Introduction

Earthquake Engineering
(New branch of Structural Engineering)

Earthquakes do not kill people, but the buildings do.

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 New Challenges

New Challenges
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 Earthquakes are the largest potential source of casualties and

damage due to natural disaster.
 Every year, approximately, 5000 to 10,000 people die during
earthquakes worldwide.
 Worst earthquakes in recent history
 1976 Tangshan-China (M 8.0, over 2,50,000+ dead)
 2004 Tsunami (M 9.1, 2,27,897 dead)
 2005 Kashmir-Pakistan (M 7.6, over 85,000 dead)
 2008 China (M 7.9 , 87,587 dead)
 2010 Haiti (M 7.0, 92,000 dead)
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 2011 Japan (M 9.0, 20,896 dead)

 Sep 2017-Mexico earthquake (M 8.2, 333 dead)
 Not only the casualties but the economic costs
 1994 Northridge-Los Angeles (M 6.7, total loss $15bn to
$40bn
 1995 Kobe-Japan (M 6.9, loss $90bn to $150bn 2
 New Challenges

New Challenges (Cont’d)

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How to deal with new challenges

 Improve understanding of earthquake.
 Improve earthquake monitoring stations.
 Site station requirements are different for seismologists
and earthquake engineer
 Improve knowledge of earthquake effects.
 Improve the seismic design of structures.
 Developing new codes.
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 New Challenges

New Challenges (Cont’d)

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 After the 1855 Ansei earthquake in Tokyo, people punished

catfish in order to prevent future earthquakes.
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 New Challenges

Global Urbanization
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 Exponential growth in world population and urbanization

 How much world’s population urbanized?
 In 1800, only 2%
 In 1950, 30%,
 In 2000, 47%.
 In 2008 , 50%
 In 2030, 60% is expected
 No of Mega cities
 Casualties and economic losses
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 Tectonic Plates and Faults

Earth as Living Body

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 Earth’s interior structure

 Outermost boundaries
 Lithosphere (rigid/stiff)
 Asthenosphere (soft)
 Asthenosphere movement move
the lithospheric plates.
 Earth’s surface is divided into a
number of lithospheric slabs
called Tectonic Plates (in 1960s).
 52 important tectonic plates
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 14 major tectonic plates

• Seven most important plates
 2005 Kashmir earthquake resulted
as a subduction of Indian plate
beneath the Euroasian plate (Convergent boundaries).
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 Tectonic Plates and Faults

Tectonic Plates (Cont’d)

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 Plate Boundaries
 Convergent boundaries,
 Divergent boundaries,
 Transform boundaries.
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 Tectonic Plates and Faults

Tectonic Plates (Cont’d)

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Major tectonic plates (Courtesy of USGS)

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 2005-Kashmir Earthquake

2005-Kashmir Earthquake
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 Pak-India sub-continent continues to push northward

 Stresses developed on faults along Himalaya arc
 Converging at a rate of 15 mm per year (GPS data)
 Subduction of Indian plate beneath the Euroasian plate
(Convergent boundaries).
 M 7.6, Epicenter: 34.493°N, 73.629E and 90 km NNE of
Islamabad death tool 80,000 plus
 Area is prone to earthquake.
 Massive earthquake occurred in the past
 Large known historical earthquake (in 1554/1555).
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 Recent calculations
 Earthquake(s) with magnitude > M 8
• Not just possible but necessary to relieve stresses.

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 2005-Kashmir Earthquake

2005-Kashmir Earthquake (Cont’d)

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Known historical earthquakes in the valley of Kashmir

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 2005-Kashmir Earthquake

2005-Kashmir Earthquake (Cont’d)

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Rupture zones (pink areas) for the historically known

earthquakes in the Himalaya.
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 2005-Kashmir Earthquake

2005-Kashmir Earthquake (Cont’d)

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Destruction caused by the 1935 Quetta earthquake. (a)

Bruce Street before earthquake, (b) Bruce Street after
earthquake. (Courtesy of The Geological Society of London)

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 Seismic Waves

Seismic Waves
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 Rupture of a fault results in release of strain energy

 Types of Seismic waves
 Body waves: Travel through the body of earth
 P-wave
• Longitudinal or compressional waves like sound,
• Can travel through solids, liquids and even gases.
• Faster and Typical speed: Vp = 6 km/s (vary from
soil to hard rock).
• Provides an advance warning as it travels faster
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than the normally more destructive S-waves,

• Less destructive than S waves because of their low
amplitude,
• P waves are felt first and the effect is similar to a
seismic boom.

