Int. J. Engng Ed. Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 272±281, 2003 0949-149X/91 $3.00+0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. # 2003 TEMPUS Publications.

Cables Under Concentrated Loads: A

Laboratory Project for an Engineering
Mechanics Course*
TARSICIO BELEÂNDEZ
Departamento de Ciencia y TecnologõÂa de los Materiales, Universidad Miguel HernaÂndez de Elche,
Avda. del Ferrocarril, s/n. E-03202 Elche, Alicante, Spain
CRISTIAN NEIPP and AUGUSTO BELEÂNDEZ
Departamento de FõÂsica, IngenierõÂa de Sistemas y TeorõÂa de la SenÄal, Universidad de Alicante,
Apartado 99. E-03080 Alicante, Spain. E-mail: [email protected]
Cables are one of the common structures studied in a first-year engineering mechanics course
(statics), since the flexible cable is one of the usual methods of supporting loads. For example, the
suspension bridge has been used for many centuries and is perhaps the best example of the use of
cables in engineering. In this paper, we describe a simple laboratory experiment, appropriate for
undergraduate students, to analyze a cable under the action of a system of concentrated external
forces. The shape of the cable is measured using graduated rules. The resultant of the system of
applied forces and its line of action, reactions at supports and tensions in the segments of the cable
are obtained using three different proceduresÐexperimental, graphical and analyticalÐwith good
agreement being found between them all.

SUMMARY OF THE EDUCATIONAL 6. The experiment described in this paper provides

ASPECTS OF THIS PAPER students with not only an understanding of the
equilibrium of a cable but also a better under-
1. This paper proposes to verify the equilibrium of standing of the basic cencepts of statics such as
a cable under the action of a finite number of equilibrium equations, free-body diagrams,
concentrated forces by means of the analysis of reaction at supports, resultant of a system of
a simple laboratory experiment. forces and its line of action, and tensions in the
2. The experimental set-up is composed of very segments of the cable.
simple elements and only easy experimental
measurementsÐlengths and massesÐneed be
made. The relations between the length,
tensions in the different segments of the cable, INTRODUCTION
reactions at the supports and applied loads are
analyzed. THE STUDY of the statics of cables can be found
3. The experimental analysis of the cable is in most undergraduate textbooks on mechanics,
completed and compared with graphical and together with the different topics included in the
analytical studies, that allow students of statics subjects of physics and mechanics for engineering
to understand the relation between theory and and architecture students [1±5]. Nevertheless, less
the actual physical behavior of mechanical importance is given to this topic, since it appears at
systems, because understanding both aspects the end of the syllabus and is generally replaced by
of mechanics are essential. the study of structural elements of more common
4. The system analyzed is an interesting example use such as trusses or beams. In addition, the
to understand the equilibrium of parallel an topics dedicated to the study of the statics of
coplanar force systems, in which all of the cables are rarely dealt with when there is not
lines of action of the forces are parallel, they enough time to cover the whole syllabus. In spite
lie in the same plane, while the vectors repre- of this, the statics of cables presents some didactic
senting moments are normal to this plane. advantages over that of the other structural
5. The laboratory project may be integrated into elements mentioned above. It includesÐas in the
an introductory engineering mechanics course case of trusses and beamsÐconcepts such as
by considering both laboratory sessions as concentrated and distributed loads, moments,
formal lectures. support reactions and internal efforts [1]. In addi-
tion, it presents the didactic advantage that the
* Accepted 22 September 2002. concepts can be visualized in the laboratory by

272
 Cables under Concentrated Loads: A Laboratory Project 273

Fig. 1. Photograph of the experimental set-up analyzed.

means of low cost, easy-to-assemble experiments based on the analysis of an easy-to-assemble, low
using simple materials. cost, laboratory experiment to study experi-
Due to a unique combination of resistance, low mentally the equilibrium of a cable under the
weight and flexibility, cables are usually used to action of a finite number of vertical, parallel,
support loads and transmit forces in building concentrated, external forces. We consider that
structures (bridges, struts, etc.) or for power trans- the cable is homogenous, flexible, non-extendible
mission in machines and vehicles (chains, belts, and of negligible weight. In a simple way, the shape
etc). Cables are also used to transmit electricity of the loaded cable and the reactions at the
through the power grid and information through supports are experimentally measured. The rela-
the telephone network. In the latter two cases, the tions between the length, tension in the different
only load supported by the cable is its own weight segments of the cable, reactions at the supports
and the shape that the cable adopts is known as and applied loads are analyzed. The experimental
catenary [6]. analysis of the cable is completed and compared
In this paper we present a laboratory project with graphical and analytical studies.

