NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND

NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-557 (Rev. 06-06)

FLIGHT TRAINING
INSTRUCTION

ADVANCED MULTI-ENGINE
LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL
FORMATION
TC-12B/T-44A

2006
 FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION

FOR

ADVANCED MULTI-ENGINE LOW LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

TC-12B/T-44A

Q-2A-0092
Q-2A-0059

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 LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES

Dates of issue for original and changed pages are:

Original...0...30 June 06 (this will be the date issued)
TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES IN THIS PUBLICATION IS 114 CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING:
Page No. Change No. Page No. Change No.

COVER A-1
LETTER A-2 (blank)
iii – v B-1 – B-4
vi (blank) C-1 – C-6
vii – x D-1 – D-20
1-1 – 1-32 E-1 – E-4
2-1 – 2-19
2-20 (blank)
3-1 – 3-16

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 INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY

The following Changes have been previously incorporated in this manual:

CHANGE
REMARKS/PURPOSE
NUMBER

The following interim Changes have been incorporated in this Change/Revision:

INTERIM
CHANGE REMARKS/PURPOSE ENTERED DATE
NUMBER BY

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES.................................................................................................. iv

INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY...............................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF FIGURES................................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER ONE - LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION ................................................................. 1-1

100. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1-1
101. LOW-LEVEL TASK MANAGEMENT ................................................................... 1-1
102. EMERGENCY ACTIONS ........................................................................................ 1-1
103. CREW COORDINATION AND RESPONSIBILITIES........................................... 1-2
104. PREFLIGHT PLANNING......................................................................................... 1-3
105. MISSION BRIEFING.............................................................................................. 1-17
106. LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION FUNDAMENTALS............................................... 1-18
107. FLYING THE ROUTE............................................................................................ 1-27
108. LIMITATION OF CHART READING .................................................................. 1-30
109. NIGHT CHART READING.................................................................................... 1-31
110. DISORIENTATION ................................................................................................ 1-31
111. COMMON ERRORS............................................................................................... 1-32

CHAPTER TWO - TACTICAL FORMATION .................................................................... 2-1

200. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 2-1
201. PROHIBITED MANEUVERS .................................................................................. 2-1
202. FORMATION BRIEF ............................................................................................... 2-1
203. CREW COORDINATION/RESPONSIBILITIES .................................................... 2-2
204. COMMUNICATIONS (COMM) .............................................................................. 2-4
205. FORMATION EMERGENCY PROCEDURES ....................................................... 2-5
206. PERTINENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE T-44A/TC-12B................................ 2-7
207. GROUND PROCEDURES........................................................................................ 2-8
208. RUNWAY LINEUP/TAKEOFF ............................................................................... 2-9
209. ABORTS.................................................................................................................... 2-9
210. DEPARTURE/ASSEMBLY.................................................................................... 2-10
211. VISUAL FORMATION GEOMETRIES................................................................ 2-10
212. LEAD CHANGE ..................................................................................................... 2-14
213. ENROUTE............................................................................................................... 2-15
214. SLOWDOWN.......................................................................................................... 2-15
215. AIRDROP ................................................................................................................ 2-16
216. DZ ESCAPE ............................................................................................................ 2-17
217. RACETRACKS ....................................................................................................... 2-17
218. RECOVERY ............................................................................................................ 2-18
219. LANDINGS ............................................................................................................. 2-19

vii
CHAPTER THREE - TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES..................... 3-1
300. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 3-1
301. TACTICAL FORMATIONS..................................................................................... 3-1
302. AERIAL REFUELING.............................................................................................. 3-8

APPENDIX A - GLOSSARY................................................................................................... A-1

APPENDIX B - TACFORM COMMUNICATIONS .............................................................B-1

B100. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................B-1

APPENDIX C - NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS ....................................................................... C-1

C100. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................C-1

APPENDIX D - FLIGHT PREPARATION........................................................................... D-1

D100. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... D-1
D101. FIRST ROUTE ......................................................................................................... D-7
D102. SECOND ROUTE .................................................................................................... D-8
D103. BRIEFING PREPARATION.................................................................................... D-9
D104. LL/TF DEPARTURE AND ARRIVAL PROCEDURES ...................................... D-10
D105. F 4790 SCENARIO INFORMATION ................................................................... D-13
D106. TRAINING WING FOUR MULTI-ENGINE LOW-LEVEL/TACTICAL
FORMATION STANDARDS................................................................................ D-16
D107. STINGRAY/MONTANA FORMATION / LOW-LEVEL STANDARDS ........... D-17
D108. LOW-LEVEL BRIEFING GUIDE......................................................................... D-18

APPENDIX E - DCOMBAT ENTRY/EXIT CHECKLISTS AND TACTICAL

MANUEVERS............................................................................................................................E-1
E100. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................E-1
E101. COMBAT ENTRY (HOSTILE FIRE ENTRY)........................................................E-1
E102. COMBAT EXIT ........................................................................................................E-1
E103. TACTICAL MANEUVERS (SINGLE SHIP) ..........................................................E-2
E104. COORDINATION WITH AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC).................................E-4

viii
 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 IR-66 Description ............................................................................................. 1-5

Figure 1-2 Updating Chart Manual Data ......................................................................... 1-8
Figure 1-3 Selecting Checkpoints .................................................................................... 1-10
Figure 1-4 Ground References......................................................................................... 1-12
Figure 1-5 Required Chart Symbols ............................................................................... 1-14
Figure 1-6 Funneling Features......................................................................................... 1-19
Figure 1-7 Estimating Distance by Angles Below the Horizon ..................................... 1-21
Figure 1-8 Estimating Distances by Comparison........................................................... 1-22
Figure 1-9 Timing Correction .......................................................................................... 1-24
Figure 1-10 Timing Triangle Corrections ......................................................................... 1-25
Figure 1-11 Ten Percent (10%) Method............................................................................ 1-26
Figure 1-12 Incremental Method....................................................................................... 1-27

Figure 2-1 Inadvertent Weather Penetration Procedures............................................... 2-6

Figure 2-2 Visual In-Trail ................................................................................................ 2-11
Figure 2-3 Visual References for In-Trail Position........................................................ 2-12
Figure 2-4 Fluid Trail Formation Position ..................................................................... 2-13
Figure 2-5 Line Abreast.................................................................................................... 2-14
Figure 2-6 Formation Lead Changes .............................................................................. 2-15
Figure 2-7 Crosswind Procedures for Airdrops............................................................. 2-17
Figure 2-8 Racetrack Procedures .................................................................................... 2-18

Figure 3-1 Combat Cruise.................................................................................................. 3-1

Figure 3-2 Combat Spread ................................................................................................. 3-2
Figure 3-3 TAC Turn Away From Wingman (Combat Cruise)..................................... 3-3
Figure 3-4 TAC Turn Away From Wingman (Combat Spread).................................... 3-3
Figure 3-5 Center Turn ...................................................................................................... 3-4
Figure 3-6 In-Place Turn.................................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-7 Split Turn .......................................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-8 Cross Turn ........................................................................................................ 3-6
Figure 3-9 Break Turn........................................................................................................ 3-7
Figure 3-10 Dig and Pinch.................................................................................................... 3-7
Figure 3-11 Tactical Tanker Head-on Offset Rendezvous .............................................. 3-10
Figure 3-12 Tanker Orbit Rendezvous ............................................................................. 3-11
Figure 3-13 Enroute Overtaking Rendezvous .................................................................. 3-12

Figure C-1 Scale Comparison............................................................................................ C-2

Figure C-2 Sample Chart Legend ..................................................................................... C-4
Figure C-3 Contour Lines.................................................................................................. C-5
Figure C-4 Maximum Elevation Figure ........................................................................... C-6

Figure D-1 Table for Local Routes ................................................................................... D-2

ix
Figure E-1 Random Steep Approach.................................................................................E-3
Figure E-2 Curvilinear Approach......................................................................................E-3
Figure E-3 Random Steep Departure ................................................................................E-4

x
 CHAPTER ONE
LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION

100. INTRODUCTION

This Flight Training Instruction (FTI) presents an overview of Low-Level (LL) Navigation. The
purpose of LL navigation is to fly a selected ground track and arrive over a designated target
drop zone (DZ) at a coordinated “Time Over Target” (TOT) or at a landing zone (LZ) at a “Time
of Arrival” (TOA). Low-Level flight utilizing dead-reckoning procedures (holding a constant
heading and airspeed for a predetermined amount of time), with location substantiated by
reference to geographic checkpoints, may be the only method of navigation available to avoid
detection in a combat environment. Our target will either be a drop zone and simulated airdrop
procedures will be performed or a landing zone with a random tactical approach. Regardless of
the objective, these techniques and procedures will provide the foundation needed to be a
successful tactical pilot.

101. LOW-LEVEL TASK MANAGEMENT

The most crucial aspect of LL is proper task management. Many accidents are attributed to
pilots flying into the ground because they did not prioritize tasks properly. The ever-important
concept of Aviate, Navigate, Communicate, becomes even more crucial when flying in the low-
level environment. Keeping the aircraft flying is always the number one priority. All the
preflight planning, route study, chart reading, and timing control will not help a pilot complete
his mission if he places those tasks before flying the aircraft and thus impacts the ground or other
obstacles. Ensure that terrain clearance is always met first and then accomplish other duties
(e.g., the navigate and communicate tasks). All tasks related to weather, enemy defenses,
formation, navigation, cockpit switches, drop zone acquisition, aerial delivery, etc., collectively
represent successful mission accomplishment. However, to successfully perform your mission,
you must first survive. If you permit your priorities to break down, you may have just completed
the enemy’s work. NEVER allow complacency or task overload to let you forget that the ground
is DEADLY - and close at hand.

Comfort Level (CL) is the lowest altitude at which an aircrew can accommodate LL task loading
and maintain safe terrain clearance. CL will vary according to terrain, aircrew skill, and
currency. Flying requires sound judgment. If you exceed your CL, you probably are not getting
anything out of the mission. The solution is to climb to a more comfortable altitude where you
can once again begin learning.

102. EMERGENCY ACTIONS

Always be prepared for an emergency. Your actions in such a situation should have been
thoroughly prebriefed; crew coordination is vital. Your first priority is an immediate climb away
from the ground. Once at a safe altitude, MSA during training, handle the emergency as you
head towards the nearest suitable airfield. Do not be complacent with a minor malfunction. For
example, it might seem easy to troubleshoot a suspected float switch malfunction while you are

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

still at 500 feet AGL, but it would also be very easy to become distracted and troubleshoot
yourself right into the ground. Remember that, as long as you are flying low-level, all
malfunctions are serious. Get away from the ground before troubleshooting any
malfunction.

103. CREW COORDINATION AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Crew coordination is essential to flight safety and mission accomplishment. All crewmembers
must work together as a team. If you notice anything during a flight that has the potential to
jeopardize mission accomplishment or flight safety, ensure all crewmembers are notified
immediately.

1. Pilot Duties (pilot at the controls)

a. Fly the aircraft (maintain heading, altitude and airspeed).

b. Back up the Copilot (timing, landmark IDs, systems and fuel monitoring, etc.).

c. Fly all takeoffs, landings, airdrops, and recoveries (both IMC and VMC).

d. Maintain a continuous outside scan for traffic, birds, and terrain clearance and an
inside scan for the decision height light and engine instruments.

2. Copilot Duties (pilot not at the controls)

a. Back up the Pilot at the controls.

b. Navigate (use tactical pilotage to determine proper heading, altitude, airspeed and
timing necessary to fly the route).

c. Make appropriate time control adjustments to arrive at the objective point on time.

d. Handle all assigned radio communications.

e. Maintain a continuous outside scan for traffic, birds, and terrain clearance and an
inside scan for the decision height light and engine instruments.

3. Advisory Calls: Mandatory advisory calls follow. (The copilot will make these calls
except those designated for any crewmember.)

a. Takeoff. State "ROTATE" at takeoff speed. Any crewmember noting a safety of

flight malfunction before hearing "ROTATE" will state “ABORT” and a brief
description of the malfunction (e.g., "Abort, left engine flameout.”).

b. Climb out: Transition altitude. One thousand feet below assigned altitude.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

c. Descent: Transition level. One thousand feet above assigned altitude. One thousand
feet above initial approach fix altitude or holding altitude. One hundred feet above
procedure turn and final approach fix altitude.

d. Nonprecision approaches: One hundred feet above minimum descent altitude

(MDA). "Minimums" at MDA.

e. "Runway in sight." Call when the runway environment is in sight. Do not call too
soon when obstructions to vision, such as fog, haze, or low stratus clouds, are present.
"Go-around." Call at missed approach point if the runway environment is not in
sight.

f. Precision approaches: One hundred feet above decision height (DH). "Land." Call
at DH if the runway environment is in sight and the aircraft is in a position for a
normal landing. "Go-around." Make this call at decision height if the runway
environment is not in sight or if the aircraft is not in a position for a normal landing.

g. Low-levels: "Climb." Make this call anytime the decision height (DH) light comes
on during low-level flight.

h. Deviations. Tell the other pilot when altitude deviates 100 feet from desired altitude
if no attempt is being made to correct the deviation. Any crewmember seeing a 200-
foot altitude variation or potential terrain or obstruction problem will tell the pilot
immediately.

104. PREFLIGHT PLANNING

The success of LL depends almost entirely on thorough preflight planning. The primary method
of LL navigation is dead reckoning (DR). DR is simply holding a constant heading and airspeed
for a specified time. When planned correctly, DR navigation is virtually infallible with the
exception of unforeseen winds. On low-level sorties, navigate using DR and make corrections
by referencing ground checkpoints.

The following is a step-by-step outline for planning a LL mission. Use it as a checklist when
planning your missions. An in-depth discussion of each step follows the checklist.

1. Select an appropriate LL route. Consult FLIP AP/1B for possible published military
training routes (MTRs), or select a locally developed route. Estimate the fuel required and
schedule the route (if an MTR).

2. Check the weather (preliminary forecast) and NOTAMS.

3. Choose the appropriate chart.

4. Mark the published points and draw the route corridor (if an MTR).

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

5. Use the Chart Updating Manual (CHUM) information to update obstacles on your chart.

6. Locate the drop zone or landing zone, select the initial point (IP), turnpoints, and
checkpoints.

7. Draw course lines using radius of turn over turnpoints.

8. Use common chart symbology.

9. Determine headings, minimum and maximum altitudes, and times.

10. Compute groundspeed for each leg.

11. Calculate continuation fuels for each turnpoint.

12. Determine the route to the entry and exit points.

13. Complete DD Form 175 (if required).

14. Obtain final weather brief and DD form 175-1. Analyze final LL winds and make any
required corrections.

15. Perform the mission brief, do a route study, and review emergency procedures.

16. Fly the mission.

17. Debrief the mission.

Choose an MTR. AP/1B provides textual and graphic descriptions and operating instructions
for all MTRs. Three maps, covering the western, eastern, and central US, depict each low-level
MTR. These maps provide some specific information pertinent to each route (length of route,
direction of flight on the route, entry points, alternate entry and exit points, altitudes, etc.).
When using MTR charts, make sure you know how to correctly identify entry and exit points.
Common errors include incorrectly plotted coordinates and ignored restrictions (airports to
avoid, radio calls to make, etc.). Finally, you should know what the confines of the route are
(top, bottom, and lateral) so you can avoid unacceptable deviations. AP/1B breaks low-level
MTRs into three main types: IR, VR, and SR Routes.

1. IR Routes. IFR Military Training Routes (IR) must be conducted on IFR flight plans
regardless of weather conditions. Your flight plan must have the entry fix (radial and distance),
route designator, and the exit fix (radial and distance). You must enter and exit the route via
published entry and exit points or published alternate entry and exit points, and you must have a
specific ATC clearance prior to entering or exiting the route. Once on the route, you must
remain within the published route corridor (width and altitude). When practical, avoid flight
within 1500 feet AGL or 3 NM of airports. While AP/1B allows IR routes to be flown in IMC, it
also gives strong cautions when doing so.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

2. VR Routes. AP/1B’s guidance on VFR Military Training Routes (VR) is much less
restrictive. You should be on an IFR flight plan while going to and from your VR route. Your
flight plan must have the fix (radial and distance) of your entry point. You need your exit fix
(radial and distance) only if you are transitioning to IFR. You must still remain within the
published route and avoid airports by 1500 feet AGL or 3 NM when practical. The weather
requirements for flying a VR route are 3000 feet AGL and 5 miles visibility. Contact flight
service (FSS) on frequency 255.4 when entering the route and squawk 4000. While on the route,
you should monitor flight service.

IR-166 (3) Aircraft shall be scheduled with a minimum of 10 min longitudinal

separation.
ORIGINATING/SCHEDULING ACTIVITY: (4) The primary method invoking MARSA shall be by schedul-
COMTRAWING TWO NAS Kingsville, TX 78363 DSN 861- ing. All proposed users of IR-166 or any other approved IR route
6283/6108 C512-595-6283/6108. that is common with IR-166 or any part thereof, shall coordinate
that route with TRAWING TWO, NAS Kingsville, TX.
HOURS OF OPERATION: 0600-2400 local 7 days a week. (5) MARSA applies after acft have passed the entry point and
until standard ATC separation is established after exiting the
ROUTE DESCRIPTION: route.
(6) The lost communication route and altitude for all acft filed to
Altitude Data Pt Fac/Rad/Dist Lat/Long NAS Kingsville shall be Point J, direct NOI 270/015, maintain
As assigned to A NQI 116/24 27'16.0'N 97'26.0'W 7000 ft. Proceed via 15 mile DME arc either north or south as
SFC B 30 MSL to B NQI 134/31 27'05.0'N 97'27.0'W appropriate and complete the final portion of the TACAN 13R or
SFC B 30 MSL to C BRO 339/56 26'50.0'N 97'35.0'W 35R approach to NQI.
SFC B 30 MSL to D NQI 197/41 26'53.0'N 98'08.0'W (7) If NAS Kingsville is not the filed destination, all other pro-
SFC B 30 MSL to E NQI 254/41 27'25.0'N 98'34.0'W posed users shall exit at Point H, turn left, climb and maintain
SFC B 30 MSL to F LRD 079/34 27'30.0'N 98'47.0'W 7000 ft MSL and proceed as per the filed flight plan, while
SFC B 30 MSL to G LRD 050/36 27'47.0'N 98'50.0'W climbing, attempt to contact Houston ARTCC on 307.2 for fur-
SFC B 30 MSL to H LRD 047/51 27'57.0'N 98'37.0'W ther routing. If unable to contact the center, proceed to filed
SFC B 30 MSL to I NQI 274/32 27'37.0'N 98'23.0'W destination via route filed in flight plan or coded recovery route.
SFC B 30 MSL to J NQI 244/16 27'25.0'N 98'06.0'W CAUTION: Do not enter R-6312 without Yankee Target Control
NOTE: 0600 to sunset only - altitudes are SFC B 20 MSL. approval.
(8) All entry and exit points shall be compulsory reporting
TERRAIN FOLLOWING OPERATIONS: Authorized the points.
entire route. (9) ATC freqs: Point A to H, 291.6 or as assigned; Point H to J
NQI ATCF or as assigned.
ROUTE WIDTH - 5 NM either side of centerline from A to I; (10) Maintain 1500 feet AGL within 3 NM of Wyatt Ranch Airport
3 NM either side of centerline from I to J. located at 27'25.2'N 98'36.5'W 2 NM W of Point E.
(11) Scheduling of, or amendments to shall be coordinated with
Special Operating Procedures: the scheduling activity 2 hours prior to use in accordance with
Letter of Agreement between COMTRAWING TWO, Houston
(1) Route will be flown 250-420 knots, low-level navigation. ARTCC and NAS Kingsville ATCF
(2) Alternate Exit: H.

Figure 1-1 IR-66 Description

3. SR Routes. Slow Speed Low Altitude Training Routes (SR) are flown at or below 1500 feet
AGL at airspeeds of 250 KIAS or less. AP/1B specifically prohibits high speed aircraft from
flying SR routes. Even though all time spent on an SR route is VFR, you must still file a flight
plan. File to a fix most appropriate for the entry point of the route. If transitioning to IFR upon
exiting, file to a fix most appropriate for the exit point of the route. Stay within the published
corridor and squawk 1200 unless otherwise instructed by ATC. Aircraft flying SR routes must
have weather of at least 1500 feet AGL and 3 miles.

To choose a low-level route, consult FLIP AP/1B. Locate your departure field and destination
on the appropriate map and choose some potential routes (IR, VR, or SR). Figure 1-1 is the

LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION 1-5

CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

route description for IR 166. Note that NAS Kingsville is the Scheduling Activity for this route.
Coordinates are provided for each point and the corridor width is 5 NM (3 NM from I to J).
Acceptable altitudes during the route are from the surface to 3000 feet MSL. Pay special
attention to the Special Operating Procedures section for any additional restrictions that may
apply. If an appropriate MTR does not exist, a local route may be developed. Local routes are
designed to increase the flexibility of the missions and meet training objectives. They may be
published or unfamiliar routes. Published routes, developed by the stage manager and
distributed to everyone, may be MTRs or locally developed routes. Unfamiliar routes are local
routes designed with the intent of being flown only once and are usually developed by the
student and flown for their checkrides. Weather must be 1500/3 to fly a local route.

Estimate Fuel Required. When selecting a low-level route, consider the total fuel required to
take off, climb to altitude, cruise to the entry or alternate entry point, fly the route(s), climb to
altitude again, cruise to destination IAF, execute a penetration and landing, plus reserve and
required alternate fuel. Estimating the fuel required prior to the actual planning of the low-level
may save you time and effort.

Coordinate and Schedule the Route. When you schedule a route (may not be required for
local routes), tell the scheduler your planned entry and exit times (Z), total time on route,
groundspeed, type aircraft, call sign, and your name and phone number. Once scheduled, you
own the route during that time period, but only during that time period. For example: to
schedule MTRs in the local area, contact Kingsville Base Ops and provide the following
information: route number, time of entry, call sign, exit time, type of aircraft, and PIC. If you
are unable to meet your entry time, you must reschedule by contacting Kingsville Base Ops.
Consult the AP/1B maps to identify crossing routes. It is a good idea to call the schedulers of
crossing routes to check for potential conflicts along your route.