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 Seismic Waves

Seismic Waves (Cont’d)

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 S-wave:
• Shear or transverse wave,
• Particles transmitting at right angles to the line of
travel.
• Typical speed: Vs = 4 km/s
• Larger amplitude,
• Exist only in solids or highly viscously material
(cannot propagate through liquid)
• Amplitude is significantly reduced in liquefied soil
• Two types of S-wave, SH and SV,
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• In SH waves, particles vibrate in the horizontal

plane and lateral shaking (Horizontal peak ground
acceleration),
• Transmit more energy.

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 Seismic Waves

Seismic Waves (Cont’d)

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 P- and S-wave velocities increase with depth

 Time interval between P- and S-wave arriving is normally
in the order of seconds to around a few minute(s).

 Surface waves:
 Long-period waves with large amplitude at the surface
of the earth.
 Travels along paths parallel to the surface of the Earth.
 L (Love) wave,
 R (Rayleigh) wave.
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 Tectonic Plates and Faults

Seismic Waves (Cont’d)

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Seismogram record made at Harvard Seismograph Station of

the wave generated by 1983-Southern Alaska earthquake.
(Courtesy of American Scientist)

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 Tectonic Plates and Faults

Seismic Waves (Cont’d)

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The transmission path of body wave and surface wave from an

earthquake source (O) to station/site.

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 Tectonic Plates and Faults

Magnitude and Intensity of an Earthquake

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Magnitude (Quanitative measure): :

 Richter scale (Common one)
ML = logA - logAo
where ML is local magnitude,
A is the maximum trace amplitude in 0.001 mm recorded on a
standard Wood-Anderson seismograph at a site 100 km from
the epicenter,
logAo is a standard value (calibration factor) for instruments
located at epicentral distances up to 1000 km.
Intensity (Qualitative measure):
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The strength, of an earthquake at a specific location

 Ground-motion intensity
 Peak-ground acceleration
 Peak ground velocity
 Peak ground displacement
 Observational intensity.
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 Instruments

Instruments
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 Accelerographs: Record the time-dependent variation of

acceleration.
 Analogs: triggers when threshold acceleration level
reaches
 Digital (more advanced): operate continuously
• Record three perpendicular components of motion
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 Instruments

Instruments (Cont’d)
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 Time variation of ground acceleration.

 Strong motion accelerograph
 Does not record continuously
 Triggered by the first waves of earthquake
 Continual recording: wasteful exercise
 Basic element (Transducer): SDOF mass-spring-
damper system
• Records frequency as low as 30-50 Hz.
 Most of the records are of small motion and few up to
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0.2g or 0.3g.
 Accelerations recorded at similar distance may vary.

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 Defining Terms

Defining Terms
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 Attenuation: The rate at which earthquake ground motion

decreases with distance.
 Body waves: Vibrational waves transmitted through the
body of the Earth. faster P-waves and relatively slower S-
waves.
 Epicenter: The projection on the surface of the Earth
directly above the hypocenter
 Fault: A zone of the Earth’s crust within which the two
sides/rocks/plates moved relatively (may or may not be
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apparent on the ground surface).

 Strike–slip fault: Slippage is primarily horizontal.
 Dip–slip fault: Slippage/movement is primarily vertical.

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 Defining Terms

Defining Terms (Cont’d)

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 Hypocenter: The location of initial radiation of seismic

waves.
 Intensity: The strength, of an earthquake at a specific
location.
 Magnitude: A unique measure of an individual
earthquake’s release of strain energy, measured on a variety
of scales.
 Peak ground acceleration (PGA): The maximum
amplitude of recorded acceleration.
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 Radiation damping: A reduction in wave amplitude due

to geometric spreading of waves.