Fig. 2. Definition of the parameters of the system.

274 Tarsicio BeleÂndez et al.

Fig. 3. Measurement of the horizontal and vertical distances of the cable.

From Newton's laws, if the system is in Once the cable is in equilibrium, it is a simple
equilibrium the sum of the external forces matter to obtain the `funicular polygon' experi-
vanishes, and the sum of their moments about mentally. The distances x1, x2 and x3, and the sags
any point also vanishes. These equilibrium laws y1, y2 and y3, at the load points are measured with
must be considered in our analysis. the aid of horizontal and vertical rules, as can be
seen in Fig. 3. With these data the angles 1, 2, 3
and 4, which the different segments of the
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP cable form with the horizontal line, can be easily
calculated using the following equations:
Figure 1 shows a photograph of the experi-
y1
mental set-up analyzed. In this figure, the shape tan 1 ˆ …1†
of the cable under the action of three concentrated x1
external loads can be seen. In order to assemble the y2 ÿ y1
tan 2 ˆ …2†
experimental setup, a cable (such as a twisted x2
polyamide line used, for example, in a physics y2 ÿ y3
laboratory in the mathematical pendulum experi- tan 3 ˆ …3†
ment) is fixed at its ends to two vertical rods by x3
means of right-angled clamps. We considered the y3
tan 4 ˆ …4†
particular case in which the support points of the a ÿ x1 ÿ x2 ÿ x3
cable lie on the same horizontal level. The general-
ization to the situation in which the support points Table 1 summarizes the values of the measured and
are at different levels is immediate. The cable calculated parameters that characterize the cable in
supports three vertical loads acting at different equilibrium under the action of the external loads
points at which weights of 120, 120 and 160 g are W1, W2 and W3.
hung. The absolute error of the masses is 0.2 g.
Figure 2 shows the different parameters which
serve to characterize the cable in equilibrium: EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
L ˆ 140 cm is the length of the cable, a ˆ 120 cm
is the horizontal distance between supports A and Measurement of the reactions at supports
B (known as span), W1 ˆ 1.176 N, W2 ˆ 1.176 N It is possible to experimentally measure the
and W3 ˆ 1.568 N are the vertical loads applied at modulus RA and RB of the reactions at the
points P1, P2 and P3 of the cable, respectively, and supports. To do this, we detach one of the ends
L1 ˆ 40 cm, L2 ˆ 40 cm, L3 ˆ 30 cm and L4 ˆ 30 cm of the cable and tie it to a pan (Fig. 4) previously
are the lengths of the segments of the cable. The weighed on a balance. On the vertical bar, we put a
absolute errors of the lengths and weights are small pulley around which the cable is passed
0.1 cm and 0.002 N, respectively. The shape the (point B of Fig. 4). Next, weights are successively
cable adopts in equilibrium, supported at its put on the pan till the segment P4B reaches its
ends and subjected to a set of punctual loads at original length L4. To do this, it is only necessary
different intermediate points, is called a `funicular to make a little mark on the cable in order to check
polygon' [2]. that the mark stays just at the top of the pulley.
 Cables under Concentrated Loads: A Laboratory Project 275

Table 1. Experimental measurement results of the horizontal GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

