The University of Zambia
MAT 3200: Abstract Algebra
by
Monde Nasilele
School of Natural Sciences
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
UNZA
March, 2018
If you have no reason to study Mathematics why not
study it for its beauty!
Contents
Contents ii
1 Modular Arithmetic 2
2 Introduction to group theory 3
3 Further Group Theory 4
3.1 Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Group homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 External Direct Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 Isomorphism theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Orbits and Stabilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.6 Sylow theorems and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Factorisation in Integral domains 21
4.1 Principal Ideal rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Prime and maximal ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Unique factorisation domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
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4.4 Ideal structure in the ring F [x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5 Fields 22
5.1 Ideals in F[x], where F is a field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2 Irreducibility and uniqueness of factorisation in F[x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Construction of fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 Extension fields and degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Splitting field of a polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 Inner products 23
6.1 Inner product spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Orthogonal Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3 Dual spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.4 The Principal Axis theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5 Unitary and self-adjoint linear transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6 Polar decomposition of an invertible linear transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7 The Spectral theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1
CHAPTER 1
Modular Arithmetic
2
CHAPTER 2
Introduction to group theory
3
CHAPTER 3
Further Group Theory
3.1 Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups
If G is a group and H is a subgroup of G, it is not always true that aH = Ha for all a ∈ G.
There are certain situations where this does hold, however, and theses cases turn out to be of
critical importance in group theory. It was Galois who first recognized that such subgroups were
worthy of special attention.
Definition 3.1.1. A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup of G if aH = Ha for
all a in G. We denote this by H G.
Theorem 3.1.2 (Normal subgroup test). A subgroup H of a group G is normal iff xHx−1 ⊆ H
for all x in G.
Proof. If H is normal in G, then for any x ∈ G and h ∈ H there is some h0 in H such that
xh = h0 x. Thus, xhx−1 = h0 , and therefore xHx−1 ⊆ H.
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Conversely, if xHx−1 ⊆ H for all x , then letting x = a, we have aHa−1 ⊆ H or aH ⊆ Ha.
On the other hand, letting x = a−1 , we have a−1 H(a−1 )−1 = a−1 Ha ⊆ H or Ha ⊆ aH.
We now give some examples of normal subgroups:
Example 3.1.3. 1. Every subgroup of an abelian group G is normal in G.
2. The center Z(G) of a group G is always normal in G.
3. The alternating group An of even permutations is a normal subgroup of the symmetric
group Sn .
Example 3.1.4. Find all the normal subgroups of order 3 of the Dihedral group
D3 = {1, r, r2 , s, sr, sr2 }.
Solution: H = hri = {1, r, r2 }.
Definition 3.1.5. A group G is called simple if its only normal subgroups are the trivial subgroup
{e} and the group G itself.
The next theorem illustrates a way to use a normal subgroup to create new subgroups from
existing ones.
Theorem 3.1.6. Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G and K be any subgroup of G. Then
the product
HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}
is a subgroup of G.
Remark 3.1.7. Be careful not to assume that for any subgroups H and K of a group G, the
product HK is a subgroup of G.
Theorem 3.1.8. If a group G has a unique subgroup H of some finite order r, then H is normal
in G.
Proof. To prove this, we only need to observe that for any g ∈ G, gHg −1 is a subgroup of G and
|gHg −1 | = |H| = r.
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We made a claim at the very beginning of this subtopic that normal subgroups are of special
significance. The significance can be seen right in the next definition.
Definition 3.1.9. Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G. Then the set of all left (or right)
cosets of H in G denoted by G/H is itself a group - called the factor group of G by H (or the
quotient group of G by H).
Theorem 3.1.10. Let G be a group and let H be a normal subgroup of G. Then the set G/H =
{aH | a ∈ G} is a group under the operation (aH)(bH) = abH.
Proof.
