplitude. Any
other changes constitute distortion. Any real system will have some distortion, of
course: part of the design process is to decide how much distortion, and of what
types, is acceptable. [2]

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum
❖ It refers to the range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies.
❖ It includes all electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free space.
Electromagnetic wave
❖ A radio frequency wave/signal that oscillates and it consist of both electric and
magnetic fields.
Frequency
❖ It refers to the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occurs in a certain period of
time. Furthermore, frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps) and has a unit
of hertz (Hz) which was named from the pioneer in the field of electromagnetics, a
German physicist, Heinrich Hertz.
Wavelength.
❖ It is the distance travelled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle
and it is usually expressed in meters.

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❖ To express frequencies, mathematically, prefixes with powers of 10 are commonly
used. Listed below are the frequently used prefixes:
k = kilo = 1000 = 103
M = Mega = 1,000,000 = 106
G = giga = 1,000,000,000 = 109
T = tera = 1,000,000,000,000 = 1012

❖ The wavelength of a signal can be calculated using the formula below:

𝒗
𝛌=
𝒇

where:
𝜆 = wavelength in meters (m)
v = velocity of propagation of the wave (m/s)
v = 3x108 m/s (for free space)
𝑓 = frequency of the wave in Hertz (Hz)

Example
Find the wavelength of (a) a 150-MHz, (b) a 340-MHz, (c) an 8-MHz, and (d) a 750-kHz
signal.

Solution:

❖ Just substitute the given in the formula directly.

300 𝑥 106
a. λ = 150 𝑥 106 = 𝟐𝒎

300 𝑥 106
b. λ = 430 𝑥 106 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟖𝒎

300 𝑥 106
c. λ = = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝒎
8 𝑥 106

300 𝑥 106
d. λ = = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
750 𝑥 103

Example
What is the frequency of a signal with a wavelength of 1.5m?

Solution:
𝒗 𝒗
Since 𝛌= then 𝒇=
𝒇 𝛌

300 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠

Therefore, 𝑓= = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 MHz
1.5 𝑚

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Example
The maximum peaks of an electromagnetic wave are separated by a distance of 8 in.
What is the frequency in megahertz?

Solution:
❖ First, convert inches into meters,
where: 1 m = 39.37 in
1𝑚
thus, 8 𝑖𝑛 = 8 𝑥 39.37 𝑖𝑛 = 0.203 𝑚

then, substitute in the formula for frequency

300 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠

𝑓= = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟕. 𝟖 𝑴𝑯𝒛
0.203 𝑚

The electromagnetic spectrum that are used in electronic communications are as

follows:
Frequency Frequency Wavelength Wavelength
Designation Range Range Designation

Extremely Low 30 – 300Hz 10^7 – 10^5

Frequency (ELF) m
Voice Frequency 300 – 3000 Hz 10^6 – 10^5
(VF) m
Very Low 3 – 30 kHz 10^5 –10^4
Frequency (VLF) m
Low Frequency 30 -300 kHz 10^4 -10^3 m
(LF)
Medium 300 kHz – 3 100m – 1km Medium Waves
Frequency (MF) MHz m
High Frequency 3 – 30 MHz 10 – 100 m Short Waves
(HF)

Very High 30 -300 MHz 1 -10 m

Frequency (VHF)

Ultra-High 300MHz – 3 Ghz 10cm -1 m

Frequency (UHF)
Super High 3 – 30 GHz 1–100 cm Microwaves
Frequency (SHF) (microwaves region
conventionally starts
at 1 GHz)
15
 Extremely High 30 – 300GHz 1 mm – 1 cm Millimeter Waves
Frequency (EHF)
Infrared -------- 0.7 – 10
micrometers
The visible -------- 0.4 – 0.8
spectrum micrometer

Applications for each segment of the frequency spectrum

❖ Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF).

➢ This type of frequency range includes the ac power line frequencies with 50 and
60-Hz (the most common).
➢ Low end of the human audio also belongs to this range.

❖ Voice Frequencies (VFs).

➢ The normal frequency range of human speech. Note that human hearing extends
from approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz.

❖ Very Low Frequencies (VLFs).

➢ This range includes the higher end of the human hearing.
➢ Additionally, some musical instruments make sounds in this range.
➢ It is also used in some government and military communication.

❖ Low Frequency (LF).

➢ This range of frequencies is used in aeronautical and marine navigation.
➢ Also, the frequencies in this range are used as subcarriers.
➢ LORAN-C (100 kHz)
➢ DECCA Navigation System (70 kHz, 129 kHz)

16
❖ Medium Frequency (MF).
➢ This range are usually used in an AM radio broadcasting which has a range of 535
to 1605-kHz.

❖ High Frequencies (HFs).

➢ These frequencies are generally referred as short waves.
➢ All kinds of simplex broadcasting and half duplex two-way radio communication
take place in this range.

❖ Very High Frequencies (VHFs).

➢ This range are usually used in FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108-MHz), and
➢ television channels 2 through 13.

❖ Ultrahigh Frequency (UHF).

➢ These frequencies are used by UHF TV channels 14 to 51.
➢ Used also for land mobile communication and services such as cellular phones.
➢ Some radar and navigation services.
Superhigh Frequency (SHFs) and Microwave.
➢ SHFs are mostly used for satellite communication and radar
➢ Wireless local-area networks
➢ Some cellular phone systems.

 Note that frequencies between the 1000-MHz (1-GHz) and 30-GHz range are
called microwaves.

❖ Extremely High Frequencies (EHFs)

➢ It is referred as millimeter waves.
➢ Satellite communications and specialized radar
➢ Radio Astronomy and
➢ Remote sensing

❖ Infrared
➢ Infrared radiation is associated with heat and is produced by physical equipment
that generates heat.
➢ Guidance in weapon system
➢ TV remote control
➢ It is the bases for all fiber-optic communication.

❖ Visible Spectrum.
➢ Referred as light which can also be transmitted through free space.

17
Bandwidth
❖ It is the range of frequencies that contain the information. Furthermore, it is the
difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal’s operation
range. And it is expressed as,

𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏

where:
𝑓2 = the upper frequency
𝑓1 = lower frequency

Example
A commonly used frequency range is 902 to 928 MHz. What is the width of this band?

Solution:
 Just substitute the given directly in the formula,
The given are:
𝑓1 = 902 MHz
𝑓2 = 928 MHz
thus,
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 = 928 MHz – 902 MHz = 26 MHz
Example
A television signal occupies a 6-MHz bandwidth. If the low-frequency limit of channel 2 is
54 MHz, what is the upper-frequency limit?

Solution:
 The given are:
BW = 54 MHz
𝑓1 = 6 MHz
thus,
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
𝑓2 = BW + 𝑓1 = 6 + 54 = 60 MHz

Channel Bandwidth
❖ This refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the desired information.
Note:
❖ Different signals transmitting on the same frequency or on overlapping frequencies
will interfere with one another and will cause distortion to each other. Thus, a limited
number of signals can be transmitted in the frequency spectrum.

18
 Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

[1] L. Frenzel Jr., Principles of electronic communication systems, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill Education, 2016.

[2] R. Blake, Electronic communication systems, 2nd ed., New York: Albany: Delmar/Thomson
Learning, 2002.

[3] Ziemer, R. and Tranter, W., Principles of communications: System, modulation and noise,,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015.

Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms in the study of the principles of
electronic communication, let us try to check your understanding. In the space provided,
supply the answer/s being asked in the following statements:

_________1. Communication is the process of ________.

_________2. This type of electronic communication is a simultaneous two-way
communication.
_________3. This is the process of modifying a high-frequency carrier with the
information to be transmitted.
_________4. This refers to the frequency range which an information signal is
transmitted.
_________5. An electronic instrument used to show both the carrier and the sidebands
of a modulated signal in the frequency domain.
_________6. What frequency range does an AM radio broadcasting belong?
_________7. It is the width of frequencies within the spectrum occupied by a signal and
used by the signal for conveying information.
_________8. This is an element of communication that performs encoding and
modulating.
_________9. It is a random, undesirable electric energy that enters the communications
system and interferes with the transmitted message.

_________10. What does AM stands for?

_________11. Suppose that a voice frequency of 400 Hz is transmitted using
transmitteroperating at 800 MHz. Which of these is: (a) the information frequency? (b)
the carrier frequency?
19
For items 12-15: Give the frequency designation for each of the following systems:
________12. Marine radio at 160 MHz
________13. Cell phones at 800 MHz
________14. Direct-to-home satellite television at 12 GHz
________15. CB radio at 27 MHz

Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Having known the basic formulas and calculations in the study of principles of
electronic communication, evaluate the following:

1. What is the frequency of a signal with a wavelength of 3 m?

2. A signal travels a distance of 75 ft. in the time it takes to complete 1 cycle. What is its
frequency?

3. The maximum peaks of an electromagnetic wave are separated by a distance of 10 in.

What is the frequency in gigahertz?

20
4. Find the wavelength of a signal that has a frequency of 1.9 GHz.

5. What is the width of the band that has a frequency range of 169 MHZ to 316 MHz?

In a Nutshell

The study of electronic communication systems is indeed an important milestone for an

electronics engineering student as it is the introductory course in mastering the field of
electronics engineering specifically in the field of communications.
Based on the basic principles of electronic communications in the learning exercises that
you have done, please write your answer below to assess your learning from the lesson.