Check the Weather and NOTAMS. A preliminary look at weather and NOTAMs is next.
Give the weather forecaster an accurate description of your proposed route. For day routes, ask
for winds at 500 feet AGL and for night routes, use 1500 feet AGL. Ensure that you are briefed
on the forecast weather for the entire route and divert fields. The minimum weather to fly an IR
or VR route is 3000/5; SR and locally published routes require 1500/3. The weather minimums
for flying night low-levels will be the highest leg altitude plus 500 feet. Check NOTAMS for
arrival and departure airfields.

Choose the Appropriate Chart. The paragraph titled "Choose an MTR" describes different
navigational charts and the features of each. The chart you choose for your LL depends upon the
degree of detail necessary to complete the mission. Different charts will be required for different
types of missions. As a general rule, the greater the altitude, speed and distance of a flight, the
smaller scale of the chart. The type of information needed on the chart may determine the best
chart to use. Some missions may require two or more types of charts. For example, a mission
will typically require a TPC for the route and a JOG for the run-in to provide more detail.

To prevent misunderstandings about references on the chart, ensure all crewmembers use the
same scale chart. Be aware that different charts will show different references for the same
checkpoint (a road "Y" on a TPC may appear as a road "X" on a JOG).

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

Ensure your chart covers the entire route of flight, sufficient areas along your route, and alternate
or emergency fields. If you need more than one chart to completely cover the entire route,
overlap the identical features on both charts and tape or glue the charts together. Trim all charts
to a minimum size for ease of handling in the cockpit but be sure not to trim off alternate
airfields. Initially, do not trim your chart any closer than 22 NM of centerline until emergency
safe (ESA) and minimum safe altitudes (MSA) have been calculated. Make sure the chart you
select is current (see CHUM paragraph below).

Mark the Published Points and Draw the Route Corridor. Plot the points defined in the
route description section of FLIP AP/1B. You are not required to use these points as turnpoints
or checkpoints, but they define the centerline of the route from which you will draw the route
corridor. Take your time and plot the points carefully. Draw the route corridor as defined in
AP/1B. One technique is to draw a straight line very lightly in pencil between each published
point and use that line to measure the width of the route corridor. You may want to identify or
highlight the points that conflict with crossing routes. Locally developed routes do not have a
defined route corridor.

Use the CHUM. The CHUM contains a cumulative listing of uncharted obstructions 200 feet
and higher. When vertical obstructions form a multiple complex, only the highest obstruction
within this complex is listed. Plot all CHUM obstructions within 22 NM of course centerline.

First, be sure your chart is current. The National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) updates
aeronautical charts on a regular basis. Each chart has a basic publication date and an edition
number. Next, find the Chart Updating Manual (CHUM) and the latest monthly CHUM
supplement which list changes (new obstructions, etc.) discovered since the last revision. The
CHUM data can also be obtained electronically by modem, contact NIMA at DSN 693-4005 or
commercial (314) 263-4005. In Figure 1-2, the current edition (13) was last revised in
May 1993. Locate and make all changes to the chart by using the latitudes and longitudes given
in CHUM. Annotate on the chart the date of the CHUM used to update. The route or areas you
will be using are the only areas necessary to update. (The two altitudes listed are for obstruction
heights in AGL and MSL).

LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION 1-7

CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

TPC G-20D, Edition 13, May 93

N Delete Tower 229 – 1344 35 55 40N 97 30 20W
N Add Tower 295 – 1070 35 56 09N 96 16 46W
N Delete Tower 300 – 1300 34 50 43N 97 37 03W
N Add Tower 331 – 3513 33 39 47N 101 35 54W
N Delete Tower 200 – 970 33 50 50N 96 40 42W
N Add Tower 320 – 1117 33 30 30N 95 25 30W
N Change Tower 345-840 to multi towers 500 – 987 33 38 50N 95 01 16W
N Add Tower 709 – 3815 33 03 52N 101 52 35W
N Add Tower 449 – 3287 32 57 18N 101 08 55W
N Add Tower 500 – 1033 32 25 01N 96 46 11W
Figure 1-2 Updating Chart Manual Data

Locate the Drop Zone/Landing Zone and Initial Point (IP), Turnpoints, and Checkpoints.

1. The Drop Zone/Landing Zone and Initial Point (IP). Locate the objective first. Drop
zones are normally defined as either circular or rectangular and by size. A rectangular drop zone
will have a defined run-in course, which the aircraft must follow during the run-in. A circular
drop zone does not have a specified run-in course and may be approached from any direction.
Landing Zones are anything from major airfields to dirt strips. Check the orientation, length,
width, low in close obstacles, and gather any other information that may impact your mission. In
either case, choose an easily recognizable IP approximately 10 minutes from the target. The IP
provides a last checkpoint from which a final heading and timing update for the run-in can be
made. Choosing an IP that requires a minimal initial heading change normally ensures a more
precise final course to the target. Prominent intersections of rivers, roads, or terrain features
make good IPs.

2. Selecting Turnpoints and Checkpoints. A checkpoint is a landmark used to identify the

aircraft’s position. Be sure to select a checkpoint with a distinctive feature so you will be able to
positively identify it. Look for a peculiar bend in a road or river, an odd shaped lake or town, the
highest terrain in the area, or an airfield with a distinctive runway layout. Checkpoints should be
fixes that you anticipate being able to find. Figure 1-3 describes good features to use for
checkpoints. The position of the fix, relative to its anticipated position, provides course
guidance information. Arrival over checkpoints at an anticipated time confirms the accuracy of
the wind prediction and indicates reliability of the predicted track and GS. If checkpoints are
crossed at the wrong time, the GS is in error. If the aircraft passes near but not over a
checkpoint, the ground track is off. These statements assume you are planning on flying directly
over a checkpoint. You may use checkpoints that are near, yet not on, the route. A checkpoint
directly on course may be hard to find when you are directly over it. Use it as an aiming point
instead. The interval you choose between checkpoints depends on the speed of your aircraft and
the availability of checkpoints. Pick a distinctive checkpoint where a change in direction will be
made. Turning directly over the turnpoint will place you on course for the next leg. Choose an

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obvious turnpoint but try to avoid heavily populated areas as much as possible for community
relations as well as tactical reasons.

Construct your desired ground track from the entry point to the IP, using distinctive turnpoints.
Note the avoidance criteria for civil airfields and noise sensitive areas published in the special
operating procedures. Also consider aircraft turn performance and width of the route when
selecting your turnpoints.

You are free to select any turnpoints that will keep your ground track within the corridor. Select
two or three checkpoints for each leg, usually left or right of course, to monitor progress and
determine course or timing corrections. A checkpoint is good only if it provides you with useful
information. It must have a distinctive feature you will be able to recognize.

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Figure 1-3 Selecting Checkpoints

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There are a few specific details to be considered for each type of landmark.

1. Town. Look at the size and shape. Look at road patterns leading to and from the town.

2. Road. What is its direction? Does it have two lanes or four lanes? Are there any
prominent turns or intersections? Is the road paved or dirt?

3. Railroad Tracks. What is their direction? How many tracks (single or multiple track)?
Are there any prominent turns or crossings?

4. River. What is its direction? How wide is the river? Sometimes the only indication of a
river is a line of vegetation (as in South Texas). Does the river wind back and forth or is it fairly
straight? Are there any forks along the river? Is the river located on flat ground or in a valley?

5. Lake. How large is the lake? How is it shaped? Is there a dam? Are there any islands?
Do rivers flow into the lake?

6. Bridge. Not every bridge is shown on a chart; but where a highway or railroad crosses a
river, there is usually a bridge of some sort.

7. Crossing and Intersection. Usually there is an overpass or marked crossing when a road
or railroad crosses a major highway. Note how many roads make up the intersection and their
direction/orientation.

8. Airport. An airport can range from a single dirt strip to a multiple-runway complex. From
the charts, enroute supplement, and other FLIPs, you will get a fairly good description of the
airport. How many runways are there? What is the runway made of? If there is a rotating
beacon, where is it located? Although airports can be very helpful in identifying your position
(small dirt or abandoned runways are usually not helpful), avoid overflight to minimize potential
traffic conflicts. Also consider the direction and altitudes of any instrument approach procedures
into the airport. A quick look at an instrument approach plate will help you determine the best
direction of fly around most airports.

9. Terrain. Is there a large peak, deep canyon, or other prominent terrain feature? Examples
include a marsh, sand dunes, or other isolated features to help you fix your position.

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Figure 1-4 Ground References

As a composite example, look at the town of Falfurrias, TX, shown in Figure 1-4. First, the town
is fair sized (not just a few buildings), has an oblong shape, and is more or less oriented north
and south. There is a highway and railroad (single track) running north and south parallel to
each other with each railroad to the east. To the west of the highway is a powerline, also running
north and south. An east-west highway passes through town. To the southeast of town is the
Brooks County Airport (asphalt runway - 3300 feet) with a beacon on the north side of the field.
Farther to the southeast (about 5 NM) is a lake generally oriented east-west with two inlets and
bays at the western end. The southern inlet crosses the highway and railroad to the south of
town, and although there are no bridges indicated, there are two. Note the tower west of the
airport. To the northwest of town, an east-west powerline joins the north-south line. Note this
powerline crosses the east-west highway at a prominent bend. These are only a few of the
details that can be extracted from the chart.

Determine Turn Radius over Turnpoints and Draw Course Lines. Prior to drawing course
lines on your chart, you must consider the turn radius of your aircraft. Your turn radius can be
determined from the turning performance chart located in AFMAN 11-217 VOL 1. Turn radius
varies with TAS and bank angle. Use a tactical plotter to plot turn radius at various airspeeds
and bank angles. Align the straight edge of your plotter along your cruise line to the turnpoint.
For example, draw the turn radius using 30° angle of bank and 180 KIAS (on the tactical plotter
20°/150 KIAS). The course line to your next turnpoint should begin as a tangent line to the turn
radius. Continue this process for each turnpoint.

The IP to Drop Zone segment, or Run-In, should not include a turn radius. You should plan to
cross the IP on heading, altitude, and airspeed for the Run-In.

Required Chart Symbols. The use of each symbol shown in Figure 1-6 is briefly discussed
below.

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1. Turnpoint. This circle symbol identifies those points from route entry to the IP used to
identify turns. Circle the turnpoint so as not to obliterate detail.

2. Checkpoint. A checkpoint may or may not be marked with a particular symbol. It may be
identified as easily as remembering it from your route study, highlighting it with a marker,
marking it with an arrow, or actually circling it. Checkpoints are used to update your course and
time between turnpoints.

3. Initial Point (IP). This square symbol identifies the turnpoint prior to the drop zone. It is
a prominent point where an accurate track and time hack can be obtained. Since the IP is so vital
to your ability to find the drop zone, make it distinctive. A good technique is to limit your
heading change over the IP to 30° or less to ensure accuracy in navigation and timing.
Whenever possible, plan your low-level so you do not need to turn over the IP. Recheck your
clock at the IP for the run-in.

4. Drop Zone/Landing Zone. This triangle symbol identifies the ground reference for you to
be over on time for air-drop or touching down for air-land! If you plan the flight correctly and
fly the plan accurately, you will find yourself over the target on time.

5. Advisory Box. This symbol is used anywhere on the chart when information needs to be
highlighted. Examples of information included in an advisory box include mandatory reporting
points, frequency changes, or a route restriction with which you need to comply.

6. Course Arrow Box. This symbol is used at each turnpoint and the IP. There should be
enough information contained in the course arrow box to enable you to fly the low-level.
However, too much information will keep your head inside the cockpit at a time when you need
to be flying the aircraft. You can personalize the information as you see fit.

7. Alternate and Emergency Airfields. This symbol is used to mark all suitable airfields
that may be used for divert fields in case of aircraft emergencies, weather, etc.

8. Controlling Obstacle. This diamond symbol is used to mark the highest manmade
obstacle, structure or terrain feature within 5 NM either side of your course. This point is used
to determine your Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA). This symbol will also be used to mark the
Emergency Safe Altitude (ESA) which is based on the highest manmade obstacle, structure or
terrain feature within 22 NM of your course.

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Figure 1-5 Required Chart Symbols

NOTE

The Drop Zone symbol is the same for Landing Zone

Determine Headings, Minimum and Maximum Altitudes, Times, and Continuation Fuels.

1. Headings. Use a plotter to measure true course (TC). Adding (west) or subtracting (east)
variation finds the magnetic course (MC) from TC. Place the MC in the course arrow box, but
this is not necessarily the heading you will fly in the aircraft. Each time you fly this low-level
route, you will spin the winds to compute your wind-corrected magnetic heading (MH). On the

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day of the flight, your drift correction (DC) or MH can be placed just above the MC on your
map. MH is what will be flown in the aircraft.

2. Minimum Altitudes. Low-Level navigation is flown at an altitude of 500 to 1500 feet AGL.

a. Day VMC. Plan a minimum of 500 feet AGL using visual reference and the radio
altimeter. Modified Contour flight is defined as flight in reference to a base altitude
(500 feet AGL) above terrain with momentary deviations above and below the base
altitude for terrain depressions and obstructions to permit a smooth flight profile.

b. Night VMC. Prior to slowdown, fly each leg or segment of the route at an indicated
altitude of 1000 feet above the highest man-made obstacle or terrain feature and spot
elevation within 5 NMs of route centerline to include the aircraft turning radius over
each turnpoint. If the altitude for the next leg is higher than the current leg
altitude, the climb will be completed prior to the turnpoint. If the altitude for
the next leg is lower than the current leg, do not initiate descent until over the
turnpoint.

c. Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA). MSA is an initial VFR altitude which provides
terrain clearance while the aircrew analyzes situations that require interruption of
low-level operations (route disorientation and equipment malfunctions or when either
pilot must leave the seat during low-level operations, etc.), yet limits threat detection.
A MSA may be computed for each leg, route segment, or entire low-level route.

The MSA is calculated by adding 500 feet to the highest man-made obstacle or
terrain feature within 5 NMs of course centerline. Calculate an MSA for each leg of
the low-level route. Do not fly lower than calculated night altitude on night low-
levels until the drop zone is positively identified.

d. Emergency Safe Altitude (ESA). This altitude is calculated (and rounded to the
next highest 100 foot increment) to ensure terrain clearance in the event a crew must
abort an MTR when the weather is insufficient to continue the route, or an aircraft
malfunction requires termination of the low-level route. It provides 1000 feet of
clearance (2000 feet in mountainous terrain) from the highest obstacle within 22 NM
on either side of course for the entire low-level route. Under normal circumstances,
you exit the route under VFR conditions or on an IFR clearance. However, due to a
delayed pilot decision, an aircraft malfunction, becoming lost or disoriented, or
rapidly deteriorating weather, you may have to perform an emergency climb through
the weather to the computed ESA. You are expected to plan ahead and make timely
decisions concerning the need for route aborts. If the need arises, do not hesitate to
transition to instruments, roll wings level, and initiate a climb to this altitude. The
acceleration can give you a feeling of excessive pitchup; it is vital you crosscheck
your attitude indicator. Do not attempt to reenter the route once you initiate the
route abort. Proceed to your destination and analyze what happened and why.

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

3. Maximum Altitudes. You must comply with a maximum altitude on your low-level
routes. FLIP AP/1B defines the vertical limits of your route corridor. Ensure you do not exceed
the published vertical limit of the route when correcting for obstacles. If required, go around the
obstacle instead of over it. There is not a maximum altitude for non-MTR routes.

4. Times. Plan to fly an indicated airspeed that gives you 180 knots groundspeed considering
the predicted winds enroute.

Place one-minute timing marks between all turnpoints. Arriving at a preplanned Time over
Target (TOT) is the desired techniques for low-levels and here are two techniques to help you
arrive at your TOT:

a. Leg Time. This is the amount of time from one turnpoint to the next. Hack the clock
at the first point and again at each turnpoint along the way. You may find leg time
useful for locating individual turnpoints because it eliminates the cumulative error of
running time.

b. Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA). This is the time you compute on the clock at
each turnpoint. In-flight GS corrections are based on your planned ETA.

5. Compute Indicated Airspeed for Each Leg. Using preflight winds, calculate the
necessary indicated airspeed to maintain 180 knots groundspeed. Use NATOPS or the wind side
of your whiz wheel (or CR-2) to determine headwind/tailwind corrections.

6. Calculate Continuation Fuels for Each Turnpoint. Continuation fuel is the minimum
amounts of fuel required at each turnpoint to be able to continue with the flight planned route
and proceed to the destination with required reserves. Compute continuation fuel by starting at
the destination and working backward. Add the amount of fuel required to fly each portion of
the flight plan from the destination all the way back to initial takeoff. If you arrive at a turnpoint
below your calculated continuation fuel, modifications will need to be made.

An immediate abort is not necessarily required. Modifications to the escape/recovery may be

made or you may terminate the route early and fly direct to the destination. Compare fuels while
straight and level (i.e., before or after the turn, NOT DURING THE TURN).

7. Determine Your Entry and Exit Route. Plan an appropriate route of flight to and from
the low-level route. Plan your entry onto the route carefully. You will find that crossing your
hack point on heading, airspeed, and altitude will make the rest of the low-level go smoother.
The following techniques should help you get to your entry point easily:

Use your chart to allow room to maneuver so you approach the entry point on the heading you
have planned for your first leg. In most cases, you will be descending from an IFR altitude onto
the route. Plan the descent carefully by allowing distance from an IFR altitude onto the route
and allowing distance for smooth clearing turns while descending on course. Carefully study the
terrain surrounding the entry point to ensure your route altitude provides adequate terrain
clearance for the entry area.

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When flying a VR route, squawk 4000 and report entering the route to FSS. Monitor 255.4 on
the route. While on an IR route, squawk your assigned code and monitor your assigned
frequency. Squawk 1200 and monitor 255.4 to the max extent possible while flying a SR route.

Ensure both crewmembers hack their clocks at the entry point. Carry a stopwatch as a backup to
the aircraft clock. One crewmember will give a verbal “Ready, Ready, Hack!” command over
the entry point. This will ensure both pilots are using the same timing throughout the route.

Carefully plan the exit from the MTR. Know what altitude to climb to, what heading to fly, what
frequency to be on, what NAVAID to tune, who to contact, and what to say. Be prepared to fly
your flight-planned route via the VFR map. Due to your low altitude, you may not be able to
receive NAVAIDs.

8. Complete a DD Form 175. General Planning and AP/1B explain how to fill out a DD
Form 175 for a typical low-level. The format for completing the DD Form 175 differs for
different types of routes (i.e., IR vs. VR).

9. Obtain Weather Information. Weather conditions can have a major, and sometimes
tragic, impact on low-level operations. Before you fly, get the best weather briefing you can.
You may wish to supplement your information by phoning a FSS near your route and ask for a
local observation. Obtain all possible weather information and always keep the abort option in
mind.

105. MISSION BRIEFING

1. Perform a Route Study. Once the mission planning is complete and the charts are
constructed, it is time for a thorough route study before actually briefing the mission. The route
study itself should be a detailed examination of the LL route and its surroundings. By reviewing
the chart, note whether the area is flat, mountainous, coastal or inland. When studying the route,
consider the direction of hills in ranges, steepness of slopes, ground elevations, and valley
characteristics. If the route shows water features or coastlines, look for distinct features of lakes,
inlets or islands. Wooded areas and farmland may be good landmarks if the shapes are
distinctive. Keep in mind that some areas could easily change with increased industry or
changing seasons. Similarly, railways and roads should be examined for distinguishing features.
Note any special features (towers, power lines, etc.) and their relationship to your route. A
common route study technique, referred to as “big to little,” starts by identifying the largest
terrain features, such as mountains along the route left or right of course centerline.
Systematically narrow down the terrain features to the smallest such as riverbeds. During your
route study you should interpret the contours for each leg of the route to form a mental picture of
the terrain. Identify those features that will most probably stand out, particularly those that will
help you identify your turnpoints. Note any hazards. This is also a good time to get in the habit
of using proper identification techniques. You can do this by using positions of towns and other
checkpoints instead of names. For example, use “the two o’clock town” versus the name of the
town. A good technique is to identify three checkpoints along each leg during the brief.

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You must know how to read a chart and interpret terrain contours. If you do not, you will end up
“thumbing the chart” - continuously referring to the chart to determine your position along the
route by attempting to identify terrain features, roads, or towns you are flying over or have
already passed. This completely contradicts the purpose of DR navigation. To avoid thumbing
the chart, identify checkpoints by the clock to chart to ground method. This technique requires
you to locate your position on the chart using elapsed time, choose a landmark confirming your
position and find it on the ground. An example of this thought process would be: “At four
minutes on this leg (clock), I should be crossing a road (chart) coming out of a town 3 miles off
my left wing. There is a road at 11 o’clock coming from a town to my left (ground)”. Repeat
this process step by step, and work your way to your destination. Do not pick points too far
ahead or too far to the side. Generally, at low to medium altitudes, you should be looking for
points 2 to 5 minutes ahead - depending on your aircraft speed and altitude - and have them in
sight and identified by 1 minute out. You must have confidence that you do not need to identify
every road, river, and town along the way to arrive at the drop zone on time. Again, if you plan
and study the route correctly and do no more than fly heading, airspeed, and time, you will get to
the drop zone on time. FLY THE PLAN! Thumbing the chart keeps your head inside the
cockpit and has you looking over your shoulder at where you have already been. Not only is this
ineffective, it is also dangerous. By thumbing your chart, you have negated your crosscheck and
are not clearing your flight path.

Good LL preparation is a must. Thorough preflight study of the route (before you come in for
the brief), good knowledge of timing and tracking correction techniques, and proper chart
management will give you confidence in DR and get you to the drop zone on time.