distances x1, x2 and x3, and vertical distances y1, y2 and y3,
and calculated values of the angles 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Culmann pointed out the importance of graphi-
x1 ˆ 32.0  0.1 cm cal methods for the analysis of structures in engin-
x2 ˆ 39.2  0.1 cm eering [7]. Although the construction of the
x3 ˆ 28.4  0.1 cm funicular polygon and forces polygon was known
y1 ˆ 24.0  0.1 cm in Varignon's time (18th century) [8], it was
y2 ˆ 32.0  0.1 cm Culmann who performed a systematic introduc-
y3 ˆ 22.0  0.1 cm tion to the use of graphical methods in the resolu-
1 ˆ 36.878  0.188 tion of static problems [9], in particular, in the
2 ˆ 11.538  0.188 analysis of several types of structures. He was, in
3 ˆ 19.408  0.188 fact, the first to publish a book on graphical
4 ˆ 47.168  0.188 statics, in which he included many original graphi-
cal solutions [10].
In the case of the cable we are analyzing, the
The value of RB will be the weight of the pan funicular polygon AP1P2P3B of the cable in equili-
together with the masses on it. The horizontal Bx brium can be obtained from the experimental
and vertical By components of the reaction RB at study (Fig. 2). It is also possible to determine
support B can be easily obtained using the value of graphically the reactions RA ˆ (Ax, Ay) and
4 initially calculated. RB ˆ (Bx, By) at supports A and B, the resultant
The experimental measurements at the supports R and the position of its line of action (the central
A and B were: axis, r, of the system of co-planar and parallel
RA ˆ 2.67 ‹ 0.05 N external forces applied), and also the tensions T1,
T2, T3 and T4 in the segments of the cable. In this
RB ˆ 3.18 ‹ 0.05 N
way, information about the equilibrium of the
cable may be obtained from the experimental
Determination of the tensions in the segments of
measurements at the supports A and B, and at
the cable
points P1, P2 and P3.
Once the values of RA and RB are known, the
tensions in the segments of the cable may be easily
Resultant R and its line of action
calculated in a similar way to that described under
To find the single-force resultant R of the system
Analytical resolution, taking as the initial data the
of parallel forces W1, W2 and W3 acting on the
values of the loads applied, the angles calculated
cable, the forces polygon is obtained from the
and the reactions measured at the supports. In
funicular polygon [2]. To do this, we draw the
order to calculate the tension T4, we consider point
funicular polygon with scaled relative distances,
B in Fig. 5 and apply the equilibrium equation
together with the scaled applied forces W1, W2 and
F ˆ 0. We then consider point P3 in the same
W3, their lines of action passing through points P1,
figure, and so on.
P2 and P3 of the cable respectively (see Fig. 6).
The calculated values of the tensions were:
Through a point M, an equipollent force to W1,
T1 ˆ 2.67  0.05 N MN, is traced. From point N an equipollent force
T2 ˆ 2.18  0.05 N to W2, NP, and from P an equipollent force to W3,
PQ, are traced. The vector MQ, with its origin at
T3 ˆ 2.26  0.05 N point M and end at point Q, will be the resultant R
T4 ˆ 3.14  0.05 N of the system of forces applied. As the forces have

Fig. 4. Experimental determination of the reactions at the supports.

276 Tarsicio BeleÂndez et al.

Fig. 5. Relation between the reactions at the supports and tensions in the cable.

been drawn using a scaling factor, the modulus these lines will intersect at the same point O,
of the resultant R may be obtained by simply known as the `pole' [2]. With the aid of vectors
measuring the distance MQ. OM, ON, OP and OQ, which have as their origin
In order to find the line of action r of the the point O, it may be easily determined that:
resultant R and, consequently, the position of the
W1 ˆ ON ÿ OM
central axis of the system of forces, we trace a line
parallel to the segment AP1 of the cable from W2 ˆ OP ÿ ON
the point M; a line parallel to the segment P1P2
W3 ˆ OQ ÿ OP
of the cable from the point N; a line parallel to the
segment P2P3 from the point P, and from the point From the funicular polygon (Fig. 6), it may be
Q a line parallel to the segment P3B (see Fig. 6). All easily verified that the force W1 is equivalent to the

Fig. 6. Graphical determination of the resultant, its line of action and the reactions at the supports.
 Cables under Concentrated Loads: A Laboratory Project 277