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 Defining Terms

Defining Terms (Cont’d)

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 Response spectrum: A plot of maximum amplitudes

(acceleration, velocity, or displacement) of an SDF system.
 Soil liquefaction: A phenomenon that triggered in a soil
when its shear strength becomes lower than the shear stress
required to maintain static equilibrium. Saturated soil
deposits lose their strength and behave/flow like plastic
material and results result in large vertical displacement.
Strike: The intersection of a fault and the surface of the
Earth, usually measured from the north (e.g., the fault strike
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is N 60° W).
 Subduction: The plunging of a tectonic plate (e.g., the
Indian plate) beneath another (e.g., Euroasian plate) down
into the mantle, due to convergent motion. (In case of 2005
Kashmir earthquake).
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 Earthquake Effects

Effects of Earthquakes
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 Direct effects
 Strong ground shaking under the structure
• Elastic and inelastic deformation.
• Total collapse.
 A fault rupture crossing structure or an infrastructure
network
• Causes large differential settlement.
• A fault crossing a flexible structure (e.g. flexible
pavements and railway track).
• A fault crossing stiffer structure (concrete viaduct)
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 Earthquake Effects

Effects of Earthquakes (Cont’d)

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 Direct effects (Cont’d)

 Geotechnical deformations
• Settlements in soil deposits
• Soil liquefaction:
o Large vertical displacement.
 Earthquake induced Landslide
• Soil slopes lose their stability
 Indirect effects:
 Business disruption
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 ??

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 Earthquake Effects

Earthquake Prediction
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 No solid scientific ground.

 However, some unusual physical phenomena are
observed
 Rapid tilting of the ground,
 More frequent smaller earthquakes,
 Dramatic changes of water levels in wells,
 Radon or hydrogen gas emissions from the Earth,
 Changes in seismic wave velocities,
 Large scale changes in soil temperature,
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 Changes in electromagnetic fields,

 Ion concentration of the ionosphere,
 Peculiar animal behavior (several days before a
destructive earthquake)
 Animals can sense low frequency electromagnetic
signals.
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 Earthquake Effects

Earthquake Prediction (Cont’d)

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 Foreshocks may also be precursors of earthquakes.

 Statistical analysis (e.g. Seismic gap of previous
earthquakes based on the elastic rebound theory)
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 Structural Dynamics: Overview

Overview
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 Dynamic Problems in civil engineering

 Watch videos
 Statics and Dynamics;
 Dynamic Loading;
 Difference between Dynamic Load and Live Load;
 Newton’s second law;
 Nature/type of exciting force(s).
 Aerodynamic forces;
 Wind and rain combined;
 Seismic load;
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 Parametric excitation,
 Other external forces like nuclear blast, sonic boom,
impact of missile-like objects and dynamic pressure due
to waves.

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 Structural Dynamics: Overview

Overview (Cont’d)
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 Fundamental Physical Concepts in Structural Dynamics:

 Frequency and Period;
 Amplitude of vibration;
 Resonance;
 Damping ratio and Logarithmic decrement;
 Resisting forces (Inertial, Stiffness and Damping),
 Mode Shapes;
 Undamped and Damped Analysis;
 Free Vibration and Forced Vibration;
 Single Degree of Freedom and Multi-degree of Freedom;
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 Discrete System and Continuous System.

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 Structural Dynamics: Overview

Dynamic Problems in
Structural Engineering

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Dynamic Problems in Structural Engineering
Collapse of Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 1940

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 Dynamic Problems in Structural Engineering

Dynamic effects due to wind on structures

Tornado Touch Down in LaSalle, Ontario, August 24, 2016

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 Dynamic Problems in Structural Engineering

Dynamic effects due to wind on structures (Cont’d)

Rain-wind-induced vibration of bridge stay cables

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Dynamic Problems in Structural Engineering

Millennium Bridge, London, UK (Wobbly Bridge)

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Swing bridge in Soviet Russia: The Volgogra Bridge

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 Structural Dynamics: Overview

Nature of exciting forces

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Source of Origin

Rotating machinery

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Source of Origin (Cont’d)

Wind loads

- Wind induce aerodynamic forces on structures

wind velocity
- aerodynamic forces depends on
wind profile along structural height

structural characteristics

Design mean wind profile wind turbulence

wind speed

Input data for dynamic

analysis due to wind

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Wind loads (Cont’d)
Open exposure

- Estimation of design mean wind speed Standard height

Max. daily time-averaged mean wind speed

NBCC 2005

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Source of Origin (Cont’d)

Earthquake loads

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Earthquake Loads (Cont’d)
- assessed by measurement of ground motion time history

Strong motion accelerograph

Recorded ground motion during EQ

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Earthquake Loads (Cont’d)

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Nature of Variation with Time

- Periodic load

Rotating propeller at stern of a ship

Unbalanced rotating machine in a building

-Nonperiodic load

Bomb blast pressure on a building Earthquake on a water tank

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Mathematical modelling

Examples

A single-storey dwelling subjected to air blast loading

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