List five common communication medium used in electronic communication and their
usage.
Example: coaxial cable – used to carry TV signals.

Your Answer
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

21
List real-life application of each of the frequency ranges discussed which is not included
in the example given.

Your Answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Explain the differences among simplex, half-duplex, and full duplex.

Your Answer

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Q&A List

Questions/Issues Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Electronic communication Analog signal

Digital signal Baseband
Intelligence Frequency
Frequency spectrum Simplex
Duplex Noise
Transmitter Receiver
Channel Wavelength

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 Big Picture in Focus

ULOb. Describe the different types and sources of noise and its effect
on the electronic communication system.

Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULOb, you will need to have an operational
understanding on the following terms below. Please note that you will also be required
to refer to the previous definitions found in ULOa section.

1. Noise. It refers to any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the information
signal.
2. Correlated noise. A form of internal noise that is mutually related to the signal and
cannot be present in a circuit unless there is a signal.
3. Uncorrelated noise. Noise that is present in the communication system regardless
of whether there is signal present or not.
4. Noise blanking. A technique used in communication system where the receiver is
disabled for the duration of lighting burst.
5. Signal-to-noise ratio. It is the ratio between the signal power and noise power at
some point in a communication system.
6. Noise power density. The power in a one-hertz bandwidth due to a noise source.
6.White Noise. Noise containing all frequencies with equal power in every Hertz of
bandwidth.
7. Thermal Noise. Noise associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation.
8. Atmospheric noise. Noise that is naturally occurring electrical disturbances that
originate within Earth’s atmosphere.

Essential Knowledge

Noise
❖ It is defined as any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere with the
proper reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.

❖ Note that it is not sufficient to transmit a signal from the transmitter to the receiver if
the noise that accompanies it is strong enough to prevent it from being understood.

23
 Two general classification of noise

1. Internal noise
➢ Noise generated by components within a communication system, such as
resistors and solid-state active devices.
2. External noise
➢ Noise from sources outside a communication system, including atmospheric,
man-made, and extraterrestrial sources.

Types of internal noise

1. Thermal agitation noise

➢ It is also called as White, Johnson, or Gaussian noise. This is generated in a
resistive component due to the rapid and random motion of molecules (atoms
and electrons) inside the component itself.
2. Shot Noise
➢ It is due to random variations in current flow in active devices such as tubes,
transistors, and semiconductors.
3. Partition noise
➢ It occurs whenever current has to divide between two or more electrodes and
results from the random fluctuations in the division

4. Transit-time noise
➢ It occurs when the time taken by charge carriers to cross a junction is
comparable to the period of the signal.

Types of external noise

1. Atmospheric noise
➢ It is called “static noise”, is caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms
and other natural electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere and to
improve communication noise blanking is applied.
➢ This type of noise is insignificant above 30 MHz
2. Extraterrestrial noise
2.1. Solar noise
➢ This is an electrical disturbance due to solar cycle activities.
➢ This can be a problem in satellite reception.
2.2. Cosmic noise
➢ RF noise radiated by distant stars and this is also known as black-body
noise.
24
 3. Industrial noise
➢ A man-made noise usually between 1 to 600 MHz usually most intense in
industrial and densely populated areas. It is more severe at lower
frequencies.

Thermal Noise Power

❖ The formula for thermal noise power is:

𝑷𝒏 = 𝒌𝑻𝑩
where:
Pn = noise power in watts
k = Boltzmann’s constant
=1.38 × 10−23 Joules/kelvin (J/K)
= constant 25 in the calculator
T = temperature in Kelvins (K)
B = noise power bandwidth in Hertz (Hz)

Example
A resistor at a temperature of 25 °C is connected across the input of an amplifier with
bandwidth of 50 kHz. How much noise does the resistor supply to the input of the
amplifier?

Solution:
 From the problem, the given are:
𝑇 = 25°C
𝐵 = 50 𝑘𝐻𝑧

 Since temperature should be in Kelvin, recall that to convert degree Celsius (°C)
to Kelvin (K), we use the following conversion:

T (in Kelvin) = T(°C) + 273

thus T = 25°C + 273 = 298 K

 Then substitute the corresponding values of the parameters above in the formula
for thermal noise power,

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵 = (1.38 × 10 −23 𝐽/𝐾)(298 K)(50 𝑘𝐻𝑧)

𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟓 𝒇𝑾

Noise Voltage
❖ It involves not only temperature and bandwidth like that of noise power, but on
resistances as well. It is mathematically expressed as:
25
 𝑽𝒏 = √𝟒𝒌𝑻𝑩𝑹

where:
Vn = noise voltage in Volts
k = Boltzmann’s constant
=1.38 × 10−23 Joules/kelvin (J/K)
= constant 25 in the calculator
T = temperature in Kelvins
B = noise power bandwidth in Hertz
R = resistance in Ohms (Ω)

Example
Two resistors 20kΩ and 50kΩ are connected in parallel are at ambient temperature with
bandwidth of 100kHz. Calculate for the thermal noise voltage.

Solution:

 Since there two resistors connected in parallel, let’s calculate the equivalent total
resistance first,
(𝑹𝟏 )(𝑹𝟐 ) (𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝜴)(𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝜴)
𝑹𝑻 = = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟖𝟔 𝒌𝜴
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝜴+𝟓𝟎𝒌𝜴

 If there is no temperature given, assume that T = 290 K

 Substituting the corresponding values into the formula, we get

𝑉𝑛 = √4𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑅 = √4(1.38 × 10 −23 𝐽/𝐾)(290 K)(100 𝑘𝐻𝑧)(14. 286 𝑘𝛺)

𝑽𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒐𝒓 𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 𝝁𝑽

Noise Current
❖ The formula is:

𝑰𝒏 = √𝟐𝒒𝑰𝒐 𝑩

where:
In = noise current in amperes
q = electron charge
=1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb
= constant 23 in the calculator
Io = dc bias current in the device, in amperes
B = bandwidth over which the noise is observed, in Hertz

26
Example
A diode noise generator is required to produce 10μV of noise in a receiver with an input
impedance of 75Ω, resistive, and a noise power bandwidth of 200kHz. What must the
current through the diode be?

Solution:

 The formula is,

𝑰𝒏 = √𝟐𝒒𝑰𝒐 𝑩

 From Ohm’s Law, the formula above becomes

𝑉𝑛
𝐼𝑛 = = √2𝑞𝐼𝑜 𝐵
𝑅
10μV
= √2(1.602 × 10 −19 )𝐼𝑜 (200 𝑘𝐻𝑧)
75Ω

𝑰𝒐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝑨

Addition of noise from different sources

 For voltage (in series), the total equivalent total noise voltage is,

𝑽𝒏𝒕 = √(𝑽𝒏𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝑽𝒏𝟐 )𝟐 + +(𝑽𝒏𝟑 )𝟐 +. . .

 For current (in parallel), the total equivalent total noise current is,

𝑰𝒏𝒕 = √(𝑰𝒏𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝑰𝒏𝟐 )𝟐 + +(𝑰𝒏𝟑 )𝟐 +. . .

Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)

❖ The relative strength of the desired signal power to the noise power measured at
the same point.
❖ The basis for a great deal of work that goes into the design of a communications
system is keeping the ratio between signal and noise sufficiently high
❖ Two basic ways to improve S/N:
 increase the signal power, and
 reduce the noise power

27
 ❖ The formula to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio is:

𝑺 𝑷𝒔 𝑽 𝟐
= = ( 𝒔)
𝑵 𝑷𝒏 𝑽 𝒏

❖ In decibel,

𝑺 𝑷𝒔 𝑽𝒔 𝟐 𝑽𝒔
(𝒅𝑩) = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( ) = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑵 𝑷𝒏 𝑽𝒏 𝑽𝒏

Example
Suppose the noise power at the input to a receiver is 5nW in the bandwidth of interest.
What would be the required signal power for a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB?

Solution:
 First convert S/N in dB into ratio,
𝑆 𝑆
(𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑁 𝑁
𝑆
30 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑁
𝑆
= 1000
𝑁
 Thus,
𝑆 𝑃𝑠
=
𝑁 𝑃𝑛

𝑃𝑠
1000 =
5𝑥10−9 𝑊

𝑷𝒔 = 𝟓 𝝁𝑾
Example
The signal voltage at the input of an amplifier is 65 𝜇𝑉, and the noise voltage is 15 𝜇𝑉.
Find the signal-to-noise ratio in dB.

Solution:
 Since the given are signal voltage and noise voltage, thus use the formula
𝑆 65𝜇𝑉
(𝑑𝐵) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑁 15𝜇𝑉

28
 𝑺
(𝒅𝑩) = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝟑𝟔 𝒅𝑩
𝑵

Noise Factor and Noise Figure

❖ It describes the way in which a device adds noise to a signal and thereby
degrades S/N.