concurrent forces ON and ±OM in the directions measured on paper will be of 0.4 cm and that of the
of AP1 and P1P2; the force W2 is equivalent to the masses 4 g, which results in a sensitivity of 0.04 N
concurrent forces OP and ±ON in the directions for the measurements of the forces. Obviously, the
P1P2 and P2P3; and the force W3 is equivalent to sensitivity can be increased by using a larger sheet
the concurrent forces OQ and ±OP in the direc- of paper and reducing the scale. Figure 7 repre-
tions P2P3 and P3B. sents a diagram of what was obtained graphically
In segment P1P2 the forces ON and ±ON are on paper.
equal and opposite and so cancel each other out.
The same occurs in segment P2P3 with forces OP Vertical components of the reactions at supports
and ±OP. However, force ±OM in segment AP1 In order to find the vertical components of the
and force OQ in segment P3B do not cancel each reactions, we are going to equilibrate the system of
other out: vertical forces W1, W2 and W3 by means of two
forces Ay and By, which are also vertical and
R ˆ W1 ‡ W2 ‡ W3 = OQ ÿ OM ˆ MQ
consequently parallel to the resultant, that must
These two forces, ÿOM and OQ, are concurrent pass through points A and B. To do this, a parallel
and they are equivalent to the resultant R passing line to the segment AB is traced passing through
through the point E (see Fig. 6). This point is the the point O (see Fig. 6). This line intersects the
intersection of the extensions of segments AP1 and resultant R at point S yielding two forces SM and
P3B. The straight line r parallel to the resultant R, QS which correspond to the vertical reactions at
traced through the point E, is the central axis of the supports Ay and By, respectively [2]. Because
the system of forces (line of action of the resultant) the forces were drawn using a scale, it is possible to
[2]. Because the system is composed of parallel measure the values of Ay and By using a rule. From
forces, the resultant is the algebraic sum of the Fig. 7, using the above scale and multiplying by
three loads applied. It therefore corresponds to an g ˆ 9.8 m/s2, the following values were obtained:
applied mass of 400 g and so the resultant modulus
Ay ˆ 1.61  0.04 N
is R ˆ 3.92 N.
The graphical study was carried out by hand By ˆ 2.31  0.04 N
using a sheet. The drawings were done with the aid
of two setsquares and a graduated rule. The Equivalent of the system of forces
distances were represented using a scale of 4 cm Since the funicular polygon was drawn using a
to 1 cm. For the sake of simplicity, when drawing scale for distances, it is possible to measure the
the forces we considered their value expressed in distance xA between the vertical line containing the
grams instead of Newtons, taking a scale of 1 cm support A and the line of action r of the resultant,
for each 40 g. Once the different reactions and as can be seen in Fig. 6. The value obtained,
tensions are obtained graphically, the centimeters taking into account the scale for distances, was
are converted into grams, then transformed into xA ˆ 70.8  0.4 cm. Next, in the experimental
kilograms and finally multiplied by g ˆ 9.8 m/s2 in setup, the three vertical loads W1, W2 and W3
order to obtain the result in Newtons. As the were substituted by the resultant R ˆ 3.92 N set
smallest divisions on the rule used are of 1 mm, at a distance xA, so the experimental funicular
with the above scales the sensitivity of the distances polygon seen in Fig. 7 was obtained.

Fig. 7. Photograph of the cable under the action of the resultant of the system.
278 Tarsicio BeleÂndez et al.

Fig. 8. Graphical determination of the tensions in the different segments of the cable.

Tensions in the segments of the cable and the final results for the horizontal components
In order to find the tension in the different of the reactions at the supports are:
segments of the cable graphically, we again use
the funicular polygon. The forces we have at the Ax ˆ 2.16  0.04 N
moment are the applied loads W1, W2 and W3, and Bx ˆ 2.16  0.04 N
the vertical components Ay and By of the reactions
and for the tensions in the different segments of the
at supports A and B, and all of them are drawn,
cable:
using the appropriate scaling factor, on the funi-
cular polygon. In the beginning, for instance, at T1 ˆ 2.70  0.04 N
support A (see Fig. 8), it is easy to find the value of T2 ˆ 2.20  0.04 N
the reaction RA at point A as its horizontal
component Ax, by simply extending the segment T3 ˆ 2.31  0.04 N
P1A. T4 ˆ 3.16  0.04 N
The modulus of RA will be the same as that of
the tension T1. Once the tension T1 is known, and
ANALYTICAL RESOLUTION
using W1, we can obtain graphically the tension T2
at point P1, and so on. It is easy to see that the
It is possible to study the cable in equilibrium by
horizontal components of all the tensions in the
solving the problem analytically, starting from a
segments are the same and it can be easily shown
series of experimental measurements. To do this,
that the following relation holds: Ax ˆ Bx. Figure 8
we use the equilibrium equations:
shows the diagram of the results of the tensions
obtained graphically. In this figure, the scale F ˆ 0 …5†
defined in section 4.1 was used for the distances
and for the forces (loads, reactions and tensions), MP ˆ 0 …6†

Fig. 9. Diagram of the cable analyzed.

 Cables under Concentrated Loads: A Laboratory Project 279

Fig. 10. Free solid diagrams for the support points A and B and the points P1, P2 and P3 where the external forces are applied.