2. Brief the Mission. Be ready for the brief. Use approved briefing guides and visual aids,
as appropriate. Have charts ready, both enroute and run-in, stick diagrams, Form 280 (for
formations), weather, NOTAMS, and airfield information completed prior to the brief.

106. LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION FUNDAMENTALS

Dead Reckoning and Pilotage

1. Dead Reckoning (DR). DR navigation using airspeed, time, and heading is your primary
means of low-level navigation. It is simple, reliable, and requires only a clock, navigational
charts, and compass. Although internal and external devices are great aids to navigation, they
cannot be totally relied upon. Even with modern technology, a pilot must master the basics of
DR because other means of navigation may be lost or degraded. A NAVAID requires ground
stations and a line of sight to the station to establish a fix. The only other means of navigation
available in the T-44/TC-12 is visual. However, since lateral and forward visibility is limited
when flying near 500 feet AGL, visual checkpoints and ground references are often difficult to
locate and confirm.

Precise DR navigation requires flying an exact heading, for an exact time, at an exact airspeed
and then turning with a precise bank angle to the next heading. Heading control allows you to
navigate from one point to another. Precise airspeed control results in the correct time between
two turnpoints; if you are unable to locate your turnpoint, you must turn to the next heading at

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the calculated time. Nothing else should be done during or immediately after the turn;
concentrate on clearing and completing the turn.

Pick a point or feature in the direction of your next leg, turn to that feature, and then fine-tune
your new heading. High speed, high bank-angle turns are not the time to be checking fuel or
trying to read your chart. Fold the chart so the track is easily followed. Ensure usable features
off track are not hidden and that chart creases occur in midtrack after a checkpoint and not at a
high workload time. Try to arrange folds so you simply turn the chart over or refold only once.

If there is not a good reference for a turnpoint, you must fall back to pure DR navigation and turn
on time. Conditions sometimes exist that make chart reading extremely difficult (for example,
flight over an extensive area of featureless land or water). Continue to adjust your IAS until
aircraft position and lapsed time coincide. Remain on track by making frequent crosschecks at
predetermined points. When landmarks are identified that show you are off track, immediately
correct back to your desired ground track to avoid having to make a large heading change later.

Figure 1-6 Funneling Features

2. Orientation. Because an aircraft travels in three dimensions, it does not take long to lose
your positional awareness. Although it is easier to become disoriented when flying over
featureless terrain, it is also possible in a heavily populated area where there are a number of
roads and small towns that look alike. Therefore, you must study your chart to get a good idea of
what you will see from the air.

Knowing the approximate time of day and location of the sun can help you keep track of the
direction of flight and the turns you have made. Your instructor knows the terrain you will be

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

flying over in great detail, but will leave orientation matters up to you as much as possible. Your
instructor will teach you to recognize the checkpoints along your route or ground references in
the training area. You should be able to get to any of the nearby airports and know the main
roads, cities, hills, rivers, etc., of your local training areas.

3. Positive Identification. Before you use a checkpoint, make sure it is the right one. Before
the mission, learn what you can expect to see by studying the chart and it’s legend. While
flying, use DR to determine when you will reach the next checkpoint. Look for features that will
help you locate the point as far out as possible. Remember, if you are looking for a point on
course, you will not be able to see it once it goes under the nose of the aircraft. Do not forget
clock to chart to ground. If the timing is not right, it may not be the correct point.

Hold the chart so your course points toward the nose of the aircraft. If the checkpoint is to the
right of course on your chart, it should be to the right of the aircraft. Always fly “up” the chart.
Get the approximate position of the aircraft by DR. Select an identifiable landmark on the chart
at or near the DR position.

When you are uncertain of your position, check every possible detail before identifying a
checkpoint. The relative position of roads, railroads, airfields, and bridges make good
checkpoints. Intersections and bends in feature, such as a major city, select a small prominent
checkpoint within the large landmark to fix the position of the aircraft (like an outdoor theater,
oval running track, etc). Look for funneling features to help take you to your turnpoint or
checkpoint. A funneling feature is any item that leads you to the turnpoint. An example is
shown in Figure 1-6. Note how the railroad, road, and river help lead you toward the turnpoint.

4. When a landmark is not available as a reference at a scheduled turnpoint, make the

turn at the estimated time of arrival (ETA)! Extend the DR position to the next landmark,
and fix the position of the aircraft to make sure course and GS are being maintained.

Be sure to adjust your timing if you know you are ahead or behind timing due to airspeed
deviations or wind effects. It is easy to talk yourself into erroneously matching points on the
ground with similar points on the chart. Most point recognition involves shape or pattern
matching. Look for distinctive bends in rivers or shapes created by their intersections. When
looking for streams or rivers, only the largest will have water visible. In many cases there will
be foliage hanging over the stream and you will have to find the stream or river by changes in
coloration, density, or size of the foliage growing along the water.

5. Contour Map Reading. Contouring is the most common method of showing relief
features on a chart. Contours are lines that, at certain intervals, connect points of equal
elevation. To understand contours better, think of the zero contour line as sea level. If the sea
were to rise 10 feet, the new shoreline would be the 10-foot contour line. If the water continues
to rise, the 20-, 30-, and 40-foot contour lines could be seen.

Contour lines are closer together where the slope is steep and farther apart where the slope is
gentle. Within the limits of the contour intervals, the height of points and angle of slope can be
determined from the chart.

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Military operations require the analysis of contour-labeled charts to visualize the land. In
operational planning, this is of the utmost importance, whether it is planning a route for a safe
flight or determining the best escape route from enemy territory. In pilot training, you may use
roads and towns as checkpoints.

6. Estimating Distances. After you have positively identified the checkpoint, you may have
to estimate your distance from it. Learning to judge distances comes mainly through experience.
Here are some techniques you can use:

If a checkpoint is 45° below the level of the horizon, the distance from the aircraft position on
the ground to checkpoint is equal to your altitude above ground (AGL). Other angles and
approximate distances are shown in Figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7 Estimating Distance by Angles Below the Horizon

You may also estimate distances by first measuring the distance between two checkpoints on the
chart. Use this reference as a guide for estimating other distances. For example, in Figure 1-8,
towns A and B are measured on the chart to be 10 miles apart. You are about twice that distance
from town A (or about 20 miles). Some parts of the country have section lines spaced
approximately 1 mile apart. To determine a distance, simply count the section lines.

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Figure 1-8 Estimating Distances by Comparison

7. Position Fixing. Checkpoints are used to determine a fix. A fix is a definite position or
point on the ground indicating the position of the aircraft at a definite time. You establish a fix
by noting the relationship of the aircraft to one or more checkpoints. There are three basic types
of fixes. The simplest type of fix is flying directly over a checkpoint. A second type of fix is
distance and direction from a checkpoint. An example of this type of fix is knowing that your
aircraft is 5 miles north of a small town. The third type of fix is establishing aircraft position by
its direction from two checkpoints. An example of this type of fix is placing the aircraft north of
a town and west of a lake.

8. Turnpoints. Fly directly over turnpoints unless deviating for known threats or when
making timing corrections. When approaching the turnpoint, ensure the PAC positively
identifies the correct point. Over or abeam the point say “ready, ready, turn” to ensure that
everyone knows it is a turnpoint and not a checkpoint.

9. Corrections to Course and Time. You will find you can get very close to a target simply
by using DR navigation. Use the chart for course control and timing accuracy. Occasionally,
you will find it necessary to make an in-flight correction to course or airspeed because of
improper heading control, improper power control, faulty flight planning, winds stronger than
forecast, etc. Making in-flight corrections to course and time are simple, however you must
know how far off course you are before determining a correction. Making a correction without
knowing your exact location typically results in greater error!

a. Course Corrections. Use the following techniques, in the following order, to correct
course deviations:
Aim for a feature in the distance that is on course. Before selecting your point,
ensure you are on course and have rechecked your heading system for accuracy. This

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will keep you on course. As you get closer to your selected point, recheck your
heading system and select another feature that is on course.

Keep doing this until you find and positively identify your turnpoint or turn on time.
Use funneling features between 10 and 2 o’clock to steer back to course. You may
find roads on either side of you that converge on your checkpoint. A valley between
two ridgelines may lead you directly to your checkpoint. Funneling features are
relatively common, but they might not be obvious. Study your chart for possible
funneling features prior to flight. Again, make sure you know where you are and
where you should be before making a course correction. A good technique is to
confirm your current position by at least two other references before making a course
correction.

If you cannot find any features between 10 and 2 o’clock, use a technique known as
Standard Closing Angle (SCA). SCA is calculated by dividing 60 by your GS in
NM/min. This results in an SCA of 20° for 180 knots GS. The SCA is then applied
to your planned heading and held one minute for every mile you are off course. You
could also apply double the angle for half the time (40° for 30 sec per mile off course)
but as you increase the heading corrections, you will increase the timing error your
correction induces. Making too rapid or too acute a correction may affect your
timing. For instance if you were 2 miles left of course and chose to turn 90° right for
2 miles and then 90° left on course, you would increase your overall running time by
40 seconds at 180 knots GS.

An example of a course correction follows: you confirm you are 2 miles left of
course and want to correct to course minimizing timing errors. You cannot find a
feature in the distance that is on course and you cannot find any funneling features to
steer back to course. You decide to use the SCA to correct. With 180 knots GS you
would turn 20° right for 2 minutes (or 40° right for 1 minute). The correction you
choose depends on the length of the leg on which you are making the course
correction. A short leg may not allow you to make a 2-minute correction. When
back on track, analyze why you got off track. Were you holding the desired heading
or did you let your heading drift? Is your RMI/HSI working properly or do the winds
appear different than planned? Whatever you determine, apply the appropriate
corrections to avoid repeating your mistake.

b. Timing Corrections. Timing corrections are simply a matter of changing your GS

for a period of time or off-course maneuvering. Off-course maneuvering will change
the distance you fly which will affect your timing. All timing corrections should be
made prior to the IP. No timing corrections shall be made from the slowdown to the
DZ/LZ. The following methods are recommended:

i. Off-Course Maneuvering. Off-course maneuvering works well on routes that

are circular (semicircular) or have turns of more than a few degrees between
legs.

LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION 1-23

CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

If a route has three legs that are 90° to each other, as in Figure 1-9, you can
adjust your turn to either lose or gain time think of it as a parallelogram. For
example if you have confirmed you are one minute early at a previous
checkpoint you can simply turn 30 seconds past your next turnpoint. At 180
knots GS you will travel 1.5 miles in 30 seconds so if you parallel your course
1.5 miles to that side and turn abeam your next turnpoint you will lose 1 minute.
The same technique will work if are late - you just turn 30 seconds early at your
turnpoint.

Figure 1-9 Timing Correction

A circular or semicircular route allows you to cut off part of the route to make
up time. You can just skip one turnpoint or turn prior to reaching a turnpoint.
When you skip a turnpoint, estimate the distance to the new turnpoint, calculate
the time it will take you to cover that distance, and then add up the time it
would have taken to fly the two legs you skipped. The difference in time
between the original route and the new route is the time you saved. The same
theory is used if you turn early at a turnpoint as in Figure 1-10 and intercept the

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

next turnpoint. Just take the difference of what you are going to fly and the
original track. Be sure that if you maneuver off-course more than 5 miles you
figure a new MSA for your new course.

Figure 1-10 Timing Triangle Corrections

ii. Proportional Method. For every second off of your planned ETA, change
your IAS by 1 kt and hold this new airspeed for the number of minutes equal to
your GS in miles per minute. For example, you are traveling at 3.0 NM per
minute at a 180 kts GS. If you arrive at a checkpoint 10 seconds early, decrease
your airspeed 10 kts for 3.0 minutes. This relationship can be modified to
optimize timely corrections. You may decrease your airspeed 30 kts for 1
minute or 15 kts for 2 minutes. Again, the amount of time you spend making
the correction depends on how quickly you want the correction to occur.

iii. Ten Percent Method. To use this method you will need to know the amount of
time to gain or lose. This amount is calculated by taking 10 percent of the
flight-planned GS (10% x 180 kts = 18 kts). The rule states that holding the 10
percent increase or decrease in flight-planned GS for 10 minutes gains or loses

LOW-LEVEL NAVIGATION 1-25

CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

1 minute. This also means you can gain or lose 6 seconds for every minute the
adjustment is made (Figure 1-11).

Time ahead Time to hold

or behind speed change
(seconds) (minutes)
6 1
12 2
18 3
24 4
30 5
36 6
42 7
48 8
54 9
60 10

Figure 1-11 Ten Percent (10%) Method

iv. Incremental Method. To determine the increment, first find your groundspeed
in nautical miles per minute (180 kts = 3.0 miles per minute). Multiply this by
10 to get the increment (3.0 x 10 = 30). Divide your time ahead or behind (in
seconds) by 10 to determine the number of minutes to hold the correction. For
example, if you are 50 seconds late, you must hold the 30-kt correction
(increment) for 5 minutes (50 sec/10). Note that you will gain or lose 10
seconds for every minute that you hold the increment (Figure 1-12).

Try to have your overall timing corrections accomplished by the time you arrive at the IP.
Likewise, when back on time, analyze why you got off time. Also check that you are now
maintaining the correct or new IAS (if one was required).

NOTE

If you are close to continuation fuel, beware of increasing your

speed too much. The increase in fuel consumption may force an
early return to base. In this situation, it may be better to accept and
allow the timing error.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

Time ahead Time to hold

or behind speed change
(seconds) (minutes)
10 1 min
15 1 min 30 sec
20 2 min
25 2 min 30 sec
30 3 min
35 3 min 30 sec
40 4 min
45 4 min 30 sec
50 5 min
55 5 min 30 sec

Figure 1-12 Incremental Method

107. FLYING THE ROUTE

Route Entry. This is probably the most difficult part of low-level training. Get your chart out
and begin DR right after takeoff (complete your checklists before you pull out the chart). You
will be more successful if you begin with a known point (your departure base) and then chart
read continuously to the route entry. If possible, have a radial/DME backup for the entry point.
This will help you locate ground features and prevent you from becoming temporarily
disoriented prior to route entry. Try to identify the entry point as early as possible to allow for
time to get lined up, coordinate with the appropriate agencies, etc.

Call “ready, ready, hack” at the entry point and hack both clocks. Broadcast entering the route
and route flying on base frequency. Notify FSS on 255.4 when entering an IR or VR route.
Give them your call sign, route, entry point and time, and exit point and time. Because your
route probably has alternate entry and exit points, be sure to announce the points you will be
using to the applicable agency. There is no requirement listed in FLIP AP/1B to contact any
ATC agency when entering an SR route, but FLIP does state that you should monitor 255.4 if it
is not detrimental to your mission. Work hard to achieve a smooth route entry so you do not
start behind the power curve.

On the Low-Level. Clearing (outside scan) cannot be overemphasized! Typically, most

student pilots will be guilty of “thumbing the charts.” It is very unlikely you can effectively
clear with your head down, thumbing your chart. A thorough route study on the ground must
include an examination and explanation of how the terrain is laid out, both on and to either side
of the route. A proper understanding of DR will maximize training and flight safety. Update
points should be preplanned; they should not just occur every half-mile.

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Now that you are clearing, the navigating should be easy. After your thorough route study, you
should not have to spend much time determining that the little squiggly line is really a railroad.
Instead, you will be navigating by DR and position identification. Initially, students tend to
“chart read” behind the aircraft. Your instructor will teach you how to anticipate and predict
what lies ahead. You should know the distinguishing features of landmarks ahead so you can
make a quick positive identification as they pass. This skill prevents you from watching a
feature go under the nose and then attempting to confirm it against the chart. Additionally,
timely position verification is the only basis for using all those nifty time and course correction
techniques. Do not forget clock-to-chart-to-ground navigation. This method helps you stay
ahead and prevents the normal student pilot procedure (ground-to-chart-to-ground-to-IP).
Remember, DR is what flying low-level is all about.

DZ Transitions

Slowdown. Since we will be simulating an airdrop at times, we need to slow from the enroute
groundspeed, to the drop airspeed. We also need to be stabilized at drop altitude over the DZ for
the airdrop. Drop altitude is determined by adding 1000 feet above the highest point on the DZ.
The highest point on the DZ can be found on the DZ survey. Slowdown should be planned to
allow time to stabilize on airspeed and altitude at least one minute prior to green light (TOT).
Slowdowns will be accomplished in one of the following two ways depending on the initial
altitude.

1. Ascending Slowdown. Typically for a day low-level, we will be flying at 500 feet AGL.
This will necessitate a climb to drop altitude (1000 feet AGL) during slowdown. To execute an
ascending slowdown, notify the PAC “30 seconds to slowdown, 5 seconds to slowdown,
slowdown, slowdown, now.” The PAC will reduce power to 400 ft-lbs and initiate a climb at
1000 FPM. When the airspeed is below approach flap limiting airspeed, extend flaps to
approach and continue to slow to a drop airspeed of 120 KIAS (T-44)/130 KIAS (TC-12) while
leveling at drop altitude. Maintain drop airspeed and altitude until the escape maneuver is
initiated.

2. Descending Slowdown. For a night low-level, we will normally be at an altitude higher

than drop altitude. To execute a descending slowdown, notify the PAC as in the above
paragraph. The PAC will reduce power to idle and maintain altitude. When airspeed is below
approach flap limiting speed, extend flaps to approach and continue slowing to a drop airspeed
of 120 KIAS (T-44)/130 KIAS (TC-12) while maintaining altitude. After slowdown, when the
DZ is in sight and will remain in sight or when a positive position is identified and adequate
terrain clearance is assured, the aircraft may descend to drop altitude. Stabilize at drop airspeed
and altitude until the escape maneuver is initiated.

NOTE

No timing adjustments shall be made from the slowdown to the

drop zone.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

Simulated Airdrops. We will be simulating airdrops on several drop zones. A drop zone is a
geographic location that has been surveyed by a team and approved for airdrops.

Actual drop zones will have some kind of marking to identify the drop zone and define where the
load should impact (Point of Impact, PI). The markings are briefed prior to the flight and will
consist of a Block Letter, Raised Angle Marker (RAM), smoke, flares, mirrors, etc., or any
combination of these. Rectangular drop zones will be marked towards the front, while circular
drop zones are marked at the center. The drop zones we simulate will not have markings.

One minute prior to reaching the point of impact (PI) on the drop zone, call "one minute
advisory". Five seconds prior to reaching the PI on the drop zone, call “5 seconds”. Call “green
light” when over the PI to simulate the airdrop. Green light time is defined as the amount of
useable time over the drop zone during which the load may be dropped and still land on the drop
zone. Red light denotes the end of green light time and will be called at the expiration of green
light time. Our simulated drop zones have been determined to have a green light time of 7
seconds.

Escape. At red light, retract the flaps, turn to escape heading, accelerate to enroute airspeed and
climb or descend as required.

LZ Transitions

Slowdown. Prior to any slowdown, accomplish the approach checklist, check WX, and make
traffic advisories. If traffic exists at the airfield enter a standard civilian pattern or abort the
approach attempt and continue on with the next part of the mission.

For landing zone transitions, slowdown is accomplished in one of two areas depending on your
planned airfield entry. For tactical arrivals that involve anything other than a straight-in,
slowdown is typically accomplished once in the airfield environment by executing an energy
dissipating maneuver to get the aircraft configured to land. For straight-ins, slowdown must be
done at a point prior to reaching the landing zone. The straight-in approach is the more
challenging of the two types. Wait too long to configure and you will have to go around
exposing your aircraft to possible enemy fire as you maneuver to get back to the airfield. If you
configure too soon, now your aircraft is moving slow and exposed on a straight line, making an
easy target for enemy forces to shoot at. For a basic idea on approach types available, see
Appendix E section 103 and ask your instructor about their experiences doing these types of
approaches.

Once slowdown has occurred, configure the aircraft as airspeed permits, complete the landing
checklist and back the PAC up by monitoring airspeed, aim point, and watching for any traffic.
Either a touch-and-go or a go-around may be accomplished depending on runway lengths/widths
available.

Escape/Transition. Once airborne, hack your clock, clean up the aircraft, turn to your next
course, and accomplish the climb checklist.

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

108. LIMITATION OF CHART READING

When used within its limitations, chart reading is the most dependable DR aid. If you have
unrestricted visual contact with the terrain and a reliable chart of the area, map reading is limited
only by your ability to read and interpret the chart. Other limitations can be grouped under one
heading, restrictions to visibility. These can be caused by weather phenomena, altitude,
darkness, or physical construction of the cockpit. When selecting suitable checkpoints, consider
these variables:

Weather Restrictions

1. Clouds. If they are below you, clouds can restrict visibility by obstructing checkpoints. If
they are above you, they will change the amount of light you have available to identify
checkpoints.

2. Haze and Smoke. When the fine dust, salt particles, or other impurities that are normally
dispersed in the atmosphere are trapped and concentrated in a limited layer, the resulting
restriction to visibility is called haze. The greatest restriction to visibility in haze usually occurs
when you look directly into the sun. The best visibility in haze is when you look straight down.
Smoke from industrial areas and forest fires often create smog; visibility in haze is similar to
smoke and smog.

3. Blowing Dust, Sand, and Snow. Blowing dust occurs in several regions when the air is
unstable and winds are relatively strong. The strong winds and vertical currents can spread dust
over wide areas and lift it to great heights. Surface, flight, and slant-range visibilities are greatly
reduced in blowing dust. Sandstorms are more local and occur where loose sand is found in
desert regions. Blowing sand is seldom lifted above 50 feet. When the wind is strong, blowing
snow reaching a few feet above the ground can be as troublesome as ground fog over snow-
covered regions.

4. Precipitation. Precipitation in the form of rain hinders visibility as it streaks over the
canopy. Drizzle and snow can reduce visibility even more.