❖ Noise factor:
(𝑺/𝑵)𝒊
𝑵𝑭 =
(𝑺/𝑵)𝒐

where:

(𝑺/𝑵)𝒊= signal-to-noise ratio at the input

(𝑺/𝑵)𝒐 = signal-to-noise ratio at the output

❖ Noise Figure
➢ It is simply a noise factor in dB.
(𝑺/𝑵)𝒊
𝑵𝑭 (𝒅𝑩) = 𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠
(𝑺/𝑵)𝒐

❖ Note:
 Noise factor is a ratio; thus, it is unitless.
 Noise figure is in dB.
Total Noise figure
➢ For devices with multiple stages (cascaded network):
𝑵𝑭𝟐 − 𝟏 𝑵𝑭𝟑 − 𝟏
𝑵𝑭𝑻 = 𝑵𝑭𝟏 + + +. ..
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐

where:
NFT = total noise figure for the system
NF1 = noise figure of the first stage
NF2 = noise figure of the second stage
A1 = gain of the first stage
A2 = gain of the second stage

Note: All parameters should be expressed in ratio. If the given is expressed in dB,
convert it first into ratio before substituting it in the formula above.
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Noise Temperature

𝑻𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝟗𝟎 (𝑵𝑭 − 𝟏)

where:
Teq = equivalent noise temperature in
kelvins (K)
NF = noise factor

Noise power Density

𝑵𝒐 = 𝒌𝑻
where:
No = noise power density in watts per
hertz (W/Hz)
k = Boltzmann’s constant
k = 1.38 × 10−23 joules/kelvin (J/K)
T = temperature in kelvins (K)

Example:
A three-stage amplifier has stages with the following specifications. Gain
and noise factor are given as ratios.

Stage Power Gain Noise Factor

1 10 2
2 25 4
3 30 5
Calculate the total power gain in decibels, noise figure, and equivalent noise
temperature
for the whole amplifier.

Solution:
❖ For the total gain:

𝐴𝑇 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐴1 𝑥 𝐴2 𝑥 𝐴3 𝑥. . . 𝑥𝐴𝑛 ) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔(10𝑥25𝑥30) = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝒅𝑩

❖ For the noise figure:

Calculate first the total noise factor (𝑁𝐹𝑇 ):

𝑁𝐹2 − 1 𝑁𝐹3 − 1
𝑁𝐹𝑇 = 𝑁𝐹1 + + +. ..
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2

30
 4−1 5−1
𝑁𝐹𝑇 = 2 + +
10 (10)(25)

𝑵𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝟏
❖ Thus, noise figure is:

𝑵𝑭 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁𝐹𝑇 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔2.361 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟓 𝒅𝑩

❖ The equivalent noise temperature is:

𝑇𝑒𝑞 = 290 (𝑁𝐹 − 1)

𝑇𝑒𝑞 = 290(2.361 − 1)

𝑻𝒆𝒒 = 𝟑𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 𝑲

Example
A resistor has a noise temperature of 300K. Find the noise power density.

Solution:
𝑵𝒐 = 𝑘𝑇 = (1.38 × 10 −23 𝐽/𝐾)(300 𝐾) = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟐𝟏 𝑾/𝑯𝒛

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

[1] L. Frenzel Jr., Principles of electronic communication systems, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill Education, 2016.

[2] R. Blake, Electronic communication systems, 2nd ed., New York: Albany: Delmar/Thomson
Learning, 2002.

[3] Ziemer, R. and Tranter, W., Principles of communications: System, modulation and noise,,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015.

Let’s Check

Activity 1. In the space provided, supply the answer/s being asked in the following
statements:

__________ 1. Shot noise is generated in __________.

__________ 2. It is considered as the main source of an internal noise.
__________ 3. It is also referred to as Gaussian noise.
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__________ 4. Noise figure is noise facto in ____.
__________ 5. _____ is a noise caused by lightning discharges.

Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Evaluate the following problems using the principles you have learned in the
previous discussion.

1. Two resistors, 10kOhm and 25kOhm, are at 25 °C. Calculate the thermal noise power
and noise voltage for a 10 kHz bandwidth.
a. for each resistor
b. for their series combination
c. for their parallel combination

2. Determine the overall noise figure in dB for three cascaded amplifiers with the
following parameters:
A1=10dB, A2=10dB, A3= 10dB
NF1= 3dB, NF2= 3dB, NF3= 3dB

32
In a Nutshell

Communication is an integral part of every human being’s existence. It is very important

that the information transmitted by the sender is received by the intended receiver
successfully with no to minimal distortion. But it is inevitable that in every communication
system there is noise that enters the system from a variety of sources. In the space below,
discuss the effects of noise in the entire electronic communication process.

Example:
Noise degrades the signal thus reducing the quality of the communication process.

Your answer
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Q&A List

Questions/Issues Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Noise Noise density

Interference Thermal noise
Noise factor Internal noise
External noise Noise figure
Industrial noise White noise
Boltzmann’s constant Atmospheric noise
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Big Picture in Focus

ULOc. Explain the principles of amplitude modulation.

Metalanguage

In this section, the concepts and principles of amplitude modulation will be

explained to demonstrate ULOc. But before we proceed with our discussion proper,
please refer to the definitions below first as you will encounter these key terms and
concepts as we go through with our discussion later.

1. Modulation. The process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier in
proportion with information.
2. Amplitude modulation (AM). A modulation technique where the information signal is
analog, and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal.
3. Carrier. It is a high-frequency signal used to carry information from source to
destination.
4. Time domain. The representation of a signal as a function of time and some
other parameter, such as voltage.
34
5. Modulating signal. The information signal that is used to modulate a carrier for
transmission
6. Bandwidth. it refers to the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
contained in the information.
7. Modulator. It refers to the circuit in the transmitter where modulation is performed.
8. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). An independent agency in United
States that controls the allocation of frequencies and services within the overall
frequency spectrum.
9. Angle modulation. It is the general term that refers to both frequency modulation
and phase modulation of s transmitted signal.
10. Overmodulation. It refers to the modulation that is greater than what is allowed for
either technical or regulatory reasons.
11. Splatter. The frequency components produced by a transmitter that fall outside its
assigned channel.
12. Sideband. A group of side frequencies above or below the carrier frequency.

Essential Knowledge

Modulation
❖ In the modulation process, the baseband voice, video, or digital signal modifies
another, higher-frequency signal called the carrier, which is usually a sine wave. [1]
❖ Modulation either modifies the amplitude, the frequency, or the phase of the signal
(carrier).
Types of Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2. Angle Modulation
2.1. Frequency Modulation
2.2. Phase Modulation
In this section, we will focus on amplitude modulation.

Amplitude modulation

❖ It is the process of changing the AMPLITUDE of a relatively high frequency carrier

signal in accordance with the magnitude of the modulating signal(information).
❖ In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the modulating signal (information)
changes the amplitude of the carrier signal while the frequency of the signal
remains unchanged.
35
❖ The amount of variation depends on the magnitude of the modulating signal. If the
amplitude of the modulating signal increases, the amplitude of the carrier signal also
increases or if the modulating signal decreases, the carrier signal also decreases. In
other words, in AM the carrier signal changes in accordance with the modulating
signal.
Envelope
❖ An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks and negative peaks of the carrier
waveform which gives the exact shape of the modulating information signal.
Time domain
❖ It refers to the variations of the signal (voltage or current) that occur over time.
Oscilloscope
❖ The equipment that reads and displays the time domain signal.
Modulator
❖ It is the circuit used to produce AM.
Two points/inputs of Modulator
1. Modulating signal
2. Carrier

Figure 3.

❖ Figure 3 above shows (a) a baseband signal consisting of a 1-kHz sine wave; (b) the
10-kHz carrier signal, and (c) the amplitude-modulated signal [2]

36
 Figure 4. A simplified method of representing an AM high-frequency sine wave. [1]

❖ The sine wave of the carrier can be expressed as:

𝒗𝒄 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

❖ The sine wave of the modulating signal can be expressed as:

𝒗𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕

where:
𝑣𝑐 = instantaneous value of the carrier sine wave
𝑉𝑐 = peak value of the unmodulated carrier
𝑓𝑐 = frequency of the carrier in Hertz (Hz)
𝑣𝑚 = instantaneous value of the information signal
𝑉𝑚 = peak amplitude of the information signal
𝑓𝑚 = frequency of the modulating signal in Hertz (Hz)

❖ The instantaneous value of the AM signal:

𝒗𝑨𝑴 = (𝑽𝒄 + 𝒗𝒎 ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

Substituting 𝒗𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕 into the equation above, we get

𝒗𝑨𝑴 = (𝑽𝒄 + 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒄 𝒕

where:
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = instantaneous amplitude of the modulated signal in volts (V)
𝑽𝒄 = peak amplitude of the carrier in volts (V)
𝑽𝒎 = peak amplitude of the modulating signal in volts (V)
𝝎𝒎 = the angular frequency of the modulating signal in radians per second
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎
37
 𝝎𝒄 = the angular frequency of the carrier in radians per second (rad/s)
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄
𝒕 = time in seconds

❖ The sine wave of the AM signal can also be expressed as:

Using double angle

𝑽𝒎
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + {𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝝅(𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 ) 𝒕 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅(𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 ) 𝒕} identity of trigonometric
𝟐 functions

or

𝑽𝒎
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + {cos(𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 ) 𝒕 −cos(𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 ) 𝒕}
𝟐

Example
A carrier with an RMS voltage of 2 V and a frequency of 1.5 MHz is modulated
by a sine wave with a frequency of 500 Hz and amplitude of 1 V RMS. Write the
equation for the resulting signal.