Example 3.1.11. Let 4Z = {0, ±4, ±8, ±12, · · · }. To construct the factor group of Z by 4Z, we
first determine the left cosets of 4Z in Z. Consider the following four cosets:
0 + 4Z = 4Z = {0, ±4, ±8, ±12, · · · }
1 + 4Z = {1, 5, 9, · · · ; −3, −7, −11, · · · }
2 + 4Z = {2, 6, 10, · · · ; −2, −6, −10, · · · }
3 + 4Z = {3, 7, 11, · · · ; −1, −5, −9, · · · }
We claim that there are no other distinct cosets. For if k ∈ Z, then k = 4q + r, where 0 ≤ r < 4;
and, therefore, k + 4Z = r + 4q + 4Z = r + 4Z. Now, we determine the structure of Z/4Z. Its
Cayley table is:
Clearly, then Z/4Z ∼
= Z4 . More generally, if for any n > 0 we let nZ = {0, ±n, ±2n, ±3n, · · · },
then Z/nZ is isomorphic to Zn .
Example 3.1.12. Let G = Z18 and let H = h6i = {0, 6, 12}. Then
G/H = {0 + H, 1 + H, 2 + H, 3 + H, 4 + H, 5 + H}.
To illustrate how the group elements are combined, consider the elements 5 + H and 4 + H. The
sum is
(5 + H) + (4 + H) = 5 + 4 + H = 9 + H = 3 + 6 + H = 3 + H,
since H absorbs all multiples of 6.
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Remark 3.1.13. When H is a normal subgroup of G, the expression |aH| has two possible
interpretations. One could think of aH as a set of elements and |aH| as the size of the set; or
one could think of aH as a group element of the factor group G/H and |aH| as the order of the
element aH in G/H. In the previous example, the set 3 + H = {3, 9, 15} has three elements but
as a group element it has order 2 since 2(3 + H) = 6 + H = 0 + H.
Applications of Factor groups
The next theorems illustrate how knowledge of a factor group of G reveals information about G
itself
Theorem 3.1.14. Let G be a group and let Z(G) be the center of G. If G/Z(G) is cyclic, then
G is abelian.
Proof. Since G is abelian is equivalent to Z(G) = G, it suffices to show that the only element
of G/Z(G) is the identity coset Z(G). Now, let G/Z(G) = hgZ(G)i and let a ∈ G. Then there
exist an integer i such that
aZ(G) = (gZ(G))i = g i Z(G)
Thus, a = g i z for some z in Z(G). Since both g i and z belong to C(g), so does a. Because a is
an arbitrary element of G this means that every element of G commutes with g and so g ∈ Z(G).
Thus, gZ(G) = Z(G) is the only element of G/Z(G).
Corollary 3.1.15. If G/H is cyclic, where H is a subgroup of Z(G), then G is abelian.
Theorem 3.1.16. For any group G, the group G/Z(G) is isomorphic to Inn(G).
Proof. Consider the correspondence from G/Z(G) to Inn(G) given by T (gZ(G)) = φg (where,
recall φg (x) = gxg −1 for all x in G). First we show that T is well defined. To do this we
assume that gZ(G) = hZ(G) and verify that φg = φh . (This shows that the image of a coset
of Z(G) depends only on the coset itself and not on the element representing the coset). From
gZ(G) = hZ(G), we have that h−1 g ∈ Z(G). Then, for all x in G, h−1 gx = xh−1 g. Thus,
gxg −1 = hxh−1 for all x in G, and, therefore φg = φh . Reversing this argument shows that T is
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one-to-one, as well. Clearly, T is onto. To show that T is operation-preserving follows directly
from the fact that φg φh = φgh for all g and h in G.
Theorem 3.1.17 (Cauchy’s Theorem for Abelian Groups). Let G be a finite abelian group and
let p be a prime that divides the order of G. Then G has an element of order p.
Example 3.1.18. Use the group G = Z12 to verify Cauchy’s Theorem for Abelian Groups.
First we note that G is abelian. Next we know that the only prime factors of |G| = 12 are 2 and
3 so we must find one element of order 2 and another of order 3.
3.2 Group homomorphisms
In this subtopic, we study one of the most fundamental ideas of algebra- homomorphisms.
Definition 3.2.1. A homomorphism φ from group G to a group G is a mapping from G into G
that preserves the group operations; that is φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b) for all a, b in G.