5. Altitude. Your altitude poses a problem in determining how far and how well you can see.
At low altitudes, vertical differences in cultural and topographical features are more apparent
than general shapes viewed from above. Good low altitude checkpoints are tall buildings, grain
elevators, mountain peaks, radio towers, road crossings/bends and bridges. However, because
your range of vision is severely restricted at a very low altitude, your checkpoints must be close
together and close to course. This is something you should consider when initially planning a
low-level mission. You can use charted AGL tower heights to help determine your altitude
above the ground. For example, if you know you are flying abeam a 400-foot tower and the top
of the tower is even with the horizon, you know you are too low if you are supposed to be at
500 feet AGL.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER ONE

As your altitude increases, your ground-range visibility increases. Features such as roads,
railroads, and fence lines all look alike. Small towns become difficult to identify and you must
rely on large, prominent landmarks. Pinpoint fixing becomes more difficult.

109. NIGHT CHART READING

Night navigation is primarily done using DR. Fly the planned heading for the planned time at
the planned airspeed. Ground references are used to make corrections to DR navigation. The
primary altitude reference at night is the barometric altimeter while the primary reference during
the day is the RADALT. During darkness an unlit landmark may be difficult or impossible to
see. Lights can be confusing because they appear closer than they really are. Fixing on points
other than those directly beneath the aircraft is very difficult. Objects are more easily seen by
scanning or looking at them indirectly. This uses the portion of your eye best suited for night
vision. The pilot should preserve night vision by working with red lights or very dim white
light. Keep the cockpit lights as dim as possible and still see everything inside the cockpit. The
dimmer the interior lights, the better your outside visibility will be.

In moonlight, some prominent unlit landmarks are visible from the air. Coastlines, lakes and
rivers can be seen without difficulty. Sometimes reflected moonlight causes a river or lake to
stand out brightly for a moment, but this is usually too brief for accurate fixing. By close
observation, roads and railroads may be seen after the eyes are accustomed to the darkness.
Lighted landmarks, such as cities and towns, stand out more clearly at night. Large cities are
often be recognized by their shapes, but many small towns are darkened at night and are not
visible. Airfields with distinctive light patterns may be used as checkpoints. Military fields use
a double white and single green rotating beacon while civilian fields have a single white and
green beacon. At night, busy highways are discernible because of automobile headlights. The
key to night navigation is to choose very obvious, distinctive checkpoints (big picture) and keep
an eye on your timing.

110. DISORIENTATION

The seriousness of becoming lost is actually relative to the weather and terrain conditions
encountered during flight. It may not be serious to be 3 miles off course over flat terrain and in
an area of excellent visibility; but in mountainous terrain with poor visibility, being off course as
much as 2 or 3 miles can kill you.

If you are not completely sure where you are, but you know you are near your course, you
should start a climb to a higher altitude (ESA is a good choice) until you can positively identify
your position. Climbing will give you more references and help you get terrain clearance in case
you cannot figure out where you are. Try to climb at your enroute airspeed and turn on time.
Realize that winds in the climb and winds where you level off will be different from those at
your original altitude. If you are able to positively locate your position, take a serious look at
your fuel and remaining route to determine if you should resume your route at the original
altitude or stay higher for increased fuel range.

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CHAPTER ONE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

If you elect to continue the route, select a specific point, preferably a turnpoint, and positively
identify it. Then descend to the point and try to arrive over the point on the heading to the
following point. Make sure to hack your clock so you will be able to maintain positional
awareness for the remainder of your route.

If you realize you are totally lost, stay on your original heading, establish maximum endurance
airspeed, and climb to an appropriate VFR altitude that will give you terrain clearance. Attempt
contact with a FSS or ARTCC for the area you are flying in. A simple memory aid is “climb,
conserve, confess.”

111. COMMON ERRORS

You should be able to locate a visual fix without a doubt in your mind that it is the right one.
Some common map reading errors include:

1. Not holding desired heading and airspeed.

2. Trying to find ground features on the chart; always go from the clock, to the map, to the
ground.

3. Selecting points too far apart; select the closest feature or landmarks you think you will
see.

4. Attempting to look for points too close to the aircraft.

5. Overflying points due to underestimating speed.

6. Continuing on a route when lost.

7. Not turning on time if turnpoint is not found.

8. Misreading the time and losing positional awareness.

9. Not considering all factors to allow best observation of ground features.

10. Not properly backing up the pilot on aircraft control (e.g., altitude, airspeed, and heading).

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 CHAPTER TWO
TACTICAL FORMATION

200. INTRODUCTION

Tactical Formation (TF) is designed to teach basic pilot/copilot skills required for Tactical Low-
Level Formation Missions. TF will consist of either a two- or three-ship formation (“LEAD”,
“TWO”, and/or “THREE”) with the two ship formation the standard. If a third aircraft is
employed, it will fly in the “traditional” C-130 formation as part of the element. Tactics
employed here are based on C-130 tactics taught at Little Rock and used operationally
worldwide.

201. PROHIBITED MANEUVERS

1. Night Formation Flight is prohibited.

2. Fan Breaks (all aircraft execute break at the same time).

3. Intentional Formation Flight in IMC. This does not prevent a flight, if adequately
briefed, from flying an IFR clearance in VMC. The only situation that would warrant IMC
formation flight is a recovery with a wing who has lost communications and/or the radio
instruments necessary to execute an instrument approach, and is unable to continue in VMC. If
formation IMC flight is required, both IPs shall be at the controls.

202. FORMATION BRIEF

The formation brief will be attended by all formation members and shall be given by students
designated by the mission commander. Briefers will show a minimum of one hour prior to
formal brief time to prepare the briefing slides or the briefing book. The brief shall include, but
is not limited to the following:

1. Aircraft BUNO/side-numbers/call signs/parking positions/initial position assignments.

2. Communication:

a. Callsigns

b. Internal (interplane) frequency

c. External frequencies

d. Maneuver commands/terminology

e. Chattermark

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

3. Forecasted weather.

4. Sequence of events.

5. Departure procedures.

6. Airspeeds, climb/descent rates.

7. Route, min/max altitudes, obstacles, threats.

8. “ON-TOP” rendezvous points/Orbiting rendezvous altitudes.

9. Recovery: Brief the type of recovery, when to use ground idle, when to use brakes and
reverse, and when to clear the active runway.

10. Formation holding procedures.

11. Abnormal procedures:

a. Aborted Takeoff

b. Midair Collision

c. Lost COMM

d. Systems Failure

e. Engine failure

f. Inadvertent IMC

g. IMC Breakup

h. “KNOCK IT OFF”

12. Remarks and modifications.

Following the formation brief, each aircrew will individually discuss crew coordination/
responsibilities and complete a thorough route study and NATOPS brief.

203. CREW COORDINATION/RESPONSIBILITIES

Flightcrews need to exercise extreme vigilance throughout all phases of flight. Safe formation
flight requires exact crew coordination not only between the lead aircraft and wingmen, but also
within each cockpit. A thorough brief is the basis for good crew coordination. Crewmembers

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER TWO

should not hesitate to communicate any unsafe condition and take the appropriate action required
to prevent a mishap from occurring. Flight crew responsibilities are:

Mission Commander. A Mission Commander will be assigned (via annotation on the flight
schedule) for each formation flight. The mission commander is responsible for the safe and
orderly conduct of the flight, and makes decisions for the flight regarding weather, departure/
recovery, fuel requirements, operating areas, etc. This responsibility is held by the same pilot for
the duration of the event and does not change with in-flight lead transfer (i.e., the mission
commander may fly either LEAD or WING positions).

Formation Leader (LEAD). The formation leader is the PIC of the lead aircraft. The
formation leader changes with every lead change. Responsibilities include:

1. Conduct the flight in the briefed sequence.

2. Keep the flight clear of other aircraft (clearing), including any other low level traffic (local
or MTR) as well as identifying and avoiding terrain, birds, and manmade obstacles.

3. Maintain flight in VMC.

4. Ensure the flight remains on the assigned route (in compliance with course rules and ATC
clearances).

5. Initiate climbs, descents, turns, slowdowns and recoveries.

6. Ensure aircraft is flown precisely, giving wingman a stable platform to follow using the
following guidelines:

a. Climb and descend at 1000 fpm.

b. Lead will use a maximum of 1200 ft-lb (T-44)/2000 ft-lb (TC-12) and a minimum of
400 ft-lb.

c. Lead will plan to make all turns using 30º of bank. This does not prevent lead from
using 45º of bank if needed.

7. Ensure all necessary communications are accomplished.

Wingmen (WING). The primary duty is to maintain formation position relative to LEAD.
Additional responsibilities include:

1. Inform LEAD of any deviations from brief.

2. Acknowledge all interplane frequency changes and all required interplane radio calls.

3. Execute frequency changes.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

4. Functions as the weather ship during the flight (i.e., radar and radio calls to METRO/FSS)
and makes UNICOM voice reports.

5. Maintains overall SA and is prepared to assume the lead if needed.

Copilot (LEAD and WING). Primary duty is to back up the pilot during all phases of flight.
Additional responsibilities include:

1. Read and perform checklists when called for by the Pilot.

2. Monitor flight and engine instruments.

3. Enroute navigation (map reading, terrain avoidance and time control).

NOTE

During low-level operations, attention should be focused outside

the aircraft, emphasizing threat detection and situational
awareness.

204. COMMUNICATIONS (COMM)

COMM procedures shall be briefed and may be modified as required. Good COMM procedures
are essential for maintaining formation integrity. Aircrews shall minimize radio calls to reduce
frequency congestion. The two types of COMM are:

1. Internal COMM (Interplane). Internal COMM is communication between LEAD and

WING aircraft and is referred to as interplane. It is normally accomplished on a prebriefed
discreet VHF frequency. In the event that VHF is unavailable, UHF may be utilized; however,
UHF is normally used for External COMM (ATC communications). If acknowledgment of a
radio call is required from WING aircraft, use “2” or “3” vice the term “Roger”. Attempt to
maintain radio discipline as much as possible on interplane but do not hesitate to talk if
necessary for safety or continuation of the mission.

2. External COMM. External COMM is communication between formation aircraft and

ATC. It is normally accomplished on UHF with LEAD communicating for the formation. If
acknowledgment of a radio call is required from WING aircraft, use “2” or “3” vice the term
“Roger”. When directed to change to another frequency, LEAD replies “Roger, Montana/
Stingray xxx flight, push button XX (e.g., four).” WING will change to the appropriate
frequency; NO verbal response is required from WING.

In the event of an apparent breakdown in external COMM or a missed frequency change, resolve
confusion on interplane if possible. If unable, the flight should return to the last good frequency
to regain COMM. Appendix B has examples of the TACFORM COMMS.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER TWO

205. FORMATION EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

Aircraft emergencies or any situation that could result in a midair collision must be handled
quickly and safely. An aircraft with an emergency requiring immediate action will transmit
“KNOCK IT OFF”. Any time “KNOCK IT OFF” is called, training is finished and the
formation will return home, as this phrase is used to discontinue the training evolution. Upon
hearing this call, all aircraft shall break off any aggressive maneuvering and return to the enroute
position. Discuss the situation on interplane and stand by for lead’s direction. If necessary,
emergency aircraft will then obtain a separate ATC clearance and depart the formation. To
discontinue any type of maneuvering but continue on with the mission, the word
“TERMINATE” will be used.

Following is a list of unsafe situations/emergencies and appropriate procedures that shall be

briefed prior to each flight:

Inadvertent Weather Penetration Procedures (If IMC is unavoidable):

Note: The following procedure assumes in-trail position. If weather is entered while in fluid
trail, LEAD WILL BE DIRECTIVE. It is incumbent upon wingmen to inform lead of their
last position.

1. WING will advise LEAD if visual contact is deteriorating or is lost due to weather
conditions. WING will do this by transmitting that he has lost sight and give his last position in
relation to lead.

2. LEAD will transmit “Execute Inadvertent Weather Penetration” on interplane. LEAD will
include base heading and a base altitude (normally ESA) with his radio call. LEAD will climb at
enroute airspeed 1000 feet above base altitude. (Refer to Figure 2-1.)

3. TWO turns 45º away (normally right) from LEAD for 2 minutes while simultaneously
climbing at enroute airspeed 500 above base altitude.

4. THREE turns 45º away (normally left) from LEAD for 2 minutes while climbing at enroute
airspeed to base altitude.

5. If VMC is regained, LEAD will coordinate a rendezvous. If VMC is not regained, LEAD
will coordinate with ATC for separate IFR clearances to a recovery base.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure 2-1 Inadvertent Weather Penetration Procedures

WARNING

Inadvertent IMC procedure may not guarantee obstacle clearance.

It is the responsibility of all pilots in the formation to be aware of
terrain and obstacles along their flight path.

NOTES

1. If the formation is flown with only two aircraft, in the event

of inadvertent weather penetration, LEAD will still climb to 1000’
above the base altitude and TWO will climb to 500’ above base
altitude, and the phantom THREE will be at base altitude.

2. This procedure will be modified for alternate formation

geometries.

IMC Breakup. This procedure is used to transition from VMC formation flight to IMC single-
ship flight for recovery in less than VMC. LEAD will coordinate with ATC for individual IFR
clearances starting with the last plane in the formation. All aircraft will recover independently.

Radio and equipment failures. Any loss of internal or external communication ability, or the
loss of any equipment necessary to continue the mission shall be reported to LEAD as soon as

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER TWO

practicable. The following procedures will be followed if any aircraft in a formation loses total
COMM.

1. WING lost communications. WING will turn their rotating beacon and strobe lights off
and cautiously assume a loose line abreast position. LEAD (or other WING if a 3-ship) should
note WING’s beacon/strobes off and “tail wag” to tell WING that LEAD knows he’s NORDO
and to rejoin. After receiving no response from WING on interplane, inform ATC of NORDO
wingman, and lead the formation home. Normally, the affected aircraft will full stop while all
others wave off (this will preclude having any other aircraft on rollout with the NORDO
aircraft).

2. LEAD lost communications. LEAD will turn his beacon and strobe lights off and “tail
wag” by stepping lightly on the rudders. This should catch TWO’s attention. TWO should
assume a line abreast position. LEAD will signal that he has lost communications and clear
TWO to take the lead. The former LEAD then turns his beacon/strobes back on to signal the
completion of the lead change, exits the formation in the safest direction and rejoins at the end of
the formation.

NOTE

TWO will always assume LEAD regardless of formation size.

If necessary, use hand or other signals as briefed or contained in Section A of the Flight
Information Handbook.

Engine failure. The primary hazard during engine failure is a rapid loss of airspeed with
accompanying yaw into the dead engine. WING must be prepared for emergency evasive
maneuvering if LEAD loses an engine. Any aircraft with any sign of impending engine failure
shall call “KNOCK IT OFF”.

Mid-air collision. In the event of a mid-air collision, regain control and make a “KNOCK IT
OFF” call. Follow NATOPS procedures to determine aircraft controllability. Lead will
coordinate altitude assignments as necessary. If feasible, attempt to visually assess the other
aircraft’s damage as you regain separation. Do not reform, maintain well clear and recover as
the situation dictates.

206. PERTINENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE T-44A/TC-12B

The T-44A/TC-12B does not have a speed brake or any other device designed to slow the airplane
rapidly. The following is a brief discussion of various techniques to slow the T-44/TC-12, and
their applicability to formation training:

1. Pulling the power levers to flight idle will not immediately slow the airplane. Anticipation
(recognizing a closure rate on LEAD) and proper power reduction will decrease the probability
of an overrun. This is the best technique to control airspeed and relative motion.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

2. Although lowering the landing gear, extending the flaps, or placing the props full forward
will increase drag and decelerate the aircraft, these methods are impractical and should not
normally be used. If an overrun occurs, WING will notify LEAD (e.g., “TWO/THREE’s
overrunning on the left/right”) and turn away from the formation. Once proper spacing is
obtained, move back into the enroute position.

Visibility forward from and across the cockpit is limited due to the high glare-shield, windshield
supports, small side windows and the windshield wipers. Compensate for this by moving your
head to maintain visual contact with the other aircraft.

The side-by-side seating arrangement results in a slight difference (parallax) between the
copilot’s and pilot’s sight picture. For standardization, fly the checkpoints as seen from the PAC
seat.

Wingtip vortices may induce a strong rolling or pitching tendency. If encountering wake
turbulence, add power and attempt to climb up and away from the preceding aircraft’s
turbulence. You must exit the turbulence before you can fully regain control of your aircraft.

207. GROUND PROCEDURES

1. Prior to the brief, students shall obtain aircraft assignments and parking location from
Aircraft Issue.

2. During the “Before Start Checklist,” navigation lights should be turned ON to identify the
aircraft as part of a formation flight.

3. Upon reaching “Avionics Master” on the “After Start Checklist,” check-in as briefed per
your squadron’s standard. LEAD will initiate flight check-in and then change the flight to
“Formation Common” frequency. When checking in, if wingmen need more time to
troubleshoot a problem or complete the checklist, say “TWO/THREE needs a minute.” When
ready, WING says “TWO/THREE’s ready.” LEAD will call for taxi: “Montana/Stingray XXX,
flight of two/three, taxi with information Charlie, wingman’s side numbers are XXX, XXX.”

NOTE

Minimum taxi interval is two aircraft lengths. It is WING’s

responsibility to maintain proper taxi spacing.

4. In the run-up area, LEAD ensures sufficient room is available for WING to position their
aircraft.

5. LEAD will obtain a clearance and squawk and pass to WING. LEAD will squawk the
appropriate code for the entire flight. WING aircraft transponders shall be set to “standby”.

6. WING will check in when the “Takeoff Checklist” has been completed for C-12 or down to
the last five items for T-44.

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7. When the flight is ready, LEAD will call for further taxi.

8. Secure navigation lights and switch to tower frequency when approaching the hold short
line.

9. Ground Abort. If problems are encountered with your aircraft, inform the other aircraft of
your problem(s) and intentions. The other aircraft may elect to abort or continue with an
alternate mission. (If originally a 3-ship, the mission commander will determine if the formation
may continue as a 2-ship.)

208. RUNWAY LINEUP/TAKEOFF

1. LEAD positions on the left side of the runway. TWO positions on the right side of the
runway allowing tail-to-nose clearance. THREE positions directly behind LEAD with tail-to-
nose clearance from TWO.

2. After the formation receives takeoff clearance and all aircraft are in position, all aircraft
will set power IAW appropriate NATOPS, scan engine instruments and other formation aircraft
for loose panels and leaks. WING reports ready (i.e., “TWO’s in”, “THREE’s in”). LEAD
releases brakes, advances power slowly and smoothly to takeoff power, and begins the takeoff
roll.

3. Five seconds after LEAD commences takeoff roll, TWO releases the brakes and begins his
takeoff roll. THREE will delay five seconds after TWO.

4. During the takeoff roll, all aircraft shall remain on their respective side of the runway.

209. ABORTS

Aborts During Takeoff

1. The copilot immediately transmits an “abort” call on tower frequency using formation
position number (e.g., “Montana/Stingray XXX, TWO’s aborting, TWO’s aborting, TWO’s
aborting”).

2. Clear the runway as quickly as safety allows (i.e., taxi to the end of the runway).

3. WING aircraft not on takeoff roll will hold until the runway is clear.

4. If succeeding aircraft have already started takeoff roll, they shall also abort.

Airborne Aborts

1. Aircraft aborting during assembly will remain clear of departing traffic.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

2. Maintain VMC if possible and notify LEAD of intentions.

3. Contact the appropriate controlling agency and RTB via course rules.

210. DEPARTURE/ASSEMBLY

VMC. Assembly should occur as soon as practical after takeoff. On departure, LEAD
maintains a stable platform at 150 KIAS. After positive identification of all preceding aircraft,
WING climbs at speeds up to 180 KIAS to reach the in-trail position. TWO will remain below
and slightly to the right of LEAD until in position. THREE will remain below and to the left of
both LEAD and TWO. Once level at assembly altitude, WING may accelerate to 200 KIAS max
to complete the rejoin. Each aircraft should complete the climb checklist prior to assembly.

IMC. LEAD and WING fly separate instrument departures. The departure is flown at the
prebriefed airspeed and power setting. LEAD directs a rejoin once all aircraft are VMC and
WING aircraft have reported visual contact with LEAD. LEAD will terminate with ATC prior
to the rejoin.

TWO should remain at least 1000 feet below LEAD’s altitude until positive visual contact has
been established. THREE will maintain 1000 feet below TWO (i.e., 2000 feet below lead until
visual established with both preceding aircraft and cleared to rejoin).

Rejoin. Aircraft joining a formation enroute will contact LEAD and rejoin as briefed, or
proceed single ship. Remain at least 500 feet above or below the formation until the formation is
in sight and clearance to rejoin is granted.

211. VISUAL FORMATION GEOMETRIES

The purpose of formation flight is to permit the largest number of aircraft to drop supplies,
equipment, or personnel, in the minimum amount of time, thus minimizing risk to aircraft and
aircrews. Several types of formation geometries have been developed to enable large formations
of aircraft to safely and effectively operate in a tactical environment. We will use some of these
to familiarize you with the basics of formation flight.

In-Trail Position. The basic position is a rigid in-trail formation used primarily for formation
departures, drops, and recoveries. It allows large formations to cross the drop zone in a minimal
amount of time. Its disadvantages are that wingmen have to work harder to stay in the correct
position and it makes maneuvering to avoid threats or detection more difficult and dangerous. It
also allows enemy gunners to target each aircraft as they cross over.

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Figure 2-2 Visual In-Trail

1. The in-trail formation position for TWO is right of LEAD, 500 feet behind, out of prop-
wash, with wingtip overlap (see Figure 2-2). The in-trail formation position for THREE is left of
LEAD, 1000 feet behind, out of prop-wash with wingtip overlap. In the in-trail position, each
WING must stay on their appropriate side. Some good references for “in position” are LEAD’s
right stab tip over his right nacelle for TWO, and left stab tip over his left nacelle for THREE
(see TF picture book). When in position, LEAD should look approximately three inches wide
from wingtip to wingtip (about the distance between an extended index finger and little finger)
for TWO, and one inch (about the width of a thumb) for THREE (see Figure 2-3).

2. While in the in-trail position, LEAD should use a smooth, steady roll rate in and out of
turns. Attempt to limit bank angle to 30° but do not exceed 45°.