Solution:
❖ Since the given voltages are in RMS, let’s convert it first to voltage in peak. Recall
that to convert RMS to peak, we use
𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 =
√𝟐
thus,
𝑽𝒄 = 2√2 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟖 𝑽
𝑽𝒎 = 1√2 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 𝑽

then substitute in the formula of instantaneous AM signal, we get

𝒗𝑨𝑴 = [𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟖 + 1.414 sin 2𝝅(500t)] sin 2𝝅(𝟏. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒕) V or

𝟏. 𝟒𝟏
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗. 𝟒𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒕 + {𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟗. 𝟒𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 − 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) 𝒕 −𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟗. 𝟒𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 + 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) 𝒕}
𝟐

Modulation Index (m)

❖ It describes how much the amplitude of an AM waveform change.
❖ It refers to the ratio between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and the carrier.
❖ It is also known as coefficient of modulation or depth of modulation.
❖ The formulas used to get the modulation index are:

38
 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 −𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒎
𝒎= or 𝒎=
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 +𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒄

Figure 5. An AM wave showing peaks (Vmax) and troughs (Vmin). [1]

Percent Modulation (%M)

❖ The formula is:
%𝑴 = 𝒎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

where:
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = refers to the maximum amplitude of the AM signal
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = refers to the minimum amplitude of the AM signal

Example
Calculate the modulating index for the signal of the previous example.

Solution:

𝑽𝒎 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
𝒎= = = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑽𝒄 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟖

Example 3
Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax(p-p) value read from the graticule on the
oscilloscope screen is 5.9 divisions and Vmin (p-p) is 1.2 divisions.
a. What is the modulation index?
b. Calculate 𝑽𝒄 , 𝑽𝒎 and m if the vertical scale is 2V per division.

Solution:
𝑽 −𝑽 𝟓.𝟗−𝟏.𝟐
a. 𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 +𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓.𝟗+𝟏.𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟐
𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒎𝒊𝒏

39
 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 +𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟓.𝟗+𝟏.𝟐
b. 𝑽𝒄 = = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓 𝒅𝒊𝒗.
𝟐 𝟐

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟓. 𝟗 − 𝟏. 𝟐
𝑽𝒎 = = = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝒊𝒗.
𝟐 𝟐

since, the vertical scale is 1.2 per divisions, thus

𝟐𝑽
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟓 𝒅𝒊𝒗. ( ) = 𝟕. 𝟏 𝑽
𝒅𝒊𝒗.

𝟐𝑽
𝑽𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝒊𝒗. ( ) = 𝟒. 𝟕𝑽
𝒅𝒊𝒗.
𝑽𝒎 𝟒. 𝟕
𝒎= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟐
𝑽𝒄 𝟕. 𝟏

Important characteristics of AM

❖ The ideal condition for AM is when Vm = Vc or m = 1, which gives 100 percent

modulation.
❖ This results in the greatest output power at the transmitter and the greatest output
voltage at the receiver, with no distortion.
❖ In general, the amplitude of the modulating signal should be less than the amplitude
of the carrier, Vm < Vc.
❖ Otherwise, overmodulation will occur.
Overmodulation
❖ It occurs when the modulation index is greater than one (1), (Vm > Vc)
❖ It creates distortion in the demodulated signal and may result in the signal occupying
a larger bandwidth than normal (splatter).
Note:
Distortion caused by overmodulation also produces adjacent channel interference
Automatic circuits called compression circuits solve this problem by amplifying the lower
level signals and suppressing the higher-level signals. The result is a higher power
output level without overmodulation. [2]

❖ For multiple modulating frequencies, the equivalent modulation index is,

𝒎𝑻 = √𝒎𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒎𝒏 𝟐

where:
mT = total resultant modulation index

40
 m1, m2, mn = modulation indices due to the individual modulating
components

Example 3
Find the modulation index if a 10-volt carrier is amplitude modulated by three different
frequencies, with amplitudes of 1, 2, and 3 volts respectively.

Solution:
𝑽
since modulation index is calculated using 𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 , thus
𝒄

𝑚 𝑇 = √𝑚1 2 + 𝑚2 2 + 𝑚3 2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 2

𝑉𝑚1 2 𝑉𝑚2 2 𝑉𝑚3 2 1 2 2 2 3 2

√
𝑚𝑇 = ( ) +( ) +( √
) = ( ) +( ) +( )
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 10 10 10

1 2 2 2 3 2
√
𝒎𝑻 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟒
10 10 10

❖ Expanding the instantaneous voltage equation of AM further, we get

𝒎𝑽𝒄 𝒎𝑽𝒄
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 ) 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 ) 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

or
𝒎𝑽𝒄 𝒎𝑽𝒄
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅(𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 ) 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅(𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 ) 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

where:
𝑽𝒎
𝑚𝑉𝑐 substituted 𝑉𝑚 , since 𝒎 = 𝑽𝒄
𝒎𝑽𝒄
= the amplitude of the upper/lower sideband
𝟐
𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 = the lower sideband
𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 = the upper sideband

❖ As you have noticed, the resulting equation is now consisting of three distinct
components:
• the original carrier
• a sinusoidal wave below the carrier also known as the lower sideband
• a sinusoidal wave above the carrier also known as the upper sideband

41
 𝒎𝑽𝒄 𝒎𝑽𝒄
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒄 − 𝝎𝒎 ) 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒄 + 𝝎𝒎 ) 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

the original carrier the lower sideband the upper sideband

AM in the frequency domain

❖ Frequency domain. It is the method of analyzing signals by observing on a power-

frequency plain.
❖ Spectrum Analyzer. It is the equipment that measures and displays the signal in a
frequency domain.

❖ The corresponding AM signal in frequency domain is shown in the figure below,

Figure 6. Frequency domain representation of AM. [2]

❖ The separation of each sideband from the carrier is equal to the modulating
frequency, thus
❖ The frequency of the upper sideband is,
𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒃 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎

❖ The frequency of the lower sideband is,

𝒇𝒍𝒔𝒃 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎

❖ The amplitude of the sidebands are,

𝒎𝑽𝒄
𝑽𝒖𝒔𝒃 = 𝑽𝒍𝒔𝒃 = 𝟐

42
 where:
𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒃 = upper sideband frequency
𝒇𝒍𝒔𝒃 = lower sideband frequency
𝑽𝒖𝒔𝒃 = peak voltage of the upper sideband
𝑽𝒍𝒔𝒃 = peak voltage of the lower sideband

Example
An AM signal has the equation:
𝒗𝑨𝑴 = (𝟐𝟓 + 𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒕)) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟒𝟔. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒕)) 𝑽

a. Find the carrier frequency

b. Find the frequency of the modulating signal
c. Find the value of m
d. What are the frequency components comprising the AM signal?
e. Sketch the signal in the frequency domain.

Solution:
a. From the equation,
𝝎𝒄 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 , and since 𝝎𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄

𝝎 𝟒𝟔.𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔
thus 𝒇𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒄 = = 𝟕. 𝟒 𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝟐𝝅

𝝎𝒎 𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑
b. 𝒇𝒎 = = = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅

𝑽𝒎 𝟓
c. 𝒎 = = 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑽𝒄

d. The frequency components are the carrier frequency, upper sideband, and the
lower sideband, thus

𝒇𝒄 = 𝟕. 𝟒 𝑴𝑯𝒛 , which we already calculated above

𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒃 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟕. 𝟒 𝑴𝑯𝒛 + 𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑯𝒛

𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒃 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟎𝟕𝑴𝑯𝒛

𝒇𝒍𝒔𝒃 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟕. 𝟒 𝑴𝑯𝒛 − 𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑯𝒛

𝒇𝒍𝒔𝒃 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟗𝟑 𝑴𝑯𝒛

43
Bandwidth
❖ It is the most important characteristics of any modulation scheme. The desirable
bandwidth is narrow because it allows more signals to be transmitted simultaneously
and less noise enters the communication system thus increasing the signal-to-noise
ratio.
❖ For AM, the bandwidth is:

𝑩 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎

where:
B = bandwidth in hertz
𝒇𝒎 = highest modulating frequency in Hertz

Example
Citizen’s band radio channels are 10kHz wide. What is the maximum modulation
frequency that can be used if a signal is to remain entirely within its assigned channel?

Solution:
𝑩 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎 substituting the given bandwidth, we get
𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎

thus,
𝟏𝟎𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝒎 = = 𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝟓

Important facts about Amplitude Modulation

❖ An AM broadcast station has a total bandwidth of 10 kHz.

❖ AM broadcast stations are spaced every 10kHz across the station from 540kHz to
1600kHz.
❖ The sidebands from the first AM broadcast frequency extend down to 535kHz and
up to 545kHz.
❖ The highest channel frequency is 1600kHz, with sidebands extending from 1595kHz
up to 1605kHz.
❖ There is a total of 107 10kHz-wide channels for AM radio stations.

Example
A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating frequencies up to
5kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a frequency of 980kHz, compute the maximum
and minimum upper and lower sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM
station.