Before we look at some examples of homomorphisms it is convenient to introduce an impor-
tant subgroup that is closely related to the image of a homomorphism.
Definition 3.2.2. Let φ be a homomorphism from a group G to a group G. Then the kernel of φ
denoted by Kerφ is the set {x ∈ G | φ(x) = e}, where e is the identity element in G.
Example 3.2.3. Any isomorphism is a homomorphism that is also onto and one-to-one. The
kernel of an isomorphism is the trivial subgroup.
Example 3.2.4. Let R∗ be the group of non-zero real numbers under multiplication. Then the
determinant mapping φ : A → detA is a homomorphism from GL(2, R) to R∗ . The kernel of
this homomorphism is SL(2, R).
Example 3.2.5. The mapping φ from R∗ to R∗ , defined by φ(x) = |x|, is a homomorphism with
Kerφ = {1, −1}.
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Example 3.2.6. Let R[x] denote the group of all polynomials with real coefficients under addi-
tion. For any function f in R[x], let f 0 denote the derivative of f . Then the mapping φ : R[x] →
R[x] defined by φ(f ) = f 0 is a homomorphism from R[x] to itself. The kernel of φ here is the
set of all constant polynomials.
Example 3.2.7. The mapping φ from Z to Zn , defined by φ(m) = m mod n, is a homomor-
phism. The kernel of this mapping is hni.
Example 3.2.8. The mapping φ : R → R defined by φ(x) = x2 from the group (R, +), the real
numbers under addition to itself is not a homomorphism since
φ(a + b) = (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 6= a2 + b2 = φ(a) + φ(b).
Below are some properties of homomorphisms:
Theorem 3.2.9. Let φ be a homomorphism from a group G to a group G and let g be an element
in G. Then
1. φ maps the identity of G to the identity of G.
2. φ(g n ) = (φ(g))n for all n in Z.
3. If |g| is finite, then |φ(g)| divides |g|.
4. Kerφ is a subgroup of G.
5. φ(a) = φ(b) if and only if aKerφ = bKerφ.
6. If φ(g) = g 0 , then φ−1 (g 0 ) = {x ∈ G | φ(x) = g 0 } = gKerφ.
Since homomorphisms preserve the group operation, it should not be surprising that they pre-
serve many group properties. Below are some properties of subgroups under homomorphisms.
Theorem 3.2.10. Let φ be a homomorphism from a group G to a group G and let H be a
subgroup of G. Then
1. φ(H) = {φ(h) | h ∈ H} is a subgroup of G.
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2. If H is cyclic, then φ(H) is cyclic.
3. If H is abelian, then φ(H) is abelian.
4. If H is normal in G, then φ(H) is normal in φ(G).
5. If |Kerφ| = n, then φ is an n-to-1 mapping from G onto φ(G).
6. If |H| = n, then |φ(H)| divides n.
7. If K is a subgroup of G, then φ−1 (K) = {k ∈ G | φ(k) ∈ K} is a subgroup of G.
8. If K is a normal subgroup of G, then φ−1 (K) = {k ∈ G | φ(k) ∈ K} is a normal
subgroup of G.
9. If φ is onto and Kerφ = {e}, then φ is an isomorphism from G to G.
Proof. To prove property 4, let φ(h) ∈ φ(H) and φ(g) ∈ φ(G). Then
φ(g)φ(h)φ(g)−1 = φ(ghg −1 ) ∈ φ(H),
since H is normal in G. To prove property 6, let φH denote the restriction of φ to the elements of
H. Then φH is a homomorphism from H onto φ(H). Suppose |KerφH | = t. Then, by property
5, φH is a t-to-1 mapping. So |φ(H)|t = |H|.
To prove property 7, we use the one-step subgroup test. Clearly e ∈ φ−1 (K), so that φ−1 (K) is
not empty. Let k1 , k2 ∈ φ−1 (K). Then by definition of φ−1 (K), we know that φ(k1 ), φ(k2 ) ∈ K.