3. WING will follow LEAD’s turn using visual references. All aircraft execute their turns
over the same geographical point with WING maintaining LEAD’s general flight path.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure 2-3 Visual References for In-Trail Position

Fluid Trail. Fluid Trail is a tactical formation and is the most flexible of the geometries we will
fly. It allows wingmen to position themselves as needed to minimize threat exposure by using
terrain masking or hard maneuvering. It also lowers LEAD’s workload by allowing him to
maneuver the formation as required with minimal regard to WING’s position. In Fluid Trail, it
is WING’s responsibility to position themselves in the best tactical position.

Fluid trail for TWO is defined as a cone 500-1500 feet and from left abeam or right abeam of
lead. THREE maintains the cone 2000-3000 feet and left abeam to right abeam of LEAD. This
ensures a 500-foot minimum separation from all aircraft. Wingmen can position themselves
anywhere in their respective cones to maximize threat avoidance and minimize detection (see
Figure 2-4).

While extremely flexible, fluid trail demands WING’s constant attention and understanding of
how LEAD’s maneuvering could affect them. This requires WING to constantly anticipate and
adjust for LEAD’s position. While aggressive maneuvering is fun, in a threat environment the
wing flash that results will allow other aircraft or gunners to see and target the formation. WING
must anticipate what LEAD will do to avoid threats, adjust timing, or maintain the route so they
do not find themselves in an unsafe position.

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Figure 2-4 Fluid Trail Formation Position

Several potentially hazardous positions exist in which WING could position themselves. Two of
these will be discussed to illustrate how WING must anticipate LEAD’s actions.

1. One position is directly abeam LEAD (similar to Line Abreast, which is discussed below).
If LEAD begins a turn towards WING, a conflict exists. There are several things WING could
do. The first is to simply turn away from LEAD; however, WING would first lose sight of
LEAD and then actually pass LEAD. This is not a good option. The second is for WING to turn
towards LEAD aiming to pass behind LEAD. This works as long as WING is not directly
abeam. The third is for WING to initiate a turn towards LEAD while climbing to pass above
LEAD. Once LEAD safely passes, quickly reverse the turn and descend to avoid being thrown
out of the cone.

2. Inadvertent IMC presents another hazard since wingmen are not in a set position and
therefore no set procedures can be established. If IMC is encountered, LEAD and WING must
quickly communicate and decide the safest method to separate the flight. LEAD must be
directive to prevent a serious situation from developing. For example, if both WING aircraft
have maneuvered to the same side as LEAD, it would be appropriate for LEAD to direct TWO to
fly straight, while LEAD and THREE fly 45° away from TWO for 2 minutes. It is imperative
that all aircraft quickly communicate to ensure separation.

Fluid trail is usually prebriefed to begin at a point prior to entering a threat environment. It ends
at the IP since WING must be back in the in-trail position for the run-in and drop.

Line Abreast. Line abreast is used to cross lines of communications or for coastal penetrations.
It minimizes the amount of time a formation is exposed to sight since all three aircraft cross a

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

point at the same time. It also prevents ground threats from targeting each aircraft as they pass
overhead.

Line abreast is defined for TWO as 500 feet right abeam, and for THREE as 500 feet left abeam
(Figure 2-5). It is a rigid formation that does not allow LEAD to maneuver and is usually
prebriefed for specific segments of the route. When executed, WING will move into position
until safely past the threat, then move back to the previous formation position (in-trail or fluid
trail).

Figure 2-5 Line Abreast

212. LEAD CHANGE

During a training flight, lead changes will be made to allow formation members to fly several
different positions within the formation. Where lead changes occur is left to the discretion of the
mission commander and shall be thoroughly prebriefed.

1. If a lead change is briefed to occur at a turnpoint, lead may either continue straight ahead
allowing the formation to turn at the point and then turn to rejoin at the end, or LEAD may
initiate a turn to the next course and continue the turn until approximately 45° beyond course and
allow the formation to pass. When TWO sees LEAD turn at the prebriefed point, he will turn to
the new course and when abeam LEAD, transmit “two has the lead.” Once the formation has
passed, old LEAD can rejoin the formation as TWO in a 2-ship or THREE in a 3-ship and the
new LEAD takes the squawk (Figure 2-6).

2. If the lead change is briefed at the midpoint of a leg, LEAD transmits “stand by for lead
change.” LEAD then turns left 45° and allows for formation to pass. When abeam LEAD, TWO
transmits “two has the lead”. Once the formation has passed, old LEAD rejoins as TWO in a 2-
ship, or THREE in a 3-ship and the new LEAD takes the squawk. The method selected depends
upon the situation and is normally based on ensuring that visual contact is kept between
formation members.

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Figure 2-6 Formation Lead Changes

213. ENROUTE

LEAD is primarily responsible for navigation and terrain avoidance. LEAD maintains altitude
by reference to the radar altimeter and terrain. WING uses a combination of the above and
reference to LEAD. Five miles prior to each turnpoint, the copilot will brief the course and
airspeed (and altitude if different then 500 AGL) for the following leg. Also include any
additional information concerning the formation (i.e., upcoming lead change or transition to fluid
trail).

NOTE

For wingman considerations, LEAD should use no more than 1200

ft-lbs (T-44)/2000 ft-lbs (TC-12) for accelerations and climbs.
LEAD should use no less than 400 ft-lbs for decelerations and
descents.

214. SLOWDOWN

Slowdown occurs at a prebriefed, identifiable, geographic point. Slowdown should be

accomplished early enough to allow all aircraft to be stabilized at drop altitude and airspeed
1 minute prior to green light.

1. At the slowdown point, LEAD transmits “Stingray/ Montana xxx flight slowdown, now”
over formation interplane.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

2. The formation then executes the appropriate slowdown maneuver as described in Chapter
One, page 1-28, Slowdown paragraph. LEAD should use wingman consideration techniques
during the slowdown.

NOTE

No timing corrections will be made after slowdown.

215. AIRDROP

LEAD is responsible for guiding the formation to the drop zone. WING maintains the basic in-
trail position but calls their own green light based on when they are over the drop zone. If
encountering a strong crosswind (3° of drift or more), WING should adjust their position so as to
maintain the same relative ground track as LEAD across the drop zone. This means that WING
will literally follow LEAD across the drop zone as depicted in Figure 2-7.

1. The formation will stabilize at 1000 feet above the highest point on the drop zone and 120
KIAS (T-44)/130 KIAS (TC-12).

2. Each aircraft makes its own green light and red light call. (IAW Chapter One, page 1-29,
Simulated Airdrop paragraph). The instructor pilot will call “load clear” after the student calls
“green light”.

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-7 Crosswind Procedures for Airdrops

WARNING

Attempting to regain position by reducing power and/or airspeed

will cause a nose-high, low-power situation and may result in a
stall.

216. DZ ESCAPE

Each aircraft will execute a combat escape. After the IP calls “load clear”, LEAD retracts flaps,
turns to escape heading, accelerates to enroute airspeed, and climbs or descends as required.
WING watches for LEAD's flaps to retract, waits for the IP to call “load clear”, and initiates
escape by retracting flaps and accelerating to maintain/regain position.

217. RACETRACKS

A racetrack is a planned pattern to allow a formation to make multiple passes over the same drop
zone. This may be desirable for dropping large numbers of jumpers on drop zones too small to
accommodate all jumpers at the same time or for other considerations. Racetracks will be used
at the discretion of the mission commander and will be briefed prior to flight. Formation
racetrack procedures are as follows and as depicted in Figure 2-8.

Following LEAD’s red light, LEAD will maintain drop run-in, altitude, and airspeed for one
minute to allow WING aircraft to complete their green light time. At the end of one minute,
LEAD will retract flaps, accelerate to enroute airspeed, initiate a climb or descent as appropriate
and execute a 180º turn to parallel the run-in course to the drop zone. Slowdown, drop, and
escape will be flown as previously described.

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CHAPTER TWO LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure 2-8 Racetrack Procedures

218. RECOVERY

Overhead. At initial, fly 1000 feet AGL or pattern altitude, whichever is higher, and 200 KIAS.

1. WING will fly the same ground track as LEAD and stack up slightly to avoid wake
turbulence. Break using 45º of bank. Retard power to idle as 45° of bank is established. WING
delays 5 seconds after previous aircraft before breaking.

2. Make a level turn to the downwind leg. Configure on speed and complete the landing
checklist and reapply power as necessary to maintain 120 KIAS (T-44) or 140 KIAS (TC-12).

3. Succeeding aircraft commence final turn with sufficient spacing to provide a 20 second (15
seconds minimum) landing interval to ensure minimum spacing of 1500 ft between aircraft at
touchdown. Maintain 120 KIAS (T-44) or 140 KIAS (TC-12) until established on final.

Downwind Entry. Enter a downwind leg for the active runway, maintaining 200 KIAS and 800
feet AGL or traffic pattern altitude, whichever is higher. Position the downwind to allow for a
continuous turn to final.

1. WING will fly the same ground track as LEAD and stack up slightly to avoid wake
turbulence.

2. LEAD will break approximately ½ NM past the approach end of the runway with 45º of
bank. Retard power to flight idle after the bank is established.

3. Succeeding aircraft will break with sufficient spacing to provide a 20 second interval (15
seconds minimum). At 200 KIAS entry speed, initiating break approximately 7-9 seconds apart
will generally result in 20-second spacing at landing. Complete the landing checklist as airspeed
permits. Make a level turn until reaching 120 KIAS (T-44) or 140 KIAS (TC-12), then descend
at this airspeed while completing the turn. Slow to 110 KIAS (T-44)/130 KIAS (TC-12) once
established on final. Ensure minimum spacing of 1500 feet between aircraft at touchdown. The
downwind recovery will not be flown at NGP to prevent an extended pattern.

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219. LANDINGS

1. Land on runway centerline using approach flaps. Place power levers to idle and use beta
and reverse as briefed (normally delayed until 1000 feet remaining).

2. Clear the runway without slowing or stopping in any position that would prevent
succeeding aircraft from clearing the runway.

3. Landing Procedures. If a proper interval (minimum of 1500 feet or 15 seconds) has not
been maintained, WING shall execute a go-around on final. The landing interval may be
extended due to a strong crosswind, narrow runways, or other adverse conditions.

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 CHAPTER THREE
TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES

300. INTRODUCTION

The objective of this Chapter is to introduce you to Tiltrotor MPTS Tactical/Aerial Refueling
Procedures. These objectives are strictly for Marine Corps Intermediate Tiltrotor MPTS use
only.

301. TACTICAL FORMATIONS

These formations are designed to increase the flight leader’s flexibility and should be utilized
when there is a requirement for maximum maneuverability and aircraft separation. They also
promote security by providing overlapping fields of view. From either tactical formation, nine
basic tactical flight formation maneuvers can be used to control the flight. These maneuvers
include tactical (TAC) turns, center turns, in-place turns, split turns, cross turns, break turns, the
dig, the pinch, and cover. They give the flight leader maximum command and control of the
flight while increasing flexibility and space for individual aircraft to maneuver. During tactical
maneuvering, the wingman always has the ultimate responsibility for maintaining adequate
clearance from lead.

Combat Cruise

Combat cruise is a tactical formation designed to provide maximum flexibility to increase the
capability to maneuver and to apply lookout doctrine and terrain masking. Wingmen can fly on
a rearward arc with 500 - 1000 feet displacement from 10° forward of the abeam position on
either side of lead. The optimum position for wingmen is on the 30° bearing in reference to lead.

Figure 3-1 Combat Cruise

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CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Combat Spread

Combat spread is not as flexible as combat cruise, but is a good technique to employ when
crossing wide-open terrain and affords good defensive lookout ahead of the flight. It also
maximizes the ability to employ forward weapons. Wingmen are to be + 10° of lead’s abeam.

Figure 3-2 Combat Spread

TAC Turn

There are two types of TAC turns:

1. The TAC turn away from the wingman.

2. The TAC turn into the wingman.

These turns can be accomplished easily from the combat cruise or combat spread formation.
They are used to change the direction of a formation from 60 – 120 degrees. With the command,
Call sign, TAC left (right), a turn of 90° at 30° AOB is understood. If a smaller or larger change
is desired, the tactical leader may elect to specify the new heading in the command. TAC turns
enable aircrews to turn into an approaching enemy while maintaining formation integrity to
facilitate mutual support and avoid presenting a linear target to an approaching enemy aircraft.
The following should be understood:

1. The wingman will always change sides in the formation.

2. The aircraft on the outside of the turn will always turn first.

3. The wingman is always responsible for clearance regardless of who initiated the turn.

4. When the aircraft turning first crosses the 5 or 7 o'clock position (of the other aircraft), the
other aircraft should commence the turn.

NOTE

During TAC Turns into the wingman from a combat cruise

position, the tactical leader immediately turns to the new direction
and depending on the wingman position, either passes behind or in
front of the wingman. This shall be communicated over the radio:

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER THREE

(Callsign), TAC turn right, crossing front. Otherwise, TAC Turns

into the wingman (combat cruise or combat spread) will be
executed by lead passing behind the wingman and making the call,
“passing 5” or “passing 7.” For all TAC turns and subsequent
maneuvers, -2 will maintain a covered (step up) position of +200
feet from lead for alt de-confliction.

Figure 3-3 TAC Turn Away From Wingman (Combat Cruise)

Figure 3-4 TAC Turn Away From Wingman (Combat Spread)

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CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Center Turns

Center turns are turns of 120 – 240 degrees of heading change that can be performed from either
the combat cruise or combat spread formation. When aircrews receive the command, Center,
both aircraft turn toward each other at 45ºAOB while maintaining power. The turn is usually
maintained for 180° until the aircraft roll out in the new direction. The center turn is normally
executed when excessive separation has developed between a friendly section and a threat
approaching from the rear hemisphere that dictates that aircraft separation be decreased in order
to provide mutual support.

NOTE

Aircrews must take care to ensure that adequate separation exists

between aircraft prior to commencing a center turn. In any case,
the wingman is always responsible for clearance, and shall
maintain a covered position of + 200 feet for altitude de-
confliction.

Figure 3-5 Center Turn

In-Place Turns

In-place turns can be accomplished from either the combat spread or combat cruise formation.
They can be used for small heading changes of 60° or less or for large course changes of
120 – 240 degrees. For small turns, the command includes the new degree of heading change
(for example, (Call sign), In-place left, 030). When used in this way, the in-place turn allows the
section to visually clear the rear hemisphere of a flight’s axis of advance. For large turns, a
change of 180° is understood on the command, (Call sign), In-place left (right). If a smaller or
larger change is desired, the leader may elect to specify the new rollout heading (for example, In-
place left, roll out 145). To initiate small turns, all aircrew simultaneously turn the appropriate

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LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER THREE

number of degrees in the direction specified in the command at 30º AOB. At the same time, they
maintain their position relative to each other. To initiate large turns, aircrews simultaneously
turn in the specified direction. As the flight continues its turn through 90° of heading change,
the wingman will automatically change sides from the lead aircraft.

Figure 3-6 In-Place Turn

Split Turns

Split turns can be performed from either the combat cruise or combat spread formation. They
involve making heading changes of 120 – 240 degrees. With the command, Split turn, 180° of
change is understood. If a different heading change is desired, the new heading will be specified
in the command (for example, (Call sign), Split turn, roll out 145). When aircrews receive the
command, they turn away from each other while maintaining power until rollout in the new
direction.

Figure 3-7 Split Turn

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CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Cross Turns

Cross turns can be performed from either the combat cruise or combat spread formation. They
involve making heading changes of 120 – 240 degrees. With the command Callsign, Cross turn,
180° of change is understood. If a smaller or larger change is desired, the leader may elect to
specify the new heading in the command (for example, Cross turn, roll out 145). It is understood
that lead will turn inside on a cross turn, though should still be stated. The cross turn should not
be used in situations where an aggressor might deliver ordinance at the apex of the turn since
both aircraft are closely aligned at this point. If terrain dictates the use of a cross turn during an
engagement, the wingman should climb or descend in order to break the horizontal plane.
For training purposes, the wingman shall climb +500ft for alt separation and both a/c will turn at
45º AOB.

Figure 3-8 Cross Turn

Break Turns

Break turns are maximum aircraft performance maneuvers that orient the flight toward an enemy
aircraft that has penetrated within weapons engagement parameters or that orient the flight away
from hostile ground fire. Against fixed-wing aircraft, break turns are normally used when the
attack comes from near the abeam position. The aircrew that initiates the maneuver gives the
command, (Call sign), break right, bandit 2 o'clock, level, rolling in. The aircraft on the right
side of the formation will make an immediate turn to face the enemy head-on or with a small
aspect angle. The aircrew on the far side of the formation will also turn toward the enemy, but
will continue to maneuver in order to break plane/phase and provide mutual support. The
aircraft with the best tactical situational awareness will assume the role as lead. Additionally, if
the section is engaged by a single aggressor, the aircraft engaged assumes the lead.

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Figure 3-9 Break Turn

Dig and Pinch

Lead uses these dig and pinch maneuvers to adjust the separation of the flight while the flight
moves in a constant direction. They are separate maneuvers; the dig increases separation of the
flight while the pinch decreases it. Aircrews begin the dig or the pinch while flying a constant
heading in either the combat cruise or combat spread formation. When lead commands, (Call
sign), Dig, aircraft simultaneously turn away from each other for 45° of heading change at 30
degrees AOB. When lead commands, Pinch, the aircraft simultaneously turn toward each other
for 45° of heading change. When the aircraft are the desired distance apart, the lead commands,
(Call sign), Resume, and both aircraft once again return to the original heading.

Figure 3-10 Dig and Pinch

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CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Cover

The command, (Call sign), Cover, can be added to any of the other formation maneuvers to tell
the wingman to break the horizontal plane with lead by either increasing or decreasing altitude.
For example, the command, (Call sign), Crossturn, Cover, if given in the low-altitude regime,
would tell the wingman to increase altitude to break the horizontal plane with lead. This
command is particularly useful in crossturns and break turns since it is often difficult to avoid
creating a linear target when executing these turns during an engagement. For purposes of
training, the wingman shall always maintain 200 feet of step up during tactical maneuvers.

Scatter Plan

A scatter plan is a planning tool devised for use on a mission if a threat is unable to be
suppressed and affects the primary route of flight. It provides an alternate route(s) and
appropriate re-join procedures for the formation. The scatter plan must be thorough and
extensive and be able to be utilized with minimum confusion. Formations should plan to scatter
in sections (2 aircraft). Typically, this involves rejoining the formation at the last known safe
checkpoint on ingress to the objective area or at the next checkpoint along the route of flight on
egress.

LZ Transition

When making a transition from the IP (initial point) into a landing zone (LZ), planning is key.
In-depth knowledge of the LZ and the objective area is imperative to operate safely. You should
know what markings will be present to properly identify the LZ. Also, you should know what
approach you will employ upon reaching the zone or airfield and be prepared to fly an alternate
approach if needed. Your approach to the LZ should be tactical in nature, limiting your exposure
in the area. Emphasis should be placed on being fully briefed on all specific procedures for a
particular LZ and arriving at the zone at a pre-planned target time (within +/- 1 minute). Also, it
is imperative that ingress and egress are fully discussed in regards to vulnerabilities to the enemy
and probable point of first enemy contact.

302. AERIAL REFUELING

In this syllabus, aerial refueling procedures will be simulated. However, the training
accomplished will lay a foundation that will assist in your training in the MV-22.

Aerial refueling may be divided into four stages of operation: rendezvous, join-up, contact/fuel
transfer, and post air refueling. All refueling operations require thorough planning and
coordination to address communications, lighting, navigation, position reporting and airspace.
Here at Navy Corpus, communication between the simulated tanker and receiver must be
maintained on the interplane frequency at all times and proper coordination must be made with
ATC. Typically, refueling procedures will be simulated in the Seagull or Delta Working Areas.
Try and be established in a working altitude block that provides 2000 feet of vertical
maneuvering space. With the refueling altitude in the middle of the block, this will allow plenty
of altitude to appropriately accomplish a safe breakaway if necessary. As the student, you will

3-8 TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER THREE

be playing the role of the receiver. All aerial refueling simulation training shall be conducted in
VMC and aircraft shall remain well clear of clouds. VMC rendezvous require 5 NM visibility.

Definitions

Air Refueling Initial Point (ARIP)-A point established prior to the ARCP. This point is part of
the Air Refueling (AR) track and aids in identifying the receiver and determining their heading.
Receivers should be at the ARIP prior to ARCT and inbound to the ARCP. This will assist in
placing both aircraft in a position for rendezvous at the ARCP. Receiver aircraft shall be
established at the joinup altitude at the ARIP.

Air Refueling Control Point (ARCP)-The planned point where the tanker arrives abeam the
receiver and assumes formation lead.

Air Refueling Control Time (ARCT)-A specified time coordinated between the tanker and
receiver(s). The receiver(s) will arrive at the ARCP at the ARCT or earlier and the tanker will
arrive at the ARCP at the ARCT or later. An effort should be made to arrive at the ARCP within
2 minutes of the ARCT.

Rendezvous

The tanker will normally accomplish all required maneuvering during rendezvous with the
exception of the tanker orbit rendezvous. A minimum vertical separation of 1000 feet shall be
maintained between the tanker and receiver during rendezvous until positive visual contact has
been established. Also, the tanker and receiver(s) shall not close within 1 NM of each other until
positive visual contact has been established. The aircraft conducting the rendezvous, normally
the tanker, is responsible for this separation. The altimeter setting will be the nearest station
altimeter. Minimum visibility for a VMC rendezvous is 5 NM. After initial radio contact has
been established between the tanker and receiver, the tanker will assume radio control of the
rendezvous. Refueling airspeed will typically be 170 KIAS. The different types of rendezvous
that will be practiced in this syllabus are: 1) Strategic Tanker Modified Point Parallel, 2)
Tactical Tanker Head-On Offset (low speed), 3) Tanker Orbit (VMC only), and 4) Enroute
(overtaking). These procedures are somewhat modified from what you will be accomplishing in
the MV-22 due to TC-12 restrictions, but are very similar.