Fig. 11. Summary of the analytical solution of the problem in steps in the manner in which a student might write a homework problem.
280 Tarsicio BeleÂndez et al.

where P denotes the point with respect to which the basic concepts in engineering mechanics:
the moments are calculated. The starting data will statics. The use of a simple cable, on which a
be the experimentally measured horizontal series of weights were hung, has allowed the
distances x1, x2 and x3 and the vertical distances experimental study of a cable under the action of
y1, y2 and y3 (Table 1), which allow us to obtain the a system of punctual forces. The problem has been
angles 1, 2, 3 and 4 formed by the different analyzed by three different methods: experimental,
segments of the cable with the horizontal line. graphical and analytical. In this way, the students
Firstly, we are going to obtain the vertical com- acquired an ample perspective of the problem
ponents of the reactions at supports A and B. analyzed. We have shown that there is good
Figure 9 shows a free-body diagram of the cable, agreement between experimental, graphical and
while Fig. 10 shows free-body diagrams for analytical results. The laboratory project may be
support points A and B and for points P1, P 2 integrated into an introductory engineering
and P 3. In Fig. 11 we have summarized the mechanics course by considering both laboratory
analytical solution of the problem in steps in the sessions as formal lectures. Students can verify
manner in which a student might write a home- findings of the experiments by hand and this
work problem. reinforces the importance of the physical funda-
To conclude, it may be mentioned that the mentals of the problem. In the three different
analytical resolution of the system, taking L1, L2, approaches to the problem there are important
L3, L4, a, W1, W2 and W3 as the data, poses a more concepts of statics such as force, moment of a
complex problem. In this case we have an extre- force, reaction at a support, resultant of the
mely difficult set of equations to solve. The system of forces and tension. It is evident that
equations obtained are very difficult to solve the experiments could be generalized to a situation
because of the non-algebraic, trigonometric func- in which the points of support are not at the same
tions that appear [4]. The solution is, therefore, height. The method of measuring points directly
very difficult if the calculus is done manually. on the cable with different weights hung on it, as
Therefore, in order to solve the problem of the shown in this paper, can be used to explore other
cable using this formulation, the use of a computer cases of equilibrium. For example, the same
is recommended. scheme can be applied to study the equilibrium
of a cable under the action of its own weight and to
measure the catenary [11]. Finally, it is important
to point out that this is a simple, inexpensive, easy-
CONCLUSIONS to-assemble experiment that enables us to experi-
mentally study the statics of cables by means of a
The laboratory project described in this paper series of simple measurements such as lengths and
provides students with a better understanding of masses.

REFERENCES

1. F. W. Riley and L. D. Sturges, Engineering Mechanics: Statics, John Wiley & Sons New York
(1993).
2. F. Belmar, A. Garmendia and J. Llinares, Course of Applied Physics: Statics, Universidad
PoliteÂcnica de Valencia (1987) (in Spanish).
3. A. Bedford and W. Fowler, Engineering Mechanics: Statics, Addison Wesley, Massachusetts
(1996).
4. D. J. McGill and W. W. King, Engineering Mechanics: Statics, PWS Publishing Company, Boston
(1995).
5. D. Fanella and R. Gerstner, Statics for Architects and Architectural Engineer, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York (1993).
6. S. Nedev, The catenaryÐan ancient problem on a computer screen, Eur. J. Phys., 21, 2000,
pp. 451±457.
7. S. P. Timoshenko, History of Strength of Materials, Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1983).
8. P. Varignon, Nouvelle MeÂchanique, Paris, (1725).
9. B. Maurer, Karl Culmann und die Graphische Statik, GNT-Verlag, Diepholz (1998).
10. K. Culmann, Die Graphische Statik (ZuÈrich) (1886).
11. A. BeleÂndez, T. BeleÂndez and C. Neipp, Static study of a homogeneous cable under the action of its
own weight: catenary, Rev. Esp. Fis. 15(4), 2001, pp. 38±42.

Tarsicio BeleÂndez is a civil engineer. He serves as an assistant professor in the Department

of Science and Technology of Materials at the University Miguel HernaÂndez, Elche (Spain).
He develops and teaches courses in Strength of Materials, Structural Engineering and
Mechanical Properties of Solids. His research interests include engineering education and
structures with the emphasis on computer analysis.
 Cables under Concentrated Loads: A Laboratory Project 281

Cristian Neipp serves as an associate professor in the Department of Physics, Systems

Engineering and Signal Theory of the University of Alicante (Spain). He received his Ph.D.
in Applied Physics in 2001. He develops and teaches courses in physics and mechanics for
architect students. His research interests include holography, as well as physics and
engineering education. He is author or co-author of more that twenty-five papers in
these fields.

Augusto BeleÂndez received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Valencia (Spain). He
has been the Director of the Department of Physics, Systems Engineering and Signal
Theory of the University of Alicante (Spain) since 1993. He has taught applied physics for
engineering students since 1986. His main interests are holography and physics and
engineering education. He has published more than 100 technical papers in various
journals, five chapters in books and four books. Professor BeleÂndez is member of the
ASEE, EOS, IEEE, OSA, RSEF, SEDO and SPIE.