Thus φ(k2 )−1 ∈ K as well and so
φ(k1 k2−1 ) = φ(k1 )φ(k2 )−1 ∈ K.
so by definition of φ−1 (K), we have k1 k2−1 ∈ φ−1 (K).
To prove property 8, we use the normality test given in theorem 3.1.2. Note that every element
in xφ−1 (K)x−1 has the form xkx−1 , where φ(k) ∈ K. Thus, since K is normal in G,
φ(xkx−1 ) = φ(x)φ(k)(φ(x))−1 ∈ K,
and, therefore, xkx−1 ∈ φ−1 (K).
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We may make a few remarks about properties of homomorphisms. Property 5 of Theorem
3.2.10 says that if φ is a homomorphism form G to G, then every element of G that gets “hit” by
φ gets hit the same number of times as does the identity. The set φ−1 (g 0 ) defined in property 6
of Theorem 3.2.9 is called the inverse image of g 0 (or the pullback of g 0 ). Note that the inverse
image of an element is a coset of the kernel and that every element in that coset has the same
image.
Corollary 3.2.11. Let φ be a group homomorphism from G to G. Then Kerφ is a normal sub-
group of G.
Example 3.2.12. Consider the mapping φ from C∗ to C∗ given by φ(x) = x4 . Since (xy)4 =
x4 y 4 , φ is a homomorphism. Clearly Kerφ = {1, −1, i, −i}. So, by property 5 of Theorem
3.2.10, we know that φ is a 4-to-1 mapping. Now, suppose we want to find all the elements that
√
map to 2. Certainly φ( 4 2) = 2. Then, by property 6 of Theorem 3.2.9, the set all elements that
√ √ √ √ √
map to 2 is 4 2Kerφ = { 4 2, − 4 2, 4 2i, − 4 2i}
Example 3.2.13. Define φ : Z12 → Z12 by φ(x) = 3x. To verify that φ is a homomorphism, we
observe that in Z12 , 3(a + b) = 3a + 3b (since the group operation is +12 ). Direct calculations
show that Kerφ = {0, 4, 8}. Thus, we know from property 5 of Theorem 3.2.10 that φ is a 3-to-1
mapping. Since φ(2) = 6, we have by property 6 of Theorem 3.2.9 that
φ−1 (6) = 2 + Kerφ = {2, 6, 10}.
Notice that h2i is cyclic and φ(h2i) = {0, 6} is cyclic. Moreover, |2| = 6 and |φ(h2i)| = |6| = 2,
so |φ(h2i)| divides |2| in agreement with property 3 of Theorem 3.2.9. Letting K = {0, 6}, we
see that the subgroup φ−1 (K) = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. This verifies property 7 of Theorem 3.2.10 in
this particular case.
Example 3.2.14. We determine all homomorphisms from Z12 to Z30 . By property 2 of Theorem
3.2.9, such a homomorphism is completely specified by the image of 1. That is, if 1 maps to
a, then x maps to xa. Lagrange’s theorem and property 3 of Theorem 3.2.9 require that |a|
divide both 12 and 30. So, |a| = 1, 2, 3 or 6. Thus, a = 0, 15, 10, 20, 5 or 25. This gives
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us a list of candidates for the homomorphisms. That each of these six possibilities yields an
operation-preserving, well-defined function can now be verified by direct calculations. [Note
that gcd(12, 30) = 6. This is NOT a coincidence!]
3.3 External Direct Products
In this scetion, we learn how to piece together groups to make larger groups.
Definition 3.3.1. Let G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn be a finite collection of groups. Then the external direct
product of G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn , denoted by G1 ⊕ G2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Gn is the set of all n−tuples for which
the ith component is an element of Gi and the operation is componentwise.
In symbols,
G1 ⊕ G2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Gn = {(g1 , g2 , · · · , gn ) | gi ∈ Gi },
where (g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )(g10 , g20 , · · · , gn0 ) is defined to be (g1 g10 , g2 g20 , · · · , gn gn0 ). It is under-
stood that each product gi gi0 is performed with the operation of Gi . Note that if each Gi is finite,
then
|G1 ⊕ G2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Gn | = |G1 ||G2 | · · · |G|.