Tactical Tanker Head-On Offset Rendezvous (Low Speed)

During this rendezvous, the receiver(s) will maintain 1000 feet below the refueling altitude while
inbound from the ARIP to the ARCP at 150 KIAS. The tanker will be at refueling altitude at
170 KIAS and will roll in directly over, or slightly offset from, the lead receiver. The receiver(s)
will normally be in a left echelon and stepped down. When the tanker is in sight and gives the
clearance, the receiver formation will climb/close to the observation position (45º bearing off of
tanker, 200 feet aft and 200 feet out) and accelerate to 170 KIAS. Prior to join up, the tanker
airspeed will be 210 KIAS and the receiver’s airspeed will be 150 KIAS outside the ARCP. The
tanker approaches the receiver(s) on the reciprocal of the air refueling (AR) track with an
approximate 3 NM offset from the track. Normally, the tanker will plan to make a left, standard

TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES 3-9

CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

rate, 180º turn toward the receiver(s). This rendezvous may be done electronically using Radar
and IFF range and bearing in formation or by utilizing Air to Air TACAN; however, due to
equipment limitations in the TC-12, we will practice the rendezvous by using standard rate turns
at certain speeds/times (approximate offset achieved by flying 210 KIAS is 2.5 NM). The tanker
will plan to be abeam the ARCP with the 3 nautical mile offset on a reciprocal track heading at
refueling altitude approximately 5 minutes prior to the ARCT. The receiver will be at the ARIP
3 minutes prior to ARCT 1000 feet below refueling altitude. The tanker should plan to make a
standard rate turn back to the AR track 3 minutes prior to ARCT. (At this time, the distance
between the tanker and receiver should be 2 NM) After completion of the turn, the tanker should
be 1 NM in trail of the receiver(s) on the AR track. The tanker should overtake the receiver(s) 4
NM prior to the ARCP. Upon overtaking the receiver(s), the tanker will slow to the refueling
airspeed of 170 KIAS while the receiver(s) accelerates to 170 KIAS in preparation for maneuver
and climb to the observation position. The receiver(s) will maintain 1000 feet vertical separation
until the tanker passes overhead or abeam and clears the receiver(s) to the observation position.

Figure 3-11 Tactical Tanker Head-on Offset Rendezvous

3-10 TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER THREE

Tanker Orbit Rendezvous

This is the only rendezvous in which the receiver maneuvers his aircraft to affect the rendezvous
and join-up. The receiver is responsible for maintaining the required 1000 feet of vertical
separation from the tanker until visual contact is established. The tanker will maintain an orbit at
the refueling altitude, at a specified location and allow the receiver to maneuver for rendezvous.
Prior to join-up and at least 5 minutes prior to ARCT, the tanker slows to refueling airspeed and
establishes the refueling altitude. The receiver will approach the tanker position from 1000 feet
below the refueling altitude maneuvering to 1 mile in trail and will then climb to the observation
position when cleared by the tanker.

Figure 3-12 Tanker Orbit Rendezvous

Tanker Enroute (Overtaking) Rendezvous

The tanker aircraft approaches the receiver(s) with 1000 feet of altitude separation and
establishes radio contact well in advance to confirm exact position of the receiver formation.
The receiver formation will be at 170 KIAS. When in visual contact with the receiver(s), the
tanker pilot maneuvers to overfly the receiver(s) and communicates to the receiver formation the
refueling heading to be maintained. Once ahead of the receiver(s), the tanker will slow to 170
KIAS and clear the receiver(s) to the observation position.

TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES 3-11

CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure 3-13 Enroute Overtaking Rendezvous

TACAN Rendezvous

A TACAN rendezvous is a visual circular rendezvous employed to rendezvous a flight above the
weather after takeoff or during the mission if the flight is separated. The TACAN rendezvous is
normally executed in a left-hand turn tangent to the briefed TACAN fix (radial/DME) at a
specified airspeed, altitude, and direction (inbound or outbound). Figure 3-14 illustrates points
around the rendezvous circle are numbered from 1 to 4, with point 1 located at the TACAN fix
and sequential positions located at 90° intervals around the circle. Upon reaching the TACAN
fix, the Lead simultaneously calls his "call sign, point 1" and commences a 30° AOB turn in the
briefed direction. Passing each 90° position, the Lead transmits his position number until the
Wingman acquires a visual. The Lead must adjust the rendezvous turn to compensate for wind,
ensuring point 1 is always at the briefed TACAN fix. The Wingman will fly toward the point 1
fix, 500 feet below the briefed rendezvous altitude and will remain 500 feet below until the Lead
is in sight. At night, the Wingman will remain 500 feet below the lead until established on
bearing. The Wingman will transmit his position and initiate a turn in the briefed direction using
AOB as necessary. Each flight member will report his position, as required, in the rendezvous
circle as he passes a numbered position. From position reports, the Wingman establishes an idea
of the Lead's relative position, narrowing his visual search for the Lead. When the Wingman
sees the lead, the Wingman will call "visual" and fly to the rendezvous bearing line, climb to the
Lead's altitude, and proceed with a standard CV rendezvous. Initially, if the Lead's aircraft is
behind Wingman's wing line when a visual sighting is attained, then Wingman should proceed to
the center of the circle and maneuver aircraft in the lead/lag manner. The concept of lead/lag

3-12 TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER THREE

should be used to initiate a position from which the bearing line can be attained. If the Lead is
cross-circle from Wingman's position, the Wingman should maneuver to put his nose just in
front of the Lead's nose in order to close the distance on the Lead. Once the Lead has moved
approximately 30° beyond Wing's nose, maneuver to put Wingman's aircraft nose in front of
Lead's aircraft again to continue closing. Once Wingman has closed to a suitable distance, the
Wingman should maneuver to attain fuselage alignment. If the Lead gains visual contact first, he
will call "visual" and radio the Wingman the Lead's relative position from the Wingman to help
gain sight of the Lead. Angle of Bank during the day may vary as necessary and is limited to
45° at night.

Figure 3-14 TACAN Rendezvous

Join-Up/Observation/Contact/Fuel Transfer

Join-up begins with the tanker clearing the receiver(s) to the observation position. When cleared
by the tanker, the receiver will establish the observation position, which is at approximately a
45° bearing off the tanker 200 feet aft and 200 feet out and at level altitude. The observation
position should allow the tanker’s observers to monitor the receiver formation and observe the
receiver’s movement to the precontact position. After the receiver reports the observation
position, the tanker will clear the receiver into the precontact position, which is approximately
50 feet below the tanker’s altitude and 100 feet aft behind either wingtip of the simulated tanker.
The receiver will maintain this position for approximately 1 minute to stabilize. The tanker will
clear the receiver to the contact position, approximately 50 feet low and 50 feet aft slightly offset
to the left or right of the tanker’s wingtip directly behind the tanker’s wingtip. If movement
behind the tanker is required, a crossover or crossunder will be executed as appropriate. After

TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES 3-13

CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

fuel transfer is complete, the receiver will reduce power and fall back 500 feet and rejoin into the
observation position.

Post Air Refueling

When the last receiver has completed refuel procedures, he will fall back into his receiver
formation in the last position. Once the receiver aircraft are all back in the observation position,
the tanker will clear the receiver formation to detach. The tanker will maintain the refueling
altitude and accelerate ahead of the receiver(s). Another method of separating the refueling
formation is for the tanker to maintain his altitude while the receiver formation descends below
the refueling altitude.

Breakaways

When any crewmember aboard either the tanker or receiver determines that an unsafe
environment exists, he will transmit on the refueling frequency the breakaway call. The call will
consist of the tanker’s call sign and the call “breakaway, breakaway.” Excessive rates of closure,
receiver overrunning, or aircraft fire/malfunctions are all examples of situations that warrant a
breakaway call. Once a breakaway call has been made the following will occur: the tanker will
immediately accelerate and climb to the top of the block while the receiver will immediately
reduce airspeed by moving the throttles to idle (if safely able) and descend to the bottom of the
block. If there are multiple receivers in formation, then the receiver in the wingman position
should be prepared to immediately turn to a heading away from the other receiver as well if an
overrun situation develops. This should be thoroughly briefed before the flight. Another
rendezvous can be re-coordinated or the refueling mission can be terminated.

Lost Contact Procedures

If at any time the receiver loses sight of the tanker, a breakaway will immediately be called and
executed. If receivers lose sight of each other in formation then the lost sight procedures per the
squadron joint form procedures shall be executed. If receivers in formation enter IMC, then the
squadron inadvertent IMC procedures for formation flights shall be executed. In any case, Lead
shall always be directive.

Example A/R Communications:

TANKER = Stingray 323 RECEIVER = Stingray 330.

Let’s assume the requested working area is 5000 - 7000 feet.

Establishing Radio contact (otherwise known as the 15 minute call):

Stingray 323-Tanker, this is Stingray 330 and flight.

Stingray 330, this is Stingray 323-Tanker. Altimeter is 2986. Go ahead.

Roger. Stingray 330 is a flight of 2 climbing to 5000 feet with altimeter 2986.

3-14 TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION CHAPTER THREE

Stingray 323-Tanker copies. A/R altitude 6000 feet. We are established 6000 feet with altimeter
2986 and ARCT of 1605.

During the Rendezvous:

Both Tanker and Receiver should call traffic in sight:

Stingray 323-Tanker has receivers in sight - Stingray 330 flight has Tanker in sight.

When executing the turn range/offset join up:

Stingray 323 - Tanker in the turn.

Stingray 323 - Tanker halfway through the turn.

Stingray 323 - Tanker rolled out.

When receiver sees tanker pass overhead/abeam and in front:

Receiver: Tally Ho, tanker 3 o'clock-Stingray has the lead.

Tanker: Roger, Stingray 323 has the lead.

Receiver: Stingray 330 flight request port observation position.

Tanker: Roger, Stingray 330 cleared port observation position.

Receiver: Stingray 330 Dash 1 established port observation.

Tanker: Roger. Dash 1 is cleared to pre-contact.

Receiver: Dash 1 is established pre-contact. Request contact.

Tanker: Dash 1 is cleared to contact.

Receiver: Roger, cleared to contact.

Tanker: Dash 1, your offload is complete.

Receiver: Request disconnect, re-position to port/starboard obs position

Tanker: Roger, Dash 1 cleared disconnect port/starboard obs position.

(Then next receiver moves in)

**Receiver must acknowledge all calls from Tanker!**

TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES 3-15

CHAPTER THREE LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

AR/Tactical Maneuver Safety Commands:

“Knock it off”- Cease all training and proceed as briefed or return to base.

“Terminate” - Conclude current maneuver or line of training. All A/C must acknowledge
in order.

3-16 TACTICAL/AERIAL REFUELING PROCEDURES

 APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY

A100. Not applicable

GLOSSARY A-1
APPENDIX A LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

A-2 GLOSSARY
 APPENDIX B
TACFORM COMMUNICATIONS

B100. INTRODUCTION

Communication procedures shall be briefed and may be modified as required to maintain

formation integrity. Aircrews shall minimize radio calls to reduce frequency congestion.

NOTE

Each aircraft will make an independent initial radio check with

Montana Base. For C-12s, Lead will check in with Stingray Base
for the formation.

1. INITIAL CHECK-IN

{on Montana/Stingray Base frequency or interplane}

LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX, check"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

{on Montana/Stingray Base frequency or interplane if required}

LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX, go (chattermark for interplane)"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

{on Interplane if required}

LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX, check"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

2. TAXI

{on Navy Ground}

LEAD - "Navy Corpus Ground, Montana/Stingray XXX Flight of Three, taxi
across from hangar 57, with alpha. Wingman side numbers are XXX and XXX."

3. COMPLETION OF RUN-UP

{on Interplane}
TWO - "Two’s ready"
THREE - "Three’s ready"

TACFORM COMMUNICATIONS B-1

APPENDIX B LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

{on Navy Ground}

LEAD - "Navy Corpus Ground, Montana/Stingray XXX Flight, further taxi"

4. TAKEOFF

{on Navy Tower}

LEAD - "Navy Corpus Tower, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, holding number one,
Portland Low on request"

{on Interplane}
TWO - "Two’s in" (in position on the runway with checklist complete and
engine instruments checked)
THREE - "Three’s in" (in position on the runway with checklist complete
and engine instruments checked)

5. DEPARTURE

{on Interplane}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX, go (chattermark for Corpus Departure)"

{on Corpus Departure}

LEAD - "Corpus Departure, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, off Navy Corpus,
At 500 feet on the Portland Low"

6. ENROUTE

{interplane}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX go (chattermark for Enroute freq, i.e.
255.4 or ATC)"

7. ARRIVAL

{interplane}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX go (chattermark for Corpus Approach)"

{on Corpus Approach}

LEAD - "Corpus Approach, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, on the CRP 360/25,
request traffic advisories to Shamrock"

{on Corpus Approach}

LEAD - "Corpus Approach, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, terminate"

{on Interplane}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX flight, go (chattermark for tower)"

B-2 TACFORM COMMUNICATIONS

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX B

{on Navy Tower}

LEAD - "Navy Corpus Tower, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, Point Shamrock,
full stop"

{on Interplane}
TWO- "Two’s down and locked" when the aircraft is configured and the checklist
complete
THREE- "Three’s down and locked" when the aircraft is configured and the checklist
complete

{on Tower frequency}

LEAD - "Navy Corpus Tower, Montana/Stingray XXX left 180, three down and
Locked for three aircraft, full stop"

8. AFTER LANDING

{on Navy Ground}

LEAD - "Navy Corpus Ground, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, clear of the
active on Echo, taxi my line"

{on Interplane}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX, go (chattermark for Peg/Maintenance Base)"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

{Peg/Maintenance Base}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX check"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

{Peg/ Maintenance Base}

LEAD - "Peg/ Maintenance Base, Montana/Stingray XXX flight, back, all aircraft up,
request parking"

{Peg/Maintenance Base}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX, go (chattermark for Montana/Stingray Base)"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

{Montana/Stingray Base}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray XXX check"
TWO - "Two"
THREE - "Three"

TACFORM COMMUNICATIONS B-3

APPENDIX B LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

{Montana/Stingray Base}
LEAD - "Montana/Stingray Base, Montana/Stingray XXX flight is back, all ups."

B-4 TACFORM COMMUNICATIONS

 APPENDIX C
NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS

C100. INTRODUCTION

An aeronautical chart is a pictorial representation of a portion of the earth’s surface upon which
lines and symbols in a variety of colors represent features that can be seen. In addition to ground
images, many additional symbols and notes are added to indicate additional information
necessary for navigation. Aeronautical charts are vital aids to navigation. Because of their great
importance, you must be thoroughly familiar with the wide variety of aeronautical charts
available to you and their proper use.

Scale. The ratio between any given unit of length on a chart and the true distance it represents
on the earth is the scale of the chart. The scale may be relatively uniform over the whole chart,
or it may vary greatly from one part of the chart to another. The charts you will use will
normally have a uniform scale. Charts are made to various scales for different purposes. If a
chart shows the whole world, it is drawn to a small scale; otherwise it would be too big to be
useful. If a chart needs to show a lot of detail, it needs to be drawn to a large scale. Remember:
"Large area=small scale and small area=large scale" (Figure C-1). The scale of a chart may be
given by a simple statement, such as, "1 inch equals 10 miles." This means 10 miles on the
earth’s surface is shown as 1 inch on the chart. On aeronautical charts the scale is indicated as a
representative fraction or graphic scale.

1. Representative Fraction. The scale may be given as a representative fraction, such as

1:500,000. This means that one of any unit on the chart represents 500,000 of the same unit on
the earth. For example, 1 inch on the chart represents 500,000 inches on the earth. A
representative fraction can be converted into a statement of mile to the inch. Thus, if the scale is
1:1,000,000, 1 inch on the chart stands for 1,000,000 inches or about 68.5 NM. Similarly, if the
scale is 1:500,000, 1 inch on the chart represents about 13.7 NM. Thus, the larger the
denominator of the representative fraction, the smaller the scale.

NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS C-1

APPENDIX C LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure C-1 Scale Comparison

2. Graphic Scale. The graphic scale may be shown by a graduated line. It is usually found
printed along the border of a chart. Take a measurement on the chart and compare it with the
graphic scale of miles. The number of miles the measurement represents on the earth may be

C-2 NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX C

read directly from the graphic scale on the chart. The distance between parallels of latitude also
provides a convenient scale for distance measurements. One degree of latitude always equals
60 NM, and 1 minute of latitude equals 1 NM.

Types. The charts we are most concerned with are the Operational Navigational Chart (ONC -
1:1,000,000 scale), Tactical Pilotage Chart (TPC-1:500,000 scale), and Joint Operations Graphic
Chart (JOG-1:250,000 scale). The ONC is used for high altitude long distance missions; the
TPC and JOG are used for low altitude VFR navigation.

Chart Symbols. Charts have standard symbols for easy identification of information. While
these symbols may vary slightly between charts, the variation is slight and once the basic symbol
is understood, all symbols are easy to identify. The chart legend explains the meaning of the
relief culture, hydrography, vegetation, and aeronautical symbols (Figure C-2).

1. Relief. Chart relief shows the differences in elevation of the land surface. These include
features such as mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, depressions, etc. Standard symbol and
shading techniques are used in relief portrayal on charts. These include contours, variations in
tint, shading to represent shadow, and spot elevations.

2. Contour Lines. These are lines connecting points of equal elevation. Figure C-3 shows
the relationship between contour lines and terrain. Notice that on steep slopes the contour lines
are close together; on gentle slopes they are farther apart. The interval of the contour lines
usually depends on the scale of the chart and the terrain depicted. In the illustration, the contour
interval is 1000 feet. Depression contours are regular contour lines with spurs or ticks added on
the downslope side. The ONC shows basic contour lines at 1000 feet while the TPC and JOG
show basic contour lines at 500 feet and 100 feet, respectively. Some of these charts
occasionally have contour lines at other heights so you will need to check each time you use.

3. Gradient (or Elevation) Tints. The relief indicated by contours is also emphasized on
charts by a system of gradient times. Different tints designate areas within certain elevation
ranges.

4. Shading. Perhaps the most obvious portrayal of relief is supplied by a graduated shading
applied to the "southeastern" side of elevated terrain and the "northwestern" side of depressions.
This shading simulated the shadows cast by elevated features, lending a sharply defined, three-
dimensional effect.

NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS C-3

APPENDIX C LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure C-2 Sample Chart Legend

C-4 NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX C

Figure C-3 Contour Lines

5. Spot Elevations. Spot elevations are the heights of particular points of terrain above an
established datum plane, usually at sea level. Spot elevations are identified on the ONC, TPC,
and JOG. Accuracy to within 100 feet is indicated by black numbers preceded by a dot, which
indicates the exact location of the elevation (.000). Approximate elevations are shown in black
numbers preceded by a small x (x0000). Undetermined locations are indicated by omission of
the point locator (0000). Critical elevations (mountain peaks) are indicated by heavy black
numbers and dots (.0000).

6. Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF). The MEF is based on the highest point, natural or
man-made, within a given grid square (Figure C-4). The MEF is determined by adding a 200-
foot safety margin, plus a vertical accuracy factor, to the highest point in the grid square, and
then rounding up to the next 100-foot increment. If you fly at the MEF, you should have at least
200 feet of obstruction clearance.

7. Cultural Features. All man-made structures appearing on a chart are called cultural
features. The following three factors govern the amount of detail: the scale of the chart, use of
the chart, and geographical area covered. Population centers, roads, railroads, towers, power
lines, dams, and bridges are some of the many kinds of cultural features portrayed on
aeronautical charts. The true representative size and shape of larger cities and towns are shown.
Standardized coded symbols and type sizes are used to represent the smaller population centers.
Although most symbols denoting cultural features are keyed in the legend, some are self-
explanatory. Examine cultural features with caution; if the chart is several years old, man-made
features have certainly changed.

NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS C-5

APPENDIX C LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Figure C-4 Maximum Elevation Figure

8. Hydrography. This category includes portrayal of oceans, coastlines, lakes, rivers,

streams, swamps, reefs, and other hydrographic features. Open water is either left blank or is
portrayed by some type of tinting or shading.

9. Vegetation. Vegetation is not shown on most small-scale charts (JNC). Forests and
wooded areas in certain parts of the world are portrayed on some medium-scale charts. Park
areas, orchards, hedgerows, and vineyards are shown on some large-scale charts. Portrayal is by
solid tint, or by various shading patterns.

10. Aeronautical Information. Notice that the aeronautical information is similar on ONCs,
TPCs, and JOGs. All major aerodromes show runway diagrams and a 6000- or 8000-foot
diameter circle, depending on the chart. The center of the circle represents the actual position of
the field. A star near or in the circle shows the position of the rotating beacon. If runways are
not shown, the length of the longest runway will follow the name of the aerodrome. This applies
to major aerodromes only.

Radio aids to navigation are depicted the same on all charts. We are interested primarily in the
first four shown on the legend of the chart: VOR, VORTAC, TACAN, and VOR with DME.

Special use airspace is clearly marked. The list of special use airspace is located in FLIP. The
numbers indicate internationally recognized numerical identification. All special use airspace is
portrayed on the ONC except those activated only by NOT.

If you look at the interchart relationship box, you will find which chart you will need if you run
off the edge of the chart you currently have. Near the bottom of the chart legend, you will also
find a blue-lined box labeled CAUTION. This box indicates how current your chart is and
where to find information not shown on the chart.

C-6 NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS

 APPENDIX D
FLIGHT PREPARATION

D100. INTRODUCTION

Congratulations on making it to the LOW-LEVEL/TACFORM phase of pilot training. You will

be attending LL/TF academics classes sometime during late Instrument stage and prior to your
first LL/TF flight. It is imperative that you read the FTI prior to attending these classes! This
phase of flying will be both exciting and fun, but it requires a great deal more preparation than
Contact or Instrument flights. You must show up prepared for class and for each of your flights.
Being unprepared will not be tolerated.