44
Solution:

❖ The upper and lower sidebands are:

𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒃 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛 + 𝟓𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟗𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛

𝒇𝒍𝒔𝒃 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛 − 𝟓𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟗𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛

❖ And the bandwidth is:

𝑩 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎 = 𝟐(𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛) = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛

or
𝑩 = 𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒃 − 𝒇𝒍𝒔𝒃 = 𝟗𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛 − 𝟗𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛

AM Power Distribution

❖ In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a power amplifier and fed to the
antenna with a characteristic impedance that is ideally, but not necessarily, almost
pure resistance. The AM signal is really a composite of several signal voltages,
namely, the carrier and the two sidebands, and each of these signals produces
power in the antenna. The total transmitted power PT is simply the sum of the carrier
power Pc and the power in the two sidebands PUSB and PLSB. [1]
❖ Mathematically, the total AM power is expressed as:

𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝒄 + 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 +𝑷𝒍𝒔𝒃

Note: For power calculations, rms values must be used for the voltages.
❖ We can calculate the carrier and sideband powers by using the power formula
which is:
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
where:
𝑷 = the output power
𝑽 = the rms output voltage
𝑹 = the resistive part of the load impedance
thus,
𝟐
(𝑽𝒄 /√𝟐) 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
𝑷𝒄 = =
𝑹 𝟐𝑹

45
 𝟐
(𝑽𝒎 /𝟐√𝟐) 𝑽𝒎 𝟐
𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 = 𝑷𝒍𝒔𝒃 = =
𝑹 𝟖𝑹

❖ Substituting this to the formula for total power, we get

𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝒄 + 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 +𝑷𝒍𝒔𝒃

𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝑽 𝒎 𝟐 𝑽𝒎 𝟐
𝑷𝑻 = + +
𝟐𝑹 𝟖𝑹 𝟖𝑹

and since we expressed 𝑽𝒎 in terms of 𝑽𝒄 from the formula of modulation index,

which is
𝑽𝒎
𝒎=
𝑽𝒄

we now have 𝑽𝒎 = 𝒎𝑽𝒄

substituting this in the formula we derive above for total power, we have

𝑽𝒄 𝟐 (𝒎𝑽𝒄 )𝟐 (𝒎𝑽𝒄 )𝟐
𝑷𝑻 = + +
𝟐𝑹 𝟖𝑹 𝟖𝑹

𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒎 𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝟐 𝒎𝟐
𝑷𝑻 = (𝟏 + + )= (𝟏 + )
𝟐𝑹 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐𝑹 𝟐

❖ In terms of power, the formula above becomes:

𝒎𝟐
𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝒄 (𝟏 + )
𝟐

❖ Based on the formula we derived above, notice that 2/3 of the total power
transmitted is on the carrier and the rest is on the sidebands.
❖ But the carrier contains no information, its only function is to aid in demodulating
the signal at the receiver.
❖ Information is contained in the sidebands.
❖ AM is inherently wasteful of power, because of 2/3 of the total power is wasted
on the carrier which carries no information.

46
Example
An AM transmitter has a carrier power output of 50W. What would be the total power
produced with 80% modulation?

Solution:

❖ Since the given are carrier power and percent modulation, we directly
substitute these to the formula, thus

𝑚2 0.802
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + ) = 50 𝑊 (1 + )
2 2

𝑷𝑻 = 𝟔𝟔 𝑾

Example
A 1000-W carrier is to be modulated to a 95% level. Determine the total transmitted
power.

Solution:
𝑚2 0.952
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + ) = 1000 𝑊 (1 + )
2 2

𝑷𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝑾

Example
An AM broadcast station operates at its maximum allowed total output of 50 kW and at
85% modulation. How much of the transmitted power contains the intelligence?

Solution:

Note that the one that carries the intelligence are the sidebands, thus we need to
calculate for total sideband power. The total sideband power is,

𝑚2
𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 ( )
2

but the carrier is unknown, let’s solve for it first by using the formula for total
power,
𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
0.852
50 kW =𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2

47
 𝑃𝑐 =
substituting this value into the formula for total sideband power, we get

𝑚2 0.852
𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 ( ) = 𝑃𝑐 ( )
2 2

𝑷𝑻𝑺𝑩 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 𝒌𝑾

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

[1] L. Frenzel Jr., Principles of electronic communication systems, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill Education, 2016.

[2] R. Blake, Electronic communication systems, 2nd ed., New York: Albany: Delmar/Thomson
Learning, 2002.

[3] Ziemer, R. and Tranter, W., Principles of communications: System, modulation and noise,,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015.

Let’s Check

Activity 1. In the space provided below, answer the following:

1. What is meant by the “envelope” of an AM waveform, and what is its

significance?

Your answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Is it desirable to have the modulation index of an AM signal as large as possible,

without overmodulating? Explain your answer.

Your answer

48
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. Describe what happens when a typical AM modulator is overmodulated,

and explain why overmodulation is undesirable.

Your answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. How does the bandwidth of an AM signal relate to the information

signal?

Your answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Describe two ways in which the modulation index of an AM signal can

be measured.

49
Your answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Evaluate the following problems using the principles you have learned in the
previous discussion.

1. An AM signal has the equation: v(t) = (15 + 4 sin 15 × 103 t) sin 56 × 106t volts
a. Find the carrier frequency.
b. Find the frequency of the modulating signal.
c. Find the value of m.
d. Find the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier.

50
2. An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 5 MHz and an amplitude of 5 V peak. It is
modulated by a sine wave with a frequency of 500 Hz and a peak voltage of 2 V. Write
the equation for this signal and calculate the modulation index.

3. An AM transmitter is modulated by two sine waves, at 2 kHz and 2.5 kHz, with a
modulation due to each of 25% and 50% respectively. What is the effective modulation
index?

4. An AM transmitter with a carrier power of 25 W at a frequency of 30 MHz operates

into a 50-Ω load. It is modulated at 60% by a 2-kHz sine wave.

a. What is the total signal power?

b. Calculate for the carrier power, and the power of each sideband.
c. What is the RMS voltage of the carrier and each of the sidebands?

51
In a Nutshell
Modulation is an essential process in every electronic communication. As defined above,
modulation is the process of changing one or properties of the carrier, may it be the
amplitude, frequency, or the phase of the carrier in proportion with the information signal.
To check your understanding regarding amplitude modulation discussed previously, list
at least three reasons why amplitude modulation is necessary in electronic
communication.

Your Answer
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Q&A List

Questions/Issues Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Modulation Amplitude modulation

Bandwidth Power
Sidebands carrier
Modulating signal Amplitude
Envelope Spectrum analyzer
Time domain Frequency domain

52
Big Picture

Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO-2): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to
a. explain the principles of angle modulation and its power distribution,
b. describe the different receiver types in electronic communication
system.

Big Picture in Focus

ULO-2a. Explain the principles of angle modulation and its power distribution

Metalanguage

In this section, the key terms that will be used in the discussion to demonstrate
ULOa will be defined. Please refer to the definitions below.

1. Angle modulation. An analog modulation scheme in which the angle of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

2. Frequency modulation. A form of angle modulation in which the frequency of the

carrier is varied proportionally in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

3. Phase modulation. A form of angle modulation in which the phase of the carrier is
varied proportionally in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

4.Pre-empahis. A technique that helps to offset high-frequency noise interference in

FM radio.

5. De-emphasis. A process used to return the frequency response of a preemphasized

signal to its normal level.

6. De-emphasis circuit A simple low-pass filter with a time constant of 75 μs.

7.Frequency deviation. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the

modulating signal.

8. Side frequencies. Frequency components produced by the process modulation which

are above or below the carrier frequency.

53
Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the week 4-5 of
the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be
laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively
refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles
and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary,
search.proquest.com etc.

Modulation
❖ Modulation, as defined in the above discussions refers to the process where the
baseband voice, video, or digital signal modifies either the amplitude, the frequency,
or the phase of the carrier.
Angle Modulation
❖ It is a type of analog modulation in which the angle of a sinusoidal reference function is
varied in accordance with a modulating signal.
❖ It can be expressed mathematically as:
𝒎(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒄 cos (𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜽(𝒕))
where:
𝜃(𝑡) = denotes the time-varying phase

Two types of Angle Modulation

1. Frequency Modulation
2. Phase Modulation

Frequency Modulation
❖ It is a form of angle modulation where the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of the intelligence signal.
Phase Modulation
❖ It is the process of varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal.

NOTE: In all types of modulation it is the AMPLITUDE, not the frequency nor the phase of the
intelligence signal that does the modulating.

54
Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
❖ In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by
the modulating signal.
❖ As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases.
❖ With no modulation, the carrier is at its normal center frequency.

Figure 7. Frequency Modulation

 In Figure 7, as the sine wave (modulating signal) goes positive, the frequency of the
carrier increase proportionately.
 The highest frequency occurs at the peak amplitude of the modulating signal.