Theorem 3.3.2. The external direct products of groups is itself a group.
Example 3.3.3. Write down all the elements of the group Z2 ⊕ U (10) and find the inverse of
every element in this group.
Solution: Since Z2 = {0, 1} and U (10) = {1, 3, 7, 9} we have that
Z2 ⊕ U (10) = {(0, 1), (0, 3), (0, 7), (0, 9), (1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 7), (1, 9)} so
(0, 1)−1 =(0, 1), (0, 3)−1 = (0, 7), (0, 9)−1 = (0, 9), (1, 1)−1 = (1, 1), (1, 3)−1 = (1, 7),
(1, 9)−1 =(1, 9).
Now we discuss some properties of the external direct products.
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Theorem 3.3.4. The order of an element in a direct product of a finite number of finite groups is
the least common multiple of the orders of the components of the element. In symbols,
|(g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )| = lcm(|g1 |, |g2 |, · · · , |gn |)
Proof. Denote the identity element of Gi by ei . Let s = lcm(|g1 |, |g2 |, · · · , |gn |) and t =
|(g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )|. The fact that s is a multiple of each |gi | implies that
(g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )s = (g1s , g2s , · · · , gns ) = (e1 , e2 , · · · , en ),
we know that t ≤ s. On the other hand, from (g1t , g2t , · · · , gnt ) = (g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )t =
(e1 , e2 , · · · , en ) we see that t is a common multiple of |g1 |, |g2 |, · · · |gn |. Thus, s ≤ t.
Example 3.3.5. Write down all the elements of the group U (8) ⊕ Z3 and find the order of every
element in this group.
Solution: Since U (8) = {1, 3, 5, 7} and Z3 = {0, 1, 2} we have that
U (8)⊕Z3 = {(1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2), (5, 0), (5, 1), (5, 2), (7, 0), (7, 1), (7, 2)}.
Example 3.3.6. Write down all the elements of the group Z2 ⊕ D3 and find the order of every
element in this group.
Solution: Since Z2 = {0, 1} and D3 = {1, r, r2 , s, sr, sr2 } we have that
Z2 ⊕D3 = {(0, 1), (0, r), (0, r2 ), (0, s), (0, sr), (0, sr2 ), (1, 1), (1, r), (1, r2 ), (1, s), (1, sr), (1, sr2 )}.
Theorem 3.3.7. Let G1 and G2 be finite cyclic groups. Then G1 ⊕ G2 is cyclic if and only if |G1 |
and |G2 | are relatively prime.
Proof. Let |G1 | = m and |G2 | = n, so that |G1 ⊕ G2 | = mn. To prove the first direction of the
theorem, we assume that G1 ⊕ G2 is cyclic and show that m and n are relatively prime. Suppose
that gcd(m, n) = d and (g1 , g2 ) is a generator of G1 ⊕ G2 . Since
(g1 , g2 )mn/d = ((g1m )n/d , (g2n )m/d ) = (e1 , e2 ),
we have mn = |(g1 , g2 )| ≤ mn/d. Thus, d = 1.
Conversely, let G1 = hg1 i and G2 = hg2 i and suppose gcd(m, n) = 1. Then, |(g1 , g2 )| =
lcm(m, n) = mn = |G1 ⊕ G2 |, so that (g1 , g2 ) is a generator of G1 ⊕ G2 .
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Example 3.3.8. Consider the groups Z4 and Z6 . Determine whether or not the group Z4 ⊕ Z6 is
cyclic.
The Group of Units Modulo n as an External Direct Product
Theorem 3.3.9. Suppose m and n are relatively prime. Then U (mn) is isomorphic to the
external direct product of U (m) and U (n). In symbols, U (mn) ≈ U (m) ⊕ U (n).
Proof. Define φ : U (mn) → U (m) ⊕ U (n) by φ(x) = (x mod m, x mod n). It can be easily
checked that φ is an isomorphism.
Example 3.3.10. Verify that U (15) ≈ U (3) ⊕ U (5) by finding an isomorphism from the group
U (15) to the group U (3) ⊕ U (5).