You must bring fully prepared charts for every route you will fly. During the academic classes,
you will be required to draw 2 routes. These charts take approximately 4-5 hours each to draw
so it is important to plan accordingly. It is tedious work but doesn’t take a lot of brainpower!
Get the blank charts from your academics instructor or the chart locker. If more than one chart is
needed for the route, tape them together. If the route is drawn on a TPC chart, you will also need
to draw the run-in (IP to DZ) on a JOG chart. Remember to have your charts cover the entire
route, i.e., you need to have charts to cover the flight from takeoff to landing.

Using previously drawn charts: If you are going to fly different routes than the ones you drew
in class, you will have to check out a route chart from the chart locker and make sure it’s
chummed and up to date (annotate a new date on the back of the chart) before flying with the
chart. Upon completion of the flight, put the charts back in the folders where you got them.
Keep the charts in good shape since other students will have to use them. Don't wait until the
last minute to get your chart…if there are no charts available, notify your IP or the squadron
LL/TF stage manager immediately!

Using Falconview charts. After you have drawn low-level charts in the academics class, other
charts can be prepared using the Falconview program. Chart requirements remain the same for
hand-drawn charts and Falconview charts with one exception, use the MTR overlay function to
put conflicting MTRs on your chart.

Chart Preparation. Use the following table to determine required charts for your assigned
routes to draw. Get charts from your academics instructor Route/Chart combinations are listed
in figure D-1.

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-1

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

BIG MAC LOU ONE MELLON SHINER VR-151 SR-166

TPCH-23B TPC H-23C JOG NH 14-12 TPC H-24A TPC H-24A TPC H-23C
TPC H-23C JOG NG 14-2 TPC H-23B TPC H-23B JOG NG 14-2
JOG NH 14-11 JOG NH 14-12 JOG NH 14-12

SILVER AIR FORCE GO HOME F4390

TPC H-24A TPC H-23B TPC H-23B TPC H-23C
JOG NH 14-3 TPC H-24A TPC H-24A JOG NH 14-11
JOG NH 14-6 J OG NH 14-6 JOG NH 14-12

Figure D-1 Table for Local Routes

Chart Construction. If more than one chart is required, trim the margins from the charts and
tape them together. It is recommended that you tape the backside of the charts. Tape on the
front will interfere with drawing the course lines and other information. Draw the route using an
indelible, black, fine point marker. Once drawn, information can be highlighted using colored
highlighter markers. Use red markers to identify MSA and emergency information on the charts.

1. Using the information in the Tactical Aircrew Flimsy, Route Way Point Library, locate the
Drop Zone (DZ) and the Initial Point (IP). Using the TAC Plotter, mark these locations IAW
Figure 1-5 of this FTI.

2. Draw a line connecting the IP and DZ. Do not mark inside the square or the triangle.

3. Locate the remainder of the turnpoints, including the escape route, using the Way Point
Library and mark IAW Figure 1-5.

4. Draw a line connecting the first and second points, again not marking inside the circles.

5. All other turnpoints will be made using the radius-of-turn technique.

a. Using the TAC Plotter, find the radius-of-turn circle that would approximate 180 kts
at 30°. This will vary depending upon which plotter is used and the scale of the chart.

b. Draw the line from the tangent of the arc to the next turnpoint. Do not draw inside
the circles. Erase any pencil marks used for the radius-of-turn.

c. Continue this process for all the turnpoints leading to the IP.

d. Using the proper scale along the TAC Plotter straight edge, draw mileage distance
marks along the left side of each course leg. Mileage numbers start at the total
mileage of each leg and count down to zero from one turnpoint to the next indicating
distance-to-go.

D-2 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

e. Using the same scale on the Plotter, draw time ticks on the right side of the course
line that show minutes from the previous turnpoint. These time ticks start at zero at
one turnpoint and count up to the next one indicating time elapsed on the leg. Flights
are planned for a constant indicated airspeed of 180 kts or 3 NM per minute (no
wind).

Chart Updating Manual. (CHUM). This is the most time consuming and tedious step in chart
construction. It is also one of the most important. It allows you to compute accurate MSA, ESA
and night altitudes and ensures that we will maintain clearance from all obstacles. TPC and JOG
charts are published from information from many years ago. All obstruction data (towers,
powerlines, etc.) added since the publication of the original charts is published in the CHUM.
This information must be manually drawn, in ink, onto your charts. Only the obstructions that
will affect the route of flight within 22 NM need to be CHUMed.

NOTE

For TRARON 31 and TRARON 35 use only.

The first way to get CHUM is through the National Imagery and Mapping Agency website.
NIMA’s website (http://www.nima.mil) provides Electronic-CHUM or ECHUM. Click
through the following as applicable:

1. Products and Services

2. Aeronautical Information Homepage,

3. Electronic Chart Updating Manual (ECHUM),

4. Go to ECHUM and choose current edition by month and year,

5. Choose Flight Corridor or MTRs (for SR166 or VR151) as applicable.

ECHUM allows you to specify a route and the distance either side of the route that needs to be
CHUMed. The work of chumming the chart is still there, but the CHUM retrieved through
ECHUM is limited to only what is requested.

1. It is recommended that you enter all the points found in the two routes that you are
building. Many routes overlap and requesting the routes separately will cause you to re-CHUM
many points. Save yourself time and get all the points at one time. Use the picture provided on
NIMA to make sure that what you entered looks like the route are building! Do not forget to
include the escape routes in the CHUM searches.

2. If you have checked out an older chart and you need to update the CHUM, then use
ECHUM. Go the page and enter the information as you would normally, but check the Specify
Additional Query Criteria box at the bottom of the page. This will present a page with a
number of options. The option Specific Publication Query will allow you to select, for

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-3

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

instance, only new CHUM since January 2002. Obviously, this option can only help you if the
last CHUM was recorded on the chart you checked out.

WARNING

The CHUM listed on ECHUM doesn’t include power lines unless

specific conditions are met. After using ECHUM, you MUST use
the CHUM manual to plot the power lines. These are very
important, especially when chumming hilly areas (a power line can
extend into valleys at the altitude you will be flying).
Additionally, if plotted correctly, they can help immensely in
navigation.

NOTE

Take some time to explore the NIMA homepage. It provides many

services to include imagery that can be very helpful for getting
familiar with run-ins and DZs. Also, two other websites that
students have found helpful are http://www.monkeyplan.com and
http://www.baseops.net. These are private websites tailored to
military pilots.

GOUGE:

1. From Monkeyplan, click on the ECHUM link.

2. Select the flight corridor query link.

3. Enter the number of points along the route to include the starting point up to the escape
route.

4. Enter a 22 NM radius to determine ESA.

5. Click on the "Restrict Search Results" link and enter the type of chart you are using.

6. Click "continue".

7. Enter the latitude and longitude of each point. Watch out for putting extra zeros in front of
the numbers. Additionally, enter the minutes instead of decimal points (for example, .7 minutes
is 42 seconds).

8. Click "OK".

9. Be sure the check the ECHUM chart date at the top of the chumming points to ensure the
chart you are using is current.

D-4 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

10. If you are just updating the CHUM on a previously completed chart, click on the "Specify
Additional Query Criteria" box at the start of the ECHUM web page.

a. Page down until you get to "Specific Duplication Query".

b. In this box, place the date of the last CHUM for the chart you are using.

11. If you are chumming a military route (e.g., SR166/ VR151), then from the main page select
your route in the “Select MTR Route” box. Continue as above. You will not have to enter
coordinates for your route.

The second source of CHUM data is provided automatically through the Falconview program.
The computers used to plan a Falconview chart are updated on a regular basis to maintain a
current database of obstructions that would affect the route you are planning.

A third source is from the CHUM books located in the chart locker/ LL TF cabinet. They are
sent to the squadron every six months with smaller, monthly updates. These are the same books
you were exposed to during VNAV ground school.

Completing the Chart. The following items are required on all charts you prepare for LL and
TF stages.

1. Locate the highest terrain or obstacle within 22 NM of centerline of the entire route of
flight. Mark the obstacle in red ink IAW Figure 1-5. Use this obstacle to calculate the route
ESA (see Section 104).

2. Locate the highest terrain or obstacle within 5 NM of centerline of each leg of the route.
This includes 5 NM before the first turnpoint to 5 NM after the second turnpoint. Mark these
obstacles in red ink IAW Figure 1-5. Use these obstacles to calculate the MSA for each leg (see
Section 104).

3. Locate and annotate emergency airfields IAW Figure 1-5.

4. Draw Course Arrow Boxes (doghouses) for each leg IAW Figure 1-5. Information for
course, leg distance, leg time, and MSA can be found in the TAC Flimsy.

NOTE

The TAC Flimsy may not have the most current CHUM data and
MSAs must be verified. For the check ride route, if Falconview is
not available, this information must be obtained manually.

5. Reference the appropriate Sectional Chart to plot any airspace close to the route and any
VR/ IR routes that will cross your course.

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-5

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

6. Trim the chart to no less than 10 NM from all course lines.

7. Write the name of the route on the front of the chart in a conspicuous place. Also, write the
ESA in red on the front of the chart.

8. On the back of the chart, record your name, chart construction date, date of the latest
CHUM, and chart number(s) and chart edition. Each time the CHUM is updated, the current
CHUM date will be added. As a technique, tape the chart legend on the back of the chart.

Stick diagrams. The stick diagram is a one-page information sheet that displays all pertinent
data needed to fly the LL without reference to the low-level chart. It is used by the pilot flying
the plane to back up the pilot navigating the route. Incomplete stick diagrams are located in the
TAC Flimsy. The stick diagrams must be completed prior to brief time.

1. On the day of the flight, get 500 foot altitude winds from the weather forecaster (1500 foot
winds for night flight). Get wind information at NGP and from at least one other airfield along
the route of flight.

2. Using the CR-2, or "whiz wheel", calculate the leg time based on 180 knots groundspeed,
the preflight winds, and the distance for each leg of the route. Determine drift corrections
necessary for each leg of the route and calculate the Magnetic Heading (MH). Write this
information beside the printed route information on each leg of the stick diagram.

3. For your continuation fuels, start at NGP and work backwards through the entire route. We
need to land with 530 lbs plus 200 lbs for an alternate. Estimating 125 lbs for the approach from
Shamrock, we must have 855 lbs over Shamrock (530+200+125). Now calculate the leg time
from Shamrock to the point immediately before Shamrock. For T-44s, multiply this time by 10
(burn rate is10 lbs per minute). For TC-12s, multiply this time by 12 (burn rate is 12 lbs per
minute). Keep up this entire process until you get to the entry point for the first route. These
fuel calculations are placed next to each point in the route timing box on the lower left side of
the flimsy. Extra spaces are available to account for transition between the routes and for the
recovery to NAS CC.

4. To calculate times at each point, start with your takeoff time. In the sample flimsy, the
takeoff time is assumed to be 1200. It takes about 8 minutes to get to the entry point (point B),
so the time over that point would be 1208.00. You must now use your CR-2 to get each leg time
based on 180 knots groundspeed. Take this total and add it to 1208.0. This no wind example
has us arriving at the DZ at 1300.1 (1208.0+52.1=1300.1). Now subtract this ".1" from the entry
point and takeoff time. This has us taking off at 1159.9 and getting to the entry point at 1207.9.
Now go to the route timing block and locate the time it takes to get from B to I (7.0). Add this to
the B time of 1207.9 to get 1214.9. Put this in the block next to point I. Continue this process
for the entire route. We now have to calculate the entry point of the next route. In the recovery
block of the stick diagram, calculate the times to arrive at each point after the DZ/LZ (note that
the third point is the entry point into the LOU ONE route). Once you calculate your time at
point L, transfer this to the LOU ONE stick diagram and do the same process for that route.

D-6 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

There will be a timing mismatch between the two routes, however we can adjust our speed on
the BIG MAC recovery to arrive at the entry point at the time depicted on the LOU ONE flimsy.

5. Use the stick diagram to record any other information that will enhance SA in the low-
level. Examples include calculated takeoff time, locations of required frequency changes, and
drop zone altitude. On Tac Form flights, include threat locations, fluid trail legs, line abreast leg,
lead changes, etc.

6. Once completed and checked for accuracy, make enough copies for each pilot in the flight
and formation.

AF Form 280 Preparation. Similar to the stick diagram, the Form 280 is a one-page
information sheet that displays all pertinent data to conduct a safe and effective formation sortie.

Be sure you are using the correct Form 280 (VT-31 / VT-35). There is a sample AF Form 280
and a blank 280 included in this handout. More blank 280s can be found in the LL/TF supply
lockers. The Form 280 should be completed prior to the mission brief. If you make any changes
after handing out the final copy, make sure to collect all the old copies and replace them with the
correct version!

Assign chattermark to all the frequencies. Don’t forget to fill in a frequency (TWR or CTAF
appropriate) and assign a chattermark for the transition field. Chattermark terms will follow
themes. The first theme will include all ATC frequencies; the second will include all interplane
frequencies. As a technique, many students use a common theme (beer, sports teams, etc.) for
their ATC chattermarks. It is not required, but standard practice, to assign the UHF interplane
303.0 as "winchester". For example, give primary and secondary VHF interplane and peg base
firearms names to go with "winchester" 303.0.

The right side of the Form 280 will be filled in as follows.

D101. FIRST ROUTE

1. Formation callsign: Choose the side number of the airplane that will be LEAD on
the initial takeoff (it may not necessarily be the mission commander’s airplane). Fill in
the "route" and the "type of drop" blocks (your options for type of drop are personnel,
heavy equipment or CDS). Make stations time 30 minutes prior to takeoff, start 25
minutes prior and taxi 20 minutes prior.

2. Formation lineup diagram: Fill in the IP/student, BUNO/side # and parking spot
in the order you will take off from NGP.

3. Remarks section: "Autoswitch from ground to tower …" is standard; make sure
you have it there.

4. Fluid trail block: Fluid trail is the standard formation geometry employed. This
geometry will be used from route entry to the IP except when a LOC is directed by threat

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-7

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

location. Consideration must also be given to terminating fluid trail if weather is

marginal, wingmen loose sight, or you are unaware of you current position. You will
decide where threats are located, but try and make it within 5NM of centerline near a
recognizable geographic point. Use unclassified threat rings to identify a threat; we will
assume that we will get shot down if we get within the threat ring.

5. In-Trail block: In trail is used on departure to route entry, IP thru the DZ, thru the
recovery, and during the lead change.

6. Line abreast: This is where we simulate flying over the "Line of Communication"
or LOC in line abreast formation. Have exactly one per route. Make it no closer than
5nm from a turnpoint and try to make it coincide with a major highway on our route. List
the highway name and the turnpoint boundaries for the line abreast leg.

7. Lead change: If it is a two ship, make the lead change after the low approach at
the transition field on the leg to the next route. If it is a three ship, have each crew lead
for approximately 1/3 of the total sortie. Crew "B" will take lead for the first drop and
low approach at the transition field. Crew "C" will take the lead after the low approach
and lead the second route through the second drop. Crew "A" will retake the lead after
the second drop and lead the instrument approach back to NGP. Therefore, in the "lead
change" block list the one turnpoint for the lead change for a two ship and the turnpoints
corresponding to the two lead changes during the first route for a three ship.

8. Assembly: This is the assembly right after takeoff at NGP. Use 500’ MSL and
150 kts.

9. Drop: List the MSL altitude that corresponds to 1000’ AGL for the drop and the
airspeed. For example, if the highest point on the Mellon DZ is 51’ MSL put
"1051' M/120 KIAS" (T-44) or "1051' M/130 KIAS" (TC-12).

10. Recovery: Pick a runway that is most nearly aligned to the forecast terminal winds
(the runway does not have to be long enough as we are planning a low approach). It can
be a downwind or an overhead. If you choose a downwind entry, make sure you list
either a left or right downwind and the direction makes sense based on the heading we
are entering the pattern. Keep in mind that we must fly left hand patterns/turns at
uncontrolled airports unless right hand patterns are specified (per FAR 91.126 & 91.127).
Specify the airport and which runway (L or R) if there are parallels. Put the MSL pattern
altitude that corresponds to 800’ AGL for the downwind or 1000’ AGL for the overhead.

D102. SECOND ROUTE

1. Mission Cmdr/Dep: Don’t forget to list the mission commander (the IP listed as
mission lead on the schedule). Designate another IP in the formation as the deputy.

2. Route, type of drop: List the name of the second route and specify a type of drop.

D-8 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

3. Station, start, taxi, takeoff: List "N/A" for the second route.

4. TOT, DZ/LZ: List the second route TOT/TOA and DZ/LZ name.

5. Formation lineup diagram: List the IP/student lineup to start the second route.

6. Remarks: "Autoswitch from TWR to GND…" and brakes and reverse 1000’ prior
to where you plan to exit the runway at NGP are standard.

7. Fluid trail: Have exactly one fluid trail segment for the second route. Same rules
as before.

8. Lead change: If it is a two ship, you have already accomplished your one lead
change prior to the second route. Therefore it is "N/A". If it is a three ship, list the
turnpoint for the third lead change. Make it after the second drop unless specified
otherwise.

9. Assembly: This is to reassemble the formation after the low approach. List a MSL
altitude that corresponds to 500’ AGL after the low approach. Example: the field
elevation at VCT is 115’ MSL therefore assembly should be 615’ MSL. The airspeed is
always 150 KIAS.

10. Drop: Same as before.

11. Recovery: Normally, course rules from Shamrock / Lima to an Overhead for a Full Stop
recovery at NGP.

D103. BRIEFING PREPARATION

NOTAMS (1 per plane). Have a set of NOTAMS for each IP. Include NGP, CRP, and the
transition field (TF only) and any other significant fields along both routes which could be used
as emergency divert fields.

Weather. Get a DD175-1 from the weather office and have a copy for each plane. Weather for
our locally developed routes must be 1500-3 for day low-levels and at least 1000 feet above the
highest MSA for night low-levels with at least 3 miles visibility.

Time Hack. Call the US Naval Observatory at DSN 762-1401.

Conflicts (1 per plane). Check the VT-35 and VT-31 flight schedules for other formations or
low-level flights. Get call signs, routes, and IP names. List these in the remarks section of the
280 for TACFORMS, on the stick diagrams for low-levels, or if needed on separate paper. Also,
deconflict all MTRs affecting your route of flight by calling the controlling agencies.

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-9

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

TACFORM Transition Field Info (1 per plane). Print out information about the transition
field from the internet (www.monkeyplan.com or www.airnav.com). Make sure to include
ATIS/ASOS/AWOS frequencies as well as tower/Unicom frequencies.

What to Know. Know the FTI and the LL/TF brief. Know the "inadvertent weather
penetration" and "descent to night drop altitude" as if they were memory items. Pay particular
attention to the annex on radio calls as they can be difficult to master.

TACFORM Formation Brief. Use the TACFORM Briefing slides on the computer in the
student lounge and update all appropriate information on the slides. The student giving the brief
will brief from the front of the room using both the slides and the briefing binder. At the
completion of the brief, students will delete their specific information from the slides. If pages
or slides are missing, notify the LL/TF Stage Manager.

D104. LL/TF DEPARTURE AND ARRIVAL PROCEDURES

Departures

When flying the Portland departures for LL routes, all T-44 / TC-12s will transit at 500’ AGL (if
operationally feasible) and will fly directly to Portland once cleared for the turn out from NGP
tower. Upon arrival at Portland, fly northwest of Gregory and stay northwest of the road leading
to the Bayside Bridge. T-34s will be conducting low-level operations southeast of the road. In
order to ensure separation, it is imperative you stay to the northwest! As soon as practical, after
takeoff, set VHF on 122.7 (McCampbell Unicom) and UHF on button 13 (once terminated on
button 5) and monitor these frequencies. These are the frequencies the T-34s use in the vicinity
of the airfield. Once you reach the Bayside Bridge you can revert to normal comms.

Enroute

Monitor button 13 (337.8), T-34 common, for the Delta area (along most of the eastern portion
of the routes you are under/in the Delta area).

Arrival

For North recoveries, proceed to Mission Bay then to Shamrock. Altitude should be 1000’ once
over Mission Bay. Monitor Rockport UNICOM and Delta area common once you are in the
vicinity of Mission Bay. When you are clear of Rockport, switch to McCampbell UNICOM.
Stay north of the red drainage ponds located to the north of McCampbell airfield and announce
your intentions to fly past the airport. T-34s often work near the drainage ponds and also
monitor 122.7.