❖ Mathematically, FM signal is expressed as:

𝒗𝑭𝑴 = Vc sin 𝜽

where:
𝒗𝑭𝑴 =instantaneous value of the FM signal
Vc = peak amplitude of the carrier
𝜃= angle of the FM signal
𝜽= 𝝎𝒄 𝒕+𝒎𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒎 𝒕

which gives an FM equation of:

𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕)

Frequency deviation (𝜹)

❖ Refers to the amount of change in the carrier frequency produced by the modulating
signal.
❖ Frequency deviation can be expressed as:
55
 𝜹 = ∆𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑽𝒎
where:
𝑘𝑓 =modulator sensitivity in Hz/V
𝑉𝑚 =peak value of the modulating signal in Volts

Carrier Swing (CS)

 It is the peak-to-peak frequency deviation.
𝑪𝑺 = 𝟐𝜹

Figure 8. Frequency deviation

Deviation ratio
 It is the ratio of the maximum deviation over the maximum modulating frequency.
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑫=
𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

Example:
What is the deviation ratio of an FM signal if the maximum allowable deviation is 12kHz and the
maximum intelligence frequency is 4kHz?

Solution:
Just substitute the given in the formula for deviation ratio, thus

𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝑫= =
𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙) 𝟒 𝒌𝑯𝒛

𝑫=𝟑

56
Modulation Index (𝒎𝒇 )
 It is the ratio of frequency deviation and the modulating frequency.
𝜹
𝒎𝒇 =
𝒇𝒎
NOTE:
 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75kHz
and the maximum permitted modulating frequency is 15kHz.
 Thus, the modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is therefore 5.

Percentage Modulation (%M)

 It is expressed mathematically as:

𝜹𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
%M= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙

where:
𝛿𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =actual frequency deviation
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =maximum allowable deviation

Example
Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for a frequency modulator with
a deviation sensitivity of 10kHz/V and a modulating signal of 5 cos(2𝜋(2500)𝑡).

Solution:
Since form the problem, the given are:
𝒌𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛/𝑽
𝑽𝒎 = 𝟓𝑽
𝒇𝒎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛
Thus,
𝜹 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑽𝒎 = (𝟏𝟎𝒌𝑯𝒛/𝑽)(𝟓𝑽)

𝜹 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛

And for the modulation index,

𝜹 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝒎𝒇 = =
𝒇𝒎 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛

𝒎𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎

57
Example
An FM signal is defined by the equation 𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 50 sin(95𝑥106 𝑡 + 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5000𝑡)𝑉.
a. Find the carrier frequency
b. Find the modulating frequency
c. Find the modulation index
d. Calculate the frequency deviation

Solution:
Since 𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕)

Thus, from the given equation,

𝑽𝒄 = 𝟓𝟎𝑽, 𝒎𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎
𝝎𝒄 = 95𝑥106 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, 𝝎𝒎 = 5000 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Hence,
𝝎𝒄 95𝑥106 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
a. 𝒇𝒄 = = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟐 𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅

𝝎𝒎 5000 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
b. 𝒇𝒎 = = = 𝟕𝟗𝟔 𝑯𝒛
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅

c. 𝒎𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎

𝜹 𝜹
d. 𝒎𝒇 = 𝒇 → 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟕𝟗𝟔 𝑯𝒛
𝒎

𝜹 = 𝟕𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛

Example
An FM broadcast station operates with a peak-to-peak deviation of 120kHz. Calculate the
percentage modulation.

Solution:
Given:
CS = 120 kHz
Since,
𝑪𝑺 = 𝟐𝜹
Thus,
𝑪𝑺 = 𝟐𝜹
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟐𝜹

𝜹 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛

58
 Note that for standard FM broadcasting: 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =75kHz,

Hence,
𝜹𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝟔𝟎 𝑲𝑯𝒛
%𝑴 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛

%𝑴 = 80%

Modulation Index and Sidebands

 Any modulation process produces sidebands.
 When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are
produced.
 Side frequencies are the sum and difference of the carrier and the modulating
frequency.
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much wider than that of an AM signal with
the same modulating signal.
 Frequency modulation produces an infinite number of sidebands, even for single-
tone modulation
 These sidebands are separated from the carrier by multiples of ƒm, but their
amplitude tends to decrease as their distance from the carrier frequency increases.
 Sidebands with amplitude less than about 1% of the total signal voltage can usually
be ignored.

NOTE. In most communication systems using FM, the maximum limits are put on both the
frequency deviation and the modulating frequency.

Bessel Functions
 The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms of the sine wave modulating signal
is solved.
 Are widely available and is not necessary to memorize or calculate them.
 The table and graph of Bessel functions represent normalized voltages for the various
frequency components of an FM signal.
 The numbers in the tables will represent actual voltages if the unmodulated carrier has
an amplitude of one volt
 J0 represents the component at the carrier frequency
 J1 represents each of the first pair of sidebands, at frequencies of ƒc + ƒm and ƒc – ƒm
 J2 represents the amplitude of each of the second pair of sidebands, which are separated
from the carrier frequency by twice the modulating frequency
 All of the Bessel terms should be multiplied by the voltage of the unmodulated carrier to
find the actual sideband amplitudes

59
Figure 9. Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation indexes of FM
signal based on the Bessel Functions. [2]

Figure 10. FM in the frequency domain

60
Bandwidth Requirements of Angle-Modulated Signals

1. Using Bessel table

 To calculate the actual bandwidth an FM signal.

𝑩 = 𝟐(𝒏 𝒙 𝒇𝒎 )𝑯𝒛

where:
n = number of significant sideband pairs
𝒇𝒎 = modulating-signal frequency (hertz)

2. Using Carson’ s Rule

 It can be used to find the approximate bandwidth of an FM signal.

𝑩 = 𝟐(𝜹 + 𝒇𝒎 )𝑯𝒛

or

𝑩 = 𝟐(𝒎 + 𝟏)𝒇𝒎 𝑯𝒛

where:
𝛿 = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
𝒇𝒎 = modulating-signal frequency (hertz)

Example
Determine the practical bandwidth of an FM signal modulated by a 15kHz tone whose
frequency deviation is 45kHz. What is the approximate bandwidth for the system using Carson’s
formula?

Solution:
 For practical bandwidth, use the Bessel table, thus

𝐵 = 2(𝑛 𝑥 𝑓𝑚 )𝐻𝑧

 Calculate for the modulation index first to determine the number of significant
sidebands:
𝛿 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝒎𝒇 = =
𝑓𝑚 𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝒎𝒇 = 𝟑

61
  Based on the Bessel table a modulation index of 3 has a 6 significant sideband pairs
(n=6), thus
𝐵 = 2(𝑛 𝑥 𝑓𝑚 )𝐻𝑧 = 2(6 𝑥 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧)
𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛

 For approximate bandwidth, use the Carson’s Rule,

𝐵 = 2(𝛿 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝐻𝑧 = 2(45 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧)

𝑩 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛

Narrowband FM (NBFM)
❖ It is an FM system in which the modulation index is less than 𝜋/2.
❖ It is widely used in communication.
❖ It conserves spectrum space at the expense of the signal-to-noise ratio.
Wideband FM
❖ It is an FM system in which the modulation index is more than 𝜋/2.

Phase Modulation
❖ It is the process of varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
❖ Mathematically, PM signal is expressed as:

𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕)

where:
𝒗𝑷𝑴 =instantaneous value of the PM signal
Vc = peak amplitude of the carrier
𝝎𝒄 =carrier angular velocity
𝒎𝒑 = modulation index for PM
𝒎𝒑 = the maximum phase shift caused by the intelligence signal

Basic Principles of Phase Modulation

 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase-modulation
(PM) signal.
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.

62
  The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs during
the time that the modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.

Phase deviation (∆𝜽)

 It refers to the amount of change in the phase of the carrier produced by the
modulating signal.

∆𝜽 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 = 𝒎𝒑

where:
∆𝜽 = peak phase deviation, also the modulation index for PM (radians)
𝑘𝑝 = deviation sensitivity in rad/V
𝑉𝑚 =peak value of the modulating signal in Volts

Modulation index (𝒎𝒑 )

𝒎𝒑 = ∆𝜽 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎

Example
Determine the peak phase deviation for a phase modulator with deviation sensitivity k =
2rad/V and a modulating signal of 10V. How much phase deviation is produced for a
modulating signal with twice the amplitude?

Solution:
a. Given:
k = 2rad/V
𝑽𝒎 =10V
Thus,
∆𝜽 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 = (𝟐𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝑽)(𝟏𝟎𝑽)

∆𝜽 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅

b. For modulating signal with twice the amplitude,

𝑽𝒎𝟏 =𝟐𝑽𝒎 = 𝟐(𝟏𝟎𝑽) = 𝟐𝟎𝑽

∆𝜽 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 = (𝟐𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝑽)(𝟐𝟎𝑽)

∆𝜽 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅

63
Example
A 100-MHz carrier is modulated by a 250-Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier voltage is
6V and the maximum deviation is 25kHz, write the equation of this modulated wave for
(a)FM and (b)PM. If the intelligence frequency is now changed to 1500-Hz, and all else
remaining constant, write a new equation for (c) FM and (d)PM.