3.4 Isomorphism theorems
The important relationship between homomorphisms and factor groups given below is often
called the Fundamental Theorem of Group Homomorphisms.
Theorem 3.4.1 (First Isomorphism Theorem). Let φ be a group homomorphism from G to G.
Then the mapping from G/Kerφ to φ(G), given by gKerφ → φ(g), is an isomorphism. In
symbols, G/Kerφ ∼
= φ(G).
Proof. Let us use ψ to denote the correspondence gKerφ → φ(g). That ψ is well-defined (that
is, the correspondence is independent of the particular coset representative chosen) and one-to-
one follows directly from property 5 of Theorem 3.2.9. To show that ψ is operation-preserving,
observe that
ψ(xKerφyKerφ) = ψ(xyKerφ) = φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y) = ψ(xKerφ)ψ(yKerφ)
Corollary 3.4.2. If φ is a homomorphism from a finite group G to G, then |φ(G)| divides both
|G| and |G|.
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Example 3.4.3. Consider the mapping from Z to Zn defined in Example 3. Clearly, its kernel is
hni. So, by the first isomorphism theorem, Z/ hni ∼
= Zn .
Theorem 3.4.4 (Second Isomorphism Theorem). Let H be a subgroup of G and let N be a
normal subgroup of G. Then (HN/N ) ∼
= H/(H ∩ N ).
Proof. Let γ : G → G/N be the canonical homomorphism and let H ≤ G. Then γ(H) is
a subgroup of G/N by Theorem ?. Now restricting γ to elements of H only provides us with
a homomorphism mapping H onto γ(H), and the kernel of this restriction is clearly the set of
elements of N that are also in H, that is, the intersection H ∩ N . The first isomorphism theorem
shows that there is an isomorphism f : H/(H ∩ N ) → γ(H).
On the other hand, γ restricted to HN also provides a homomorphism mapping HN onto γ(H),
because γ(n) is the identity N of G/N for all n ∈ N . The kernel of γ restricted to HN is N .
Again the first isomorphism theorem provides us with an isomorphism g : (HN )/N → γ(H).
Because (HN/N ) and H/(H ∩ N ) are both isomorphic to γ(H), they are isomorphic to each
other. Indeed, φ : (HN )/N → H/(H ∩ N ), where φ = f −1 g will be an isomorphism.
Theorem 3.4.5 (Third Isomorphism Theorem). Let H and K be normal subgroups of a group
G with K ≤ H. Then G/H ∼
= (G/K)/(H/K).
Proof. Let φ : G → (G/K)/(H/K) be given by φ(a) = (aK)(H/K) for a ∈ G. Clearly φ is
onto (G/K)/(H/K) and for a, b ∈ G,
φ(ab) = [(ab)K](H/K) = [(aK)(bK)](H/K) = [(aK)(H/K)][(bK)(H/K)] = φ(a)φ(b).
So φ is a homomorphism. The kernel consists of those x ∈ G such that φ(x) = H/K.
These x are just the elements of H. Then the first isomorphism theorem shows that G/H ∼
=
(G/K)/(H/K).
3.5 Orbits and Stabilisers
Definition 3.5.1. Let G be a group of permutations of a set S. For each s in S, let StabG (s) =
{φ ∈ G | φ(s) = s}. We call StabG (s) the stabilizer of s in G.
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Theorem 3.5.2. The stabilizer of s in G is a subgroup of G.
Proof. First we note that StabG (s) is not empty since the identity element of G fixes s. Let α
and β be elements in StabG (s). Then
(α ◦ β)(s) = α(β(s)) = α(s) = s.
Thus α ◦ β ∈ StabG (s). Finally we need to show that β −1 ∈ StabG (s) whenever β ∈ StabG (s).
Let β ∈ StabG (s). Then
s = (β −1 ◦ β)(s) = β −1 (β(s)) = β −1 (s).
Thus, β −1 ∈ StabG (s).