D-10 FLIGHT PREPARATION

 LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D
CALLSIGN AGENCY UHF BREVITY VHF BREVITY MISSION INFORMATION
INTERPLANE FREQUENCIES
FORMATION CALL SIGN MSN CDR/DEP DATE SR/SS
PRIMARY VT-31/35 303.00 WINCHESTER 140.45 COLT
SECONDARY VT-31/35 140.525 RUGER
Stingray 316 RIPKEN/GEHRIG
ROUTE LOAD TYPE ROUTE LOAD TYPE ROUTE LOAD TYPE
GROUND OPS / TERMINAL AREA MELLON PERS SHINER CDS
ATIS NGP 1 Cowboys 138.6
STATION START STATION START STATION START
CLNC DEL CLNC DEL 2 Aggies
GROUND NAVY GROUND 3 Rangers 118.7 1030 1035 NA NA
TOWER NAVY TOWER 4 Mavericks 134.85 TAXI TAKE-OFF TAXI TAKE-OFF TAXI TAKE-OFF
1040 1102.7 NA NA
DEP/ARR CRP DEP/APP 5 Sooners 125.4
CRP APP 6
ASSEMBLY (IAS/ALT) DZ ASSEMBLY (IAS/ALT) DZ ASSEMBLY (IAS/ALT) DZ
APPROACH Skins 120.9
APPROACH CRP APP 7 Huskers 124.8 150/500 MELLON 150/500A MELLON
APPROACH CRP APP 8 Broncos 127.5
RIPKEN GEHRIG
C3 BASE 140.325 Eagles
MX CONTROL PEG BASE 358.8 Packers 138.775
AEGIS BASE 358.8 505 D1
S 316
OPS NAVY OPS 346.8 Orangemen
METRO NGP METRO 344.6 Lions
ENROUTE
HOU CTR (RKP) HOU CTR 350.3 Blue Devils 128.15 Tar Heals GEHRIG RIPKEN
HOU CTR (SAT) HOU CTR 322.5 Tide 132.8 Tigers
HOU CTR (VCT) HOU CTR 353.6 Irish 135.05 Trojans
205 D2
T-34 COMMON 12 Wolverines
S 315
INGLESIDE 124.65 Spartans
DELTA AREA T-34 COMMON 13 Cornhuskers

VFR FSS RADIO 255.4 Red Sox 122.55 Yankees

UNICOM 122.7 Jay Hawks
UNICOM 122.8 Cyclones
UNICOM 122.9 Bears

CONFLICTS
TOT LEAD CHANGE TOT LEAD CHANGE TOT LEAD CHANGE
REMARKS THREAT INFO
Auto switch GND-TWR-DEPT/TWR-GND TYPE CODE LOCATION 1200 VCT - S 1330 NA
#2 Makes Advisory calls DROP AL HDG IAS DROP AL HDG IAS DROP AL HDG IAS
1051M 132 130 1051M 210 130
ESCAPE ALT HDG IAS ESCAPE ALT HDG IAS ESCAPE ALT HDG IAS
500A 357 180 500A 205 180
RECOVERY RECOVERY RECOVERY
VCT R DW 12R OH 13L NGP
FLIGHT PREPARATION D-11
 APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION
CALLSIGN AGENCY UHF BREVITY VHF BREVITY MISSION INFORMATION
INTERPLANE FREQUENCIES
FORMATION CALL SIGN MSN CDR/DEP DATE SR/SS
PRIMARY VT-31/35 303.00 WINCHESTER 140.45 COLT
SECONDARY VT-31/35 140.525 RUGER
ROUTE LOAD TYPE ROUTE LOAD TYPE ROUTE LOAD TYPE
GROUND OPS / TERMINAL AREA
ATIS NGP 1 138.6
STATION START STATION START STATION START
CLNC DEL CLNC DEL 2
GROUND NAVY GROUND 3 118.7
TOWER NAVY TOWER 4 134.85 TAXI TAKE-OFF TAXI TAKE-OFF TAXI TAKE-OFF

DEP/ARR CRP DEP/APP 5 125.4

APPROACH CRP APP 6 120.9
ASSEMBLY (IAS/ALT) DZ ASSEMBLY (IAS/ALT) DZ ASSEMBLY (IA S/ALT) DZ
APPROACH CRP APP 7 124.8
APPROACH CRP APP 8 127.5

C3 BASE 140.325
MX CONTROL PEG BASE 358.8 138.775
AEGIS BASE 358.8

OPS NAVY OPS 346.8

METRO NGP METRO 344.6
ENROUTE
HOU CTR (RKP) HOU CTR 350.3 128.15
HOU CTR (SAT) HOU CTR 322.5 132.8
HOU CTR (VCT) HOU CTR 353.6 135.05

INGLESIDE T-34 COMMON 12 124.65

DELTA AREA T-34 COMMON 13

VFR FSS RADIO 255.4 122.55

UNICOM 122.7
UNICOM 122.8
UNICOM 122.9

CONFLICTS
REMARKS THREAT INFO TOT LEAD CHANGE TOT LEAD CHANGE TOT LEAD CHANGE
Auto switch GND-TWR-DEPT/TWR-GND TYPE CODE LOCATION
#2 Makes Advisory calls DROP AL HDG IAS DROP AL HDG IAS DROP AL HDG IAS

ESCAPE ALT HDG IAS ESCAPE ALT HDG IAS ESCAPE ALT HDG IAS

RECOVERY RECOVERY RECOVERY

D-12 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

D105. F 4790 SCENARIO INFORMATION

You will plan and fly your own "Checkride Route" on F4790. Ask schedulers 2-3 days prior to
your checkride who your flying partner is. Decide who will go first. Student A will need to
develop a 50-60 minute route starting after the PORTLAND departure and ending at the
CANYON DZ (see below). A short escape and recovery to any suitable airfield (uncontrolled,
less than 5000 ft, unpaved, etc. are all suitable) should be planned to allow time for a lead
change. Student B will also need a 50-60 minute route from entry, to drop, and recovery. If
your wingman consists of 2 IPs, plan the first route as a BIG MAC to the BIG MAC DZ,
followed by a VFR recovery (to a suitable airfield) leading into your checkride route. You may
draw your F 4790 routes on the Falcon View flight planning program located in Bldg 1824. You
are responsible for having copies of all routes being flown as well as preparing the AF Form 280,
stick diagrams, and formation brief. Show your planned route (not necessarily completed charts)
to a mission commander for approval one day prior to your checkride. On the day of your
checkride, remember to bring in all the charts you have drawn so that they can be added to the
VT-31 chart library. F 4790 flights are usually long and hot and are the last flights in the
program, so it's recommended that you bring in refreshments (beverages of your choice) for the
debrief!

Consideration must be given to careful route planning for F4790, and points must be approved by
an IP on F4202. For day VMC enroute, plan a minimum of 500 feet AGL modified contour
altitude above the terrain using visual references and the radar altimeter. Modified contour is
defined as flight in reference to base altitude (500 feet AGL) above the terrain with momentary
deviations above and below the base altitude for terrain depressions and obstructions to permit a
smooth flight profile.

1. Natural terrain features are preferable to man-made features.

2. Do not plan to fly over built-up, populated areas.

3. When unable to avoid hostile areas, select specific tactics, such as terrain masking
(utilizing ridgeline and valleys to mask aircraft from both airborne and ground threats).

4. Avoid being skylighted--go around hills rather than over them. If a ridge must be crossed,
do so at a low-level point and, ideally, at a 45° angle.

5. Plan to fly to shadows whenever possible and place the aircraft’s shadow in the terrain
shadows. Hide your shadow in the ridgeline, ridge shadow, cloud shadows, or dark vegetation if
possible.

6. Turns should not be made into significantly higher terrain or other hazards without
thorough analysis of aircraft engine-out climb performance.

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-13

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Two Days Prior to Checkride

1. "Yesterday it was reported that IRAQI MIG 29s attempted an attack on the USS
EISENHOWER in the Persian Gulf. USN F-14s were launched to intercept. Preliminary report
indicated 3 or 4 were destroyed."

2. "Late last night, intelligence sources confirmed that 3 were destroyed, however, the 4th one
was damaged and lost control while attempting to return to Baghdad. The aircraft impacted in a
busy shopping district, reportedly killing approx 150 IRAQI civilians."

3. "Early this morning, IRAQ publicly condemned the attack, placing all blame for the
casualties on the US and vowed revenge. Within one hour of the news broadcast from IRAQ,
multiple bomb threats were made against various targets across the United States."

4. "Throughout the day, heightened security measures have been implemented across the
country. National Guard Units have been activated and are preparing for possible terrorists
activity. We have been tasked to support the US Army and Texas National Guard at their
deployed south Texas location if required."

CANYON IP COORDINATES: 28 48.0` N 98 45.4` W (Mandatory IP)

CANYON DZ COORDINATES: 28 30.5` N 98 26.4` W (Mandatory DZ)
DZ SIZE: 500 yds. X 1000 yds.
RUN-IN COURSE: 129º MC (Mandatory Run-In)

One Day Prior to Checkride

"So far there have been 5 bombings across the US. Several terrorist groups have claimed
responsibility for each one and promising more to come. In our region, a truck bomb placed at
the Diamond Shamrock refinery at Three Rivers killed 37 people and critically injured 96 more.
INTEL reports that possibly as many as 50 terrorists are located in and around Three Rivers and
suspects that they are being resupplied through the Gulf of Mexico via Corpus Christi Bay. The
Texas National Guard has made a request for an air drop of supplies at their command post near
Canyon DZ".

During Formation Brief

"The ATF and naval intelligence has confirmed that an undetermined number of terrorists have
managed to sneak in through the bay. The USN has now successfully blockaded the bay but it is
believed that large numbers of anti-tank rounds, 20mm cannons, and stingers made it through
and are in the possession of terrorists throughout the region. Twelve Marines were killed south
of San Antonio when an anti-tank round hit their Bradley fighting vehicle. Two Army AH-64
Apaches were damaged by gunfire while on patrol northwest of Beeville. Highway 281 is
currently closed due to reported sniper fire."

D-14 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

VT-31 / VT-35 Squadron Interfly Procedures

VT-31 and VT-35 can plan and fly squadron interfly missions to assist in scheduling
requirements and to validate training standardization between the two squadrons. The following
procedures will apply.

Mission Planning

The Mission Commander will be agreed upon among the Instructor Pilots involved and
annotated in each squadron’s respective flight schedule.

The formation briefing will be held in the respective Mission Commander’s squadron briefing
spaces. Student Pilots involved will coordinate accordingly to assist each other in the flight
planning process. The formation call sign will be from the MC’s squadron.

Both squadron SDOs (CDOs) will be aware of the formation call sign for flight following
purposes.

Enroute

All flight training will be IAW the CTW 4 Low-Level Tactical Formation Flight Training
Instruction with the following exceptions:

The takeoff call will address both squadron SDOs, i.e., "Stingray, Montana Base, Stingray 321
airborne on the Mellon Shiner".

Formation recoveries will be flown at 200 KIAS. Final approach airspeed will be 120 KIAS.

On Deck

Each aircraft will contact their respective maintenance control with aircraft status and parking
instructions.

Each aircraft will contact their respective squadron ops with aircraft landing time and student
status.

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-15

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

D106. TRAINING WING FOUR MULTI-ENGINE LOW-LEVEL/TACTICAL

FORMATION STANDARDS

1. Due to the high number of Aviation Safety Reports of near mid-air collisions during
Advanced Multi-Engine Low-Level and Tactical Formation training, the following procedures
will be utilized by all TRAWING FOUR multi-engine aircraft while performing subject training.

2. All aircraft will continuously monitor UHF/guard and utilize VHF to make position reports
on low-level routes when not in contact with Corpus Approach. While operating below the
Delta MOA, aircraft will monitor 337.8. Otherwise, monitor 255.4 or the frequency specified in
the Tactical Flimsy. This restriction is not meant to preclude Tactical Formation aircraft from
monitoring other UHF frequencies as formation interplane when transiting airfields for VFR
formation approaches. Do not hesitate to use UHF Guard to resolve critical conflicts.

3. IPs and mission commanders are responsible for ensuring compulsory reports are made 10
NM prior to the following points: Woodsboro, Eagle Lake, Chase Field, and the Bayside Bridge
and when crossing MTRs. The reports should include the cardinal direction and distance from
the reporting point, direction of flight and altitude (when crossing MTRs calls will be made only
on 255.4).

4. VT-31 and VT-35 will maintain a common Tactical Flimsy. The stick diagrams of the
local routes will have both local and AP-1B crossing routes depicted. Compulsory reporting
points will be underlined on the stick diagrams. The T-44 and TC-12 low-level stage managers
are responsible for maintaining a standardized Tactical Flimsy.

5. Cross the Bayside Bridge at 500 feet if departing Navy Corpus and 1000 feet if returning.
If weather precludes crossing the Bayside Bridge at 1000 feet, remain well clear of the area and
contact Corpus Approach for an IFR clearance.

6. "LEAD" designation will be placed on the flight schedule and shall be either the senior
ranking member of the formation or the most experienced member of the formation.

7. During squadron interfly, the following standards will be maintained:

a. Marshall shall take place in the engine run-up, the brief shall be conducted in the
squadron of the lead aircraft.

b. C-12s will make Unicom calls for the formation, T-44s will maintain the interplane
frequency.

c. Overheads will be flown at 200 KIAS with C-12s breaking 10 seconds after T-44s to
gain required spacing, T-44s will break as normal following a C-12.

d. Downwinds will be flown at 200 KIAS.

e. Drops will be flown at 130 KIAS.

D-16 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

f. Stick diagrams will include separate sections for continuation fuels for C-12s and
T-44s.

8. These standards are a minimum to ensure deconfliction on low-level routes. Low-level

stage managers are encouraged to develop squadron standards to supplement this document.

9. The PIC and/or the Flight Lead of all aircraft flying LL or TF shall inform the respective
squadron CDO/SDO of the routes to be flown the day prior for planning purposes. All aircrews
shall coordinate/call the sister squadron SDO/CDO to determine which routes are in use and at
what times to avoid possible conflicts.

D107. STINGRAY/MONTANA FORMATION / LOW-LEVEL STANDARDS

This guide is not meant to replace any regulations; it is only a supplemental source of
information.

Number 2 Duties (LEAD may delegate to Number 3 when flying a three-ship):

Enroute

1. Make TP McCampbell UNICOM call (122.7) on Portland Low departure.

2. Monitor or make position reports on UNICOM frequencies if transiting within 5 NM of a

field where the formation will not be conducting a tactical approach.

3. Obtain ATIS for the formation prior to all recoveries.

4. Act as weather ship.

5. Inform LEAD when your approach checklist is complete, and the GPWS is reset (TC-12).

Landing

1. Inform LEAD when your gear indicates three down and locked.

2. All Wingmen will inform LEAD if they experience a brake problem on landing, and LEAD
will roll out to the end of the landing runway.

3. Landings on 13R will plan on brakes and reverse at the 5-board and exit on runway 4/22.

4. Landings on 13L will plan on brakes and reverse at taxiway Alpha and exit on Echo.

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-17

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

Communications

1. Use Chattermark procedures to the maximum extent possible on interplane.

2. Use formation callsign when speaking with ATC and formation position when speaking
within the formation. When anticipating an IMC breakup for recovery, use the current LEAD’s
side number as the formation callsign, even if that aircraft started as number two.

3. LEAD will direct all frequency changes. Wingmen will respond to Interplane frequency
changes, and will not respond to ATC frequency changes. Wingmen will acknowledge all
LEAD instructions and directives with position number.

4. Students should check VT-35 and VT-31 duty offices for other low-level and tactical
formation missions. IPs and mission commanders will ensure this information is obtained.

5. 99 calls should be made on Base, Formation Primary, and Formation Secondary at common
choke points. T-44s only have one VHF radio, so VT-31 formations will not monitor Base
frequency. Common choke points are Bayside Bridge, Woodsboro, and the run-ins for Mellon,
Shiner, Go Home and Canyon DZ

6. Advisory calls should be made on 255.4 when crossing all MTRs south of San Antonio and
prior to the IP on checkride routes. T-1s will have you on TCAS, but the T-38s from Randolph
are a significant threat in these areas.

D108. LOW-LEVEL BRIEFING GUIDE

All low-level briefings will use the following guide to brief the mission. For those who prefer, 8-9
below (the run-in through drop) may be briefed out of order. For TF route briefs, brief only those
items not already covered in the formal brief. When briefing a second route on the same flight,
start with 3 below (Route name) and brief all applicable items.

1. Time hack

2. Weather (include preflight winds)

3. Route name/flying time

4. ESA and location

5. Times

a. Stations

b. Takeoff

c. Entry

D-18 FLIGHT PREPARATION

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX D

d. TOT

6. Drop zone/Landing Zone

a. Name a. Name

b. Size/shape/elevation b. Length/Width/Orientation

c. DZ magnetic course/run-in heading c. LZ mag course/run-in heading

d. Load type d. Approach type/ landing direction

e. Drop altitude e. Slow down/configuration point

f. PI location f. Airspace restrictions

g. Green light time g. Escape heading/altitude

h. Escape heading/altitude

7. Run-in (include 9 a-f, as well as slow down point)

8. Departure procedures

9. Enroute

a. Turnpoint description

b. Magnetic course/leg time/MSA/controlling obstacle (doghouse)

c. Significant course/time update point(s)

d. Crossing routes/Restricted areas/no fly zones/etc

e. Threats/locations

f. Time control/adjustments

g. Modified Contour (F4790 only)

10. Recovery

a. Brief 9 a-g, as applicable

b. Type (overhead/downwind/instrument approach)

FLIGHT PREPARATION D-19

APPENDIX D LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

11. NATOPS brief

The T-44/TC-12 uses approximately 600 lbs/hr and 720 lbs/hr respectively, at 500 feet AGL.
Figure D-2 demonstrates how to estimate fuel for the LL route. Use NATOPS performance
charts to determine time/fuel required to climb.

We frequently fly two local IR routes: IR 136 and IR 166. By a Letter Of Agreement (LOA)
with Kingsville, we call them SR 136 and SR 166, but schedule them as VR routes. This
eliminates the required two-hour prior notification to schedule them. We also fly one local VR
route: VR 151. To schedule any of these routes, contact Kingsville Base Operations and ask if
the routes are available (T-45s use them as IR and VR routes). Tell them you want SR
136/166/151 and schedule a block time for the routes. If Kingsville says you need to wait two
hours before you can enter, remind them of the LOA and that we are treating them as SR routes.

You may enter the route any time during your scheduled block, however, you must abort the
route at the end of the block (even if not completed) since Kingsville can schedule T-45s for the
route at the end of our block. IR 147 is also covered by the LOA but is not flown by VT-31.
(This includes IR 136/166 since we fly them as SR routes per the LOA.)

NOTE

For standardization, all TOTs will be whole times in multiples of

five (i.e., 1000, 1005, 1010, etc.).

For T-44/TC-12 operations, use yellow arcs (530 lbs.) as required reserves and 125 lbs. for
recovery and landing.

Since all routes that we fly are local routes, the flight schedule covers the requirement for a DD
Form 175. Ensure the duty office knows which routes will be flown prior to departure.

D-20 FLIGHT PREPARATION

 APPENDIX E
COMBAT ENTRY/EXIT CHECKLISTS AND TACTICAL MANUEVERS

E100. INTRODUCTION

The objectives covered in this Appendix can be incorporated at the discretion of the IP on a low-
level event or Mission Commander on a Tactical Formation event.

E101. COMBAT ENTRY (HOSTILE FIRE ENTRY)

Ensure the following checklist is completed prior to entering the threat environment (designate a
combat entry point prior to the mission).

1. Crew briefing-"Complete" (P) Review airspeed, altitude, threat locations, aircraft

configuration, and approach requirements.

2. Survival Equipment-"Secured" (P, CP) Ensure flight gloves, flak vests/armor, chemical
defense ensemble and oxygen are immediately available as required. (If protective equipment is
to be worn, don at this time.)

3. Internal and External Lights-"Set" (CP) Set interior lighting to a minimum and turn off
all nonessential exterior lights.

4. IFF-"Set" (CP) As required.

5. Radios-"Set" (CP) Turn off all nonessential radios to reduce emissions.

6. Radar-"Set" (CP) Turn off radar if not required to reduce emissions.

7. Radio Altimeter-"Set" (P).

8. Loose Items-"Secured" (P, CP).

9. Observers-"Clear to Position" (P). (You will typically not have an observer in the
training syllabus.

10. Combat Entry Checklist-"Complete" (CP).

E102. COMBAT EXIT

This checklist returns the aircraft to normal cruise configuration upon departing the threat
environment (designate a combat exit point prior to the mission).

COMBAT ENTRY/EXIT CHECKLISTS AND TACTICAL MANUEVERS E-1

APPENDIX E LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

1. Observers-"Clear to reposition" (P).

2. Battle Damage Assessment (BDA)-"Complete" (P, CP). State specific

problems/damage as determined.

3. Survival Equipment-"Secured" (P, CP).

4. IFF-"Set" (CP).

5. Radios-"Set" (CP).

6. Radar-"Set" (CP).

7. Internal and External Lights-"Set"(CP).

8. Combat Exit Checklist-"Complete" (CP).

E103. TACTICAL MANEUVERS (SINGLE SHIP)

1. Random Steep Approach

a. Limitations

i. Do not exceed 45º of bank

ii. Minimum weather is VFR

iii. Maximum speed is 200 KIAS

iv. Minimum speed is 140 KIAS (No flap) or 130 KIAS (Approach flaps)

b. Procedures

From any planned direction, fly towards airfield at 5000 feet AGL, 200 KIAS. Plan
to arrive overhead the airfield at 180 KIAS. (See Figure E-1.) Overhead the field,
select flaps approach, gear down/landing checklist, maintain level flight and
continue circling. At 140 KIAS, select flaps full down and begin a spiraling
descent (plan to lose approximately 1000 feet for every 90° of turn). Continue
descent with 150 KIAS maximum, 140 KIAS minimum until rolling out on final.
Do not exceed 15° nose low. Plan to arrive on a normal glidepath picture at 1/2
mile final approximately 150 feet AGL.

c. Curvilinear Approach

A curvilinear approach is a curving approach flown from any position other than a
normal straight-in or downwind (see Figure E-2). Altitude, configuration, and

E-2 COMBAT ENTRY/EXIT CHECKLISTS AND TACTICAL MANUEVERS

LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION APPENDIX E

sequence of events will vary. However, in all cases, plan descent and flight path to
arrive at a 1/2 mile final on a normal glidepath with the aircraft configured for
landing and the Landing Checklist completed.

Figure E-1 Random Steep Approach

Figure E-2 Curvilinear Approach

2. Random Steep Departure

a. Limitations

i. Maximum bank angle of 30º

ii. Minimum weather is VFR

COMBAT ENTRY/EXIT CHECKLISTS AND TACTICAL MANUEVERS E-3

APPENDIX E LOW-LEVEL AND TACTICAL FORMATION

b. Procedures

Accomplish normal rotation and lift-off. Retract gear, select flaps up, engage yaw
damper (200 feet AGL minimum), climb out at Vy (2 engines), 15° maximum pitch
until above threat. Passing 400 feet, a turn may be initiated toward planned escape
route. When above the threat altitude, lower pitch attitude slightly. Set climb power
and resume normal climb schedule and complete climb checklist.

Figure E-3 Random Steep Departure

E104. COORDINATION WITH AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)

In all cases, units should coordinate these procedures with the local ATC and any location where
these maneuvers will be flown. Do not fly these procedures at uncontrolled fields when other
traffic is in or will be entering the traffic pattern.

E-4 COMBAT ENTRY/EXIT CHECKLISTS AND TACTICAL MANUEVERS