Solution:
 For the first condition where:
𝒇𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑯𝒛, 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑯𝒛

𝑽𝒄 = 𝟔𝑽, 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛

a. Equation of the modulated wave for FM:
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡)
𝛿 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝒎𝒇 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑓𝑚 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑯𝒛

𝝎𝒄 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 = 2𝜋(100𝑥106 ) 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝒔

𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 6𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅(𝟐𝟓𝟎) 𝒕)

b. Equation of the modulated wave for PM:

 For the same intelligence amplitude and frequency,
𝒎𝒑 = 𝒎𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒎 𝒕)

; 𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 6𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅(𝟐𝟓𝟎) 𝒕)

 For the second condition where the intelligence frequency is now changed to 1500-
Hz, and all else remaining constant.

c. The new equation for FM is:

𝑣𝐹𝑀1 = 𝑉𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚1 𝑡)

𝒇𝒎𝟏 = 1500 𝐻𝑧
𝛿 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝒎𝒇𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕
𝑓𝑚1 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛

𝒗𝑭𝑴𝟏 = 6𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒕 + 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎) 𝒕)

64
 d. The new equation for PM is:
𝒎𝒑𝟏 = 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 6𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑴)𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎) 𝒕)
𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 6𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅(𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎) 𝒕)

Noise
❖ It is the interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems,
and power line switching that produces transient signal.
❖ It is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high frequencies.
❖ Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere with it.
❖ Some noise completely obliterates signal information.

Noise Suppression Effects of FM

 FM signals have a constant modulated carrier
 FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped by
limiter circuits.
 This amplitude clipping does not affect the information content of the FM signal,
since it is contained solely within the frequency variations of the carrier.

Figure 11. FM signal with noise. [1]

Pre-emphasis
❖ It is the circuit that boosts the high audio frequencies in modulation at the
transmitter, used to improve the signal-to noise ratio.
❖ A simple high-pass filter can serve a transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.
❖ Such circuit has a cut-off frequency of 2122 Hz.

65
 ❖ It has an upper frequency where the signal enhancement flattens out and is
usually set well beyond the audio range, typically greater than 30 kHz.

𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝒇𝒖 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪

Figure 12. Pre-emphasis circuit. [1]

De-emphasis
❖ The circuit that attenuates the high audio frequencies (at the receiver) by the
same amount that they were boosted to compensate for the effect of the pre-
emphasis.
❖ It is a low-pass filter can serve a transmitter’s de-emphasis circuit.
❖ It returns the frequency response to normal flat level.

𝟏
𝒇𝑳 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪

Figure 13. De-emphasis circuit. [1]

66
NOTE.
The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the signal-to-
noise ratio for the high-frequency components during transmission so that they will be
stronger and not masked by noise.

Specifications for Transmission of FM signal.

Service Type Frequency Channel Maximum Highest Audio

Assignment Bandwid Deviation
th
Commercial 88 to 108.0 200 kHz ±75 𝑘𝐻𝑧 15 kHz
FM radio MHz
broadcast
Television 4.5 MHz above 100 kHz ±25 𝑘𝐻𝑧 - monaural 15 kHz
Sound the picture ±50 𝑘𝐻𝑧 - stereo
carrier
frequency
Public safety; 50 MHz 20 kHz ±5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 3 kHz
Police, Fire, 122 to 174 MHz
Ambulance,
Taxi, Forestry,
Utilities,
Transportation,
Government,
etc.
Wireless Same with commercial FM broadcast, but limited in power to less
microphones, than 1W.
wireless
telephones
Military Intermingled with public safety and extending to microwave
frequencies.

67
Comparison of FM with PM

Comparison of FM with AM

68
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

[1] L. Frenzel Jr., Principles of electronic communication systems, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill Education, 2016.

[2] R. Blake, Electronic communication systems, 2nd ed., New York: Albany: Delmar/Thomson
Learning, 2002.

[3] Ziemer, R. and Tranter, W., Principles of communications: System, modulation and noise,,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015.

Let’s Check

Activity 1. Now that we have discussed the principles of frequency modulation, let us try
to check what you have learned. In the space provided, supply the answer/s being
asked in the following statements.

_______1. What is the general name given to both FM and PM?

_______2. A 162-MHz carrier is deviated by 12 kHz by a 2-kHz modulating signal. What
is the modulation index?
_______3. The maximum deviation of an FM carrier with a 2.5-kHz signal is 4 kHz.
What is the deviation ratio?
_______4. It is used to calculate the approximate bandwidth of an FM signal.
_______5. A simple _____ can be used as a pre-emphasis circuit.
_______6. Every station in commercial FM broadcasting is allocated with a ____
bandwidth.
_______7. At the receiver, pre-emphasis is compensated for by a ____ filter.
_______8. The maximum frequency deviation allowed in commercial FM broadcasting
is ______.
_______9. The ____ of the modulating signal is proportional to the amount of frequency
deviation from the carrier center frequency in an FM transmitter.
_______10. The FCC assigned the commercial FM broadcast service a ____ band of
frequencies.

Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Answer the following using the principles you have learned in the previous
discussion.

1. Compare, in general terms, the bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio of FM and AM.

69
Your Answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. What is pre-emphasis and how is it used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of FM

transmissions?

Your Answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. Explain how limiting reduces the effect of noise on FM signals.

Your Answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. An available channel for FM transmission is 30 kHz wide. The maximum allowable

modulating signal frequency
is 3.5 kHz. What deviation ratio should be used?

Your Answer

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Use Carson’s rule to determine the bandwidth of an FM channel when the maximum
deviation allowed is 5 kHz
at frequencies up to 3.333 kHz. Sketch the spectrum, showing carrier and sideband
values.

Your Answer
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

70
In a Nutshell
Frequency modulation is another analog modulation technique widely used in different
communication systems. It is defined as the process of varying the frequency of the
carrier in proportion with the information signal. Now, give at least five (5) comparisons
between FM and AM. Elaborate each comparison.

Your Answer
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Q&A List

Questions/Issues Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Angle modulation Frequency modulation

Phase modulation De-emphasis
Pre-emphasis Limiter circuit
Bessel function Time constant
Carson’s Rule Narrowband FM
Wideband FM Deviation ratio

71
 Big Picture in Focus

ULO-2b. Describe the different receiver types in electronic

communication system.

Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULO-2b, you will need to have an operational
understanding on the following terms below. Please note that you will also be required
to refer to the previous definitions used in the previous sections.

1. Demodulation. The process of converting back the modulated signal into the original
intelligence.
2. Low noise amplifier. an electronic amplifier that amplifies a very low-power signal
without significantly degrading its signal-to-noise ratio.
3. Selectivity. It is the ability of a receiver to accept a given band of frequency and
reject all others.
4. Dynamic Range. The difference in decibels between the minimum input level
necessary to discern a signal and the input level that will overdrive the receiver and
produce distortion.
5. Fidelity. A measure of the ability of the receiver to produce, at the output of the
receiver, an exact replica of the original source information.
6. Detector. A circuit that converts RF signals directly into information signal.
7. Superheterodyne Receiver. Receiver tunes to desired signal and converts the
signal to intermediate frequency via a signal mixing circuit.
8. Limiter stage. A stage in FM receiver circuit that clips off amplitude variations in
signal caused by noise.
9. Transceiver. A combination transmitter and receiver
10. Driver. An amplifier immediately preceding the power amplifier stage in a
transmitter.

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 Essential Knowledge

Receiver
❖ A collection of electronic components and circuits that accept the transmitted
message from the channel and convert it back into a form understandable by
humans.
❖ It is made up of amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filter, and a
demodulator that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated
carrier.
❖ It performs decoding and demodulation

The processes in a receiver

 Signal received at the antenna is very low, need to amplify (LNA) and tuned to
desired frequency to avoid interference.
 Detector finds the information signal from the RF signal.
 Further amplification needed to give it enough power to drive a loudspeaker.

Figure 14. A simple block diagram of a receiver.

Receiver Parameters
 Parameters used to evaluate the ability of a receiver to successfully demodulate
radio signal:
1. Selectivity
2. Sensitivity
3. Bandwidth Improvement Factor
4. Dynamic Range
5. Fidelity
6. Insertion Loss

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Selectivity
❖ It refers to the ability of a receiver to accept a given band of frequency and reject
all others.
❖ It is obtained using tuned circuits or filters.
❖ The higher the quality factor (Q) the narrower the BW and the better the
selectivity.

𝑿𝑳
𝑸=
𝑹
where:
Q= Quality Factor
𝑋𝐿 = inductive reactance at resonance
R= total winding reactance of the inductor

 The bandwidth curve from the tuned circuit is:

𝒇𝒓
BW= 𝑸

where:
BW = tuned circuit bandwidth
Q = quality factor
𝒇𝒓 =resonant frequency

𝟏
𝒇𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

Example
High-Q tuned circuit is used to keep the BW narrow to ensure that only the desired
signal is passed. Assumed that 10𝜇H coil with resistance of 20Ω is connected in parallel
with 101.4pF variable capacitor.

a. What is the resonant frequency?

b. What is the inductive reactance?
c. What is the selectivity of the circuit?
d. What is the BW of the tuned circuit?
e. Find the upper and lower cutoff frequencies?