Definition 3.5.3. Let G be a group of permutations of a set S. For each s in S, let OrbG (s) =
{φ(s) | φ ∈ G}. Then the set OrbG (s) is a subset of S called the orbit of s under G. We use
|OrbG (s)| to denote the number of elements in OrbG (s).
Example 3.5.4. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and let
G = {(1), (132)(465)(78), (132)(465), (123)(456), (123)(456)(78), (78)}.
Then
OrbG (1) = {1, 3, 2} and StabG (1) = {(1), (78)}
OrbG (2) = {2, 1, 3} and StabG (2) = {(1), (78)}
OrbG (4) = {4, 6, 5} and StabG (4) = {(1), (78)}
OrbG (7) = {7, 8} and StabG (7) = {(1), (132)(465), (123)(456)}
Theorem 3.5.5 (The Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem). Let G be a finite group of permutations of a set
S. Then for any i in S,
|G| = |OrbG (i)||StabG (i)|
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Proof. By Lagrange’s Theorem, |G|/|StabG (s)| is the number of distinct left cosets of StabG (s)
in G. Thus, it suffices to establish a one-to-one correspondence between the left cosets of
StabG (s) and the elements in the orbit of s. To do this, we define a correspondence T by
mapping the coset φStabG (s) to φ(s) under T . To show that T is well-defined, we must show
that αStabG (s) = βStabG (s) implies α(s) = β(s). But αStabG (s) = βStabG (s) implies
α−1 β ∈ StabG (s), so that (α−1 β)(s) = s and, therefore β(s) = α(s). Reversing the argu-
ment from the last step to the first step shows that T is also one-to-one. We conclude the proof
by showing that T is onto OrbG (s). Let t ∈ OrbG (s). Then α(s) = t for some α ∈ G and clearly
T (αStabG (s)) = α(s) = t, so that T is onto.
3.6 Sylow theorems and applications
P-Groups
Definition 3.6.1. Let G be a group and H ≤ G. We define H g by
H g = gHg −1 = {ghg −1 | h ∈ H}
and we call H g the conjugate of H by g. It can easily be proved that H g ≤ G, ∀g ∈ G.
Definition 3.6.2. Let p be a prime. A group G is called a p−group if every element g ∈ G has
order pk for some positive integer k.
Example 3.6.3. The symmetric group S3 is not a p−group. Z8 is a p−group.
Theorem 3.6.4 (Cauchy’s Theorem). Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime that divides
the order of G. Then G has an element of order p.
Theorem 3.6.5 (A Characterization of Finite p−Groups). A finite group G is a p−group if and
only if |G| = pn for some positive integer n.
Proof. Assume G is a finite p−group. If there exist a prime q such that p 6= q and q/|G|, then by
Cauchy’s Theorem there exist g ∈ G such that o(g) = q. Since g ∈ G and since G is a p−group,
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o(g) = pk for some k. That is q = pk , which is a contradiction. Hence, |G|= pn for some n.
Conversely, if |G|= pn for some n, then ∀g ∈ G we have o(g)/pn . Hence G is a p−group.
Now to the Sylow theorems. Recall that the converse of Lagrange’s Theorem is false; that is,
if G is a group of order n and m divides n, then G need not have a subgroup of order m. The
next theorem is a partial converse of Lagrange’s Theorem.
Theorem 3.6.6 (Sylow’s First Theorem). Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime. If pk
divides |G|, then G has at least one subgroup of order pk .
Proof. We prove this theorem by induction on |G|. If |G| = 1, then the theorem is trivially true.
Now assume that the statement is true for all groups of order less than |G|. If G has a proper
subgroup H such that pk divides |H|, then, by our inductive assumption, H has a subgroup of
order pk and we are done. Thus, we may assume that pk does not divide the order of any proper
subgroup of G. Next, consider the Class Equation for G in the form
X
|G| = |Z(G)| + |G : C(a)|,
/ Z(G). Since pk
where we sum over a representative of each conjugacy class cl(a), where a ∈
divides |G| = |G : C(a)||C(a)| and pk does not divide |C(a)|, we know that p must divide
|G : C(a)| for all a ∈
/ Z(G). It then follows from the Class Equation that p divides |Z(G)|. The
Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups then guarantees that Z(G) contains an element
of order p, say x. Since x is in Z(G), we have that hxi is a normal subgroup of G, and we may
form the factor group G/hxi. Now observe that pk−1 divides |G/hxi|. Thus, by the induction
hypothesis, G/hxi has a subgroup of order pk−1 , and by from factor groups we know that this
subgroup has the form H/hxi, where H is a subgroup of G. Finally, note that |H/hxi| = pk−1
and |hxi| = p implies that |H| = pk , which contradicts our assumption that no such subgroup
exists. Therefore, we must have originally had a subgroup of order pk , and we can apply the
induction hypothesis to that subgroup.
Let’s be sure we understand exactly what Sylow’s First Theorem means. Suppose we have a
group G of order 23 .32 .54 . Then Sylow’s First Theorem says that G must have at least one sub-
group of each of the following orders: 2, 4, 8, 3, 9, 5, 25, 125, and 625. On the other hand, Sylow’s
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First Theorem tells us nothing about the possible existence of subgroups of order 6, 10, 15, 30, or
any other divisor of |G| that has two or more distinct prime factors.
Because certain subgroups guaranteed by Sylow’s First Theorem play a central role in the theory
of finite groups, they are given a special name.
Definition 3.6.7. Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime. If pk divides |G| and pk+1 does
not divide |G|, then any subgroup of G of order pk is called a Sylow p−subgroup of G.
Example 3.6.8. Let G be the group G = Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}. Find at
least one Sylow 2−subgroup of G.
Solution: |Z12 | = 12 = 22 .3. Thus a Sylow 2−subgroup of Z12 must be of order 4. H = h3i =
{0, 3, 6, 9} is the Sylow 2−subgroup of Z12 .
There are two more Sylow theorems that are extremely valuable tools in finite group theory.
Theorem 3.6.9 (Sylow’s Second Theorem). If H is a subgroup of a finite group G and |H| is a
power of a prime p, then H is contained in some Sylow p−subgroup of G.
Theorem 3.6.10 (Sylow’s Third Theorem). Let G be a finite group of order pm q where p is a
prime and (p, q) = 1. Then
1. The number np of Sylow p−subgroups of G is such that np divides q and np ≡ 1 mod p.
2. All Sylow p−subgroups of G are conjugate.
3. If H ≤ G, then H ∈ Sylp (G) if and only if |H| = pm .
Corollary 3.6.11. A Sylow p−subgroup of a finite group G is a normal subgroup of G iff it is
the only Sylow p−subgroup of G.
Example 3.6.12. Find all the Sylow 2−subgroups of the symmetric group S3 .
Example 3.6.13. Find all the Sylow 2−subgroups and the Sylow 3−subgroups of the alternating
group A4 .
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Example 3.6.14. Let G be a group of order 40. How many subgroups of order 5 does G have?
Solution: First we observe that |G| = 40 = 5.8 and so a subgroup of G of order 5 is a Sylow
5−subgroup. Now, by Sylow’s Third Theorem we have that n5 divides 8 and so n5 could be
1, 2, 4 or 8. Futhermore, Sylow’s Third Theorem also asserts that n5 should be congruent to 1
mod 5. This condition eliminates 2, 4 and 8. Therefore n5 = 1 and so the group G has only one
subgroup of order 5.
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CHAPTER 4
Factorisation in Integral domains
4.1 Principal Ideal rings
4.2 Prime and maximal ideals
4.3 Unique factorisation domains
4.4 Ideal structure in the ring F [x]
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CHAPTER 5
Fields
5.1 Ideals in F[x], where F is a field
5.2 Irreducibility and uniqueness of factorisation in F[x]
5.3 Construction of fields
5.4 Extension fields and degree
5.5 Splitting field of a polynomial
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CHAPTER 6
Inner products
6.1 Inner product spaces
6.2 Orthogonal Complement
6.3 Dual spaces
6.4 The Principal Axis theorem
6.5 Unitary and self-adjoint linear transformations
6.6 Polar decomposition of an invertible linear transforma-
tion
6.7 The Spectral theorem
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