Solution:
𝟏 𝟏
a. 𝒇𝒓 = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪 =
𝟐𝝅√(𝟏𝟎𝜇H)(101.4pF)

𝒇𝒓 = 𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛
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b. 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿 = 2𝜋(5𝑀𝐻𝑧)(𝟏𝟎𝜇H)

𝑿𝑳 = 𝟑𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟔 Ω

𝑿𝑳 𝟑𝟏𝟒.𝟏𝟔Ω
c. 𝑸 = =
𝑹 20Ω

𝑸 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝟏
𝒇𝒓 𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛
d. 𝑩𝑾 = =
𝑸 𝟏𝟓.𝟕𝟏

𝑩𝑾 = 𝟑𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝑩𝑾 𝟑𝟏𝟖.𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑯𝒛 𝐵𝑊 318.27 𝑘𝐻𝑧
e. 𝒇𝒖 = 𝒇𝒓 + = 𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛 + 𝑓𝑙 = 𝑓𝑟 − = 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 −
𝟐 𝟐 2 2

𝒇𝒖 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟗 𝑴𝑯𝒛 𝒇𝒍 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟒𝟏 𝑴𝑯𝒛

Sensitivity

❖ It also called as receiver threshold.

❖ the minimum RF signal that can be detected at the input of a receiver and still
produce a usable demodulated information signal.
❖ Depends on the noise power present at the input of the receiver, the receiver’s
noise figure, sensitivity of the detector and the bandwidth improvement factor of
the receiver.

Bandwidth Improvement Factor

❖ The noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth.
❖ Bandwidth improvement expressed mathematically as:
𝑩𝑹𝑭
𝑩𝑰 = 𝑩𝑰𝑭

❖ Noise figure improvement expressed as:

𝑵𝑭𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑩𝑰

Dynamic Range
❖ It is the ability to receive a weak signal in the presence of stronger signals.
❖ The difference in decibels between the minimum input level necessary to discern
a signal and the input level that will overdrive the receiver and produce distortion.

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Fidelity
❖ A measure of the ability of the receiver to produce, at the output of the receiver,
an exact replica of the original source information.
❖ Any amplitude, frequency or phase variations present in the demodulated
waveform that are not included in the original signal are consider as distortion.

Insertion Loss
❖ The ratio of power transferred to a load with a filter in the circuit to the power
transferred to the load without a filter.
❖ The loss that occurs when a signal enter the input of the receiver.

Standard AM Receivers:
1. Tuned-Radio Frequency Receiver
2. Superheterodyne Receiver

Tuned-Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF)

❖ It is the earliest and simplest receiver design.
❖ It consists of RF amplifier stages, detector, and audio amplifier stages.
❖ The received signal is tuned by LC circuit to a passband centered at carrier
frequency.
❖ Selectivity pass only the desired signal, others are rejected.
❖ The tuned signal is boost up by an amplifier for better info. detection.
❖ Signal info detection is made at the demodulator and after further amplified for
the speaker output.

Figure 15. The earliest and simplest TRF Receiver design.

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 Figure 16. Block diagram of TRF receiver.

Stages in TRF Receiver

1. RF Amplifier
❖ It filters and amplifies the received signal to a level sufficient to drive the detector
stage.

2. Detector
❖ It converts the RF signals directly into information signal.
3. AF Amplifier
❖ It amplifies the power level of the audio signal.

Disadvantages of TRF Receiver:

 Inconsistent bandwidth
 Instability due to the large number of RF amplifier
 Gains are not uniform over a wide range of frequency.

Superheterodyne Receiver
❖ It was designed to overcome the problems encountered in TRF.
❖ It has more complex circuitry compared to TRF but it offers more excellent
performance under many conditions.
❖ It tunes to desired signal and converts the signal to intermediate frequency via a
signal mixing circuit.
❖ Then IF signal is optimized to fully recover the modulated information signal.

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 Figure 17. Block diagram of a Superheterodyne Receiver. [1]

Stages in Superheterodyne Receiver

1. RF Stage
❖ It takes the weak signal from the antenna and amplifies it to a level large enough
to be used in the following stages.
❖ It provides some initial gain and selectivity.
❖ It also referred to as the pre-selector stage

2. Mixer and Local Oscillator Stage

❖ The mixer converts the RF signal to IF signal
❖ Mixer may be a diode, a balanced modulator, or a transistor.

Figure 18. Schematic diagram of a mixing circuit. [1]

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 Concept of a mixer:
 The output of mixer is an infinite number of harmonic and cross product of
frequencies.
 The local oscillator (LO) is designed so that its frequency is always above or
below the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the IF center frequency.

3. IF Stage
❖ It amplifies the signal further and has bandwidth and passband shaping
appropriate for the received signal.
❖ It provides most of the gain and selectivity.
❖ Generally, there are two or more IF stages, with selectivity provided either by
resonant circuits or, in recent designs, by a crystal or ceramic filter.

 Intermediate Frequency:
❖ It refers to the sum or difference in the output of a mixer that enters the IF
stage.

 Image Frequency and Rejection

❖ It is formed after the mixer circuitry
❖ Represented in two form: HIGH side injection and LOW side injection.
❖ The image has an equal distance from the LO frequency on the other side of
it from the signal.
❖ It must be rejected prior to mixing because it is indistinguishable and
impossible to filter out.

 Image Frequency

a. High Side Injection b. Low Side Injection

NOTE! Usually a tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference
frequency, or intermediate frequency.
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  Image Frequency and Rejection Ratio (IFRR)
❖ It is the numerical measure of the ability of the pre-selector to reject the image
frequency.

𝑰𝑭𝑹𝑹 = √𝟏 + (𝑸𝝆)𝟐

❖ IFRR in dB:

𝑰𝑭𝑹𝑹 (𝒅𝑩) = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 √𝟏 + (𝑸𝝆)𝟐

where:
𝒇 𝒇
𝝆 = 𝒇𝒊𝒎 − 𝒇𝑹𝑭
𝑹𝑭 𝒊𝒎

Q = quality factor of the tuned circuit

4. Detector Stage
❖ It is responsible for recovering (demodulating) the information signal from the
carrier.

5. Audio Amplifier
❖ It amplifies the detected audio signal to be passed to the user.

6. Automatic Gain Control

❖ It adjusts the gain of the IF—and sometimes the RF—stages in response to the
strength of the received signal, providing more gain for weak signals. This allows
the receiver to cope with the very large variation in signal levels found in practice.

FM Receiver

Figure 19. Block diagram of an FM receiver.

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Stages of an FM Receiver

1. RF tuned Amplifier
❖ It reduces the noise figure.
❖ It matches the input impedance of receiver with the antenna.
❖ It increases signal level before it goes to mixer.
❖ It discriminates against image signal.

2. Frequency Mixer
❖ Mix the signal frequency voltage and local oscillator voltage to produce difference
frequency.
3. IF Amplifier
❖ It provides most of the gain and bandwidth requirement of the receiver.
4. Limiter stage
❖ Stage not used in AM receiver
❖ Limits IF voltage to a certain level
❖ Clips off amplitude variations in signal caused by noise

5. FM Demodulator/Discriminator
❖ Extracts original frequency from frequency modulated carrier
❖ Change FM into AM

6. De-emphasis Circuit
❖ Is the circuit that attenuates the high audio frequencies (at the receiver) by the same
amount that they were boosted to compensate for the effect of the pre-emphasis.

7. Volume and Tone Controller

❖ It controls the efficiency of audio signal.
❖ The signal whose efficiency is more than audible range are neglected in this circuit.

8. Power Amplifier
❖ It gives the required power level to the signal which passes through the loudspeaker.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

[1] L. Frenzel Jr., Principles of electronic communication systems, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill Education, 2016.

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[2] R. Blake, Electronic communication systems, 2nd ed., New York: Albany: Delmar/Thomson
Learning, 2002.

[3] Ziemer, R. and Tranter, W., Principles of communications: System, modulation and noise,,
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015.

Let’s Check

Activity 1. In the space provided, supply the answer/s being asked in the following
statements:
_______1. What type of receiver uses a mixer to convert the received signal to a lower
frequency?
_______2. In what stage are most of the gain and selectivity in a superheterodyne
receiver obtained?
_______3. The mixer output is usually the difference between what two input
frequencies?
_______4. What do you call an interfering signal that is spaced from the desired signal
by twice the IF?
_______5. It is a nonlinear device designed to produce sum and difference frequencies
when provided with two input signals.
_______6. It refers to the ability of a receiver to discriminate against unwanted signals
and noise.
_______7. ____ is a combination transmitter and receiver
_______8. An oscillator whose frequency can be changed by adjusting a control voltage
_______9. It refers to the ability of a receiver to detect weak signals with a satisfactory
signal-to-noise ratio.
_______10. A circuit whose output frequency is an integer multiple of its input frequency

Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. To evaluate your learnings regarding the different types of receiver used in
electronic communication system, answer the following questions.

1. How does decreasing the Q of a resonant circuit affect its bandwidth?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. What can happen to a modulated signal if the selectivity of a tuned circuit is too
sharp?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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3. How can the image problem best be solved during the design of a receiver?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using an RF amplifier at the front end
of a receiver?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Why is the stability of the local oscillator important?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

In a Nutshell

Reception is a very essential process in every communication system. Thus, it is very

important that receivers are designed properly to have a successful reception of
information. In the space below, give at least five (5) main characteristics of a well-
designed receiver. Elaborate each characteristic.

Your answer
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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Q&A List

Questions/Issues Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Keywords Index

Receiver Detection
Local oscillator Image frequency
Selectivity Dynamic range
Sensitivity Fidelity
IF stage VCO
IFRR Mixer

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