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Machining is characterized by the gradual material
removal in the form of chips
The form of chip is an important index of machining
as it indicates .
Mechanics of Chip formation Nature and behavior of the work material under
machining
Specific energy requirement to machining
Nature and degree of interaction at the work-
work-tool
interface
Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to During continuous machining
understand the characteristics of chips and to attain favorable chip the uncut layer of the work material, just ahead of the cutting tool
forms. (edge), is subjected to almost all sided compression
shear stress develops within that compressed region in different
The form of machined chips depend up on magnitude, in different directions and rapidly increases in magnitude
Work material (brittle or ductile) Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or
Material and geometry of cutting tool (orientation of salient features) exceeds the shear strength in the deformation region,
yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that
Levels of the process parameters (cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut)
region and the plane of maximum shear stress
Application of cutting fluid (coolant and lubricants) that affects
The forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip
temperature and friction at the chip-
chip-tool and work-
work-tool interface. quickly diminishes and finally disappears
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The deformation region moves along the tool rake surface towards
and then goes beyond the point of chip-
chip-tool engagement.
As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total
separation takes place.
In the mean time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing
compression followed by yielding and shear.
This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and
removal of chips in thin layer by layer.
This phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by
Piispannen using a card analogy
Piispanen model of card analogy to explain chip formation in
machining ductile materials The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due
to the primary and the secondary shear deformations of the
chips ahead and along the tool face depend upon
Work material
Tool; material and geometry
The machining speed (VC) and feed (so)
In actual machining, such serrations are visible at their upper surface
The lower surface becomes smooth because of further plastic Cutting fluid application
deformation due to intensive rubbing with the tool at high pressure
and temperature
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Experimental study of chip formation The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are
Yielding – generally for ductile materials
Experimental methods
Brittle fracture – generally for brittle materials
Study of grid deformation
Study of frozen chip first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. 3.5 due
to wedging action
Study of running chips by high speed camera
At the sharp crack-
crack-tip stress concentration takes place
Initiated crack quickly propagates, under stressing action because
of no yield, and total separation takes place from the parent
workpiece through the minimum resistance path
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
There are 4 types of metal chips commonly observed in
practice (orthogonal metal cutting)
a) Continuous chip ( chips with narrow, straight, primary
shear zone or chip with secondary shear zone at the tool-
Development and propagation of crack chip interface
b) Built-up edge, BUE chip
c) Serrated or segmented or non-homogenous chip
d) Discontinuous chip
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Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Common characteristics of all Chips Formed with ductile materials machined at high
cutting speeds and/or high rake angles
Chips has two surfaces:
Deformation takes place along a narrow shear zone
Surface in contact with rake face called the (primary shear zone
zone))
Shiny and polished
Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear zone
Caused by rubbing of the chip on the tool surface due to high friction at the tool–
tool–chip interface
Outer surface from the original surface of the workpiece This zone becomes thicker as friction increases
Jagged, rough appearance
Continuous chips may also occur with wide primary
Caused by shearing mechanism shear zone with curved boundaries
Note, this surface remains exposed to the environment, and Note, lower boundary of deformation zone drops below
does not come into contact with any other surface machined surface ⇒ distortion in workpiece
workpiece,, poor finish
Occurs: machining soft metals at low speeds, low rake angles
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Continuous Chip
Also called segmented or non-
non-homogeneous chips
They are semicontinuous chips with
large zones of low shear strain and
small zones of high shear strain (shear localization)
localization)
Example: metals with low thermal conductivity and
strength that decreases sharply with temperature,
i.e. thermal softening (e.g. titanium)
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone Chips have a sawtooth-
sawtooth-like appearance
rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool
tool--chip friction.
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Consist of segments that are attached firmly or Chip formation in machining brittle materials; chips are
loosely to each other formed due to fracture.
Form under the following conditions:
Brittle workpiece materials
materials
Irregular shape chips are
Materials with hard inclusions and impurities
Very low or very high cutting speeds formed
Large depths of cut
Low rake angles
Lack of an effective cutting fluid
Low stiffness of the machine tool
(⇒ vibration, chatter)
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Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips
Irregular shape chips are formed BUE Consists of layers of material from the
workpiece that are deposited on the tool tip
As it grows larger, the BUE becomes unstable and
eventually breaks apart
BUE: partly removed by tool, partly deposited on workpiece
Note: BUE chip much harder than chip
Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle
materials
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Hardness distribution with BUE chip
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Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips
Characteristics of BUE
Size, shape and bonding strength of BUE depending on
Work--tool materials
Work Stress and temperature
Tool Geometry Cutting fluid application
Causes of BUE formation
Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips
Effects of BUE BUE can be reduced by:
Increase the cutting speeds
Unfavorable rake angle and clearance
Decrease the depth of cut
Fluctuation in cutting forces and consequences Increase the rake angle
Use a sharp tool
Poor surface finish
Use an effective cutting fluid
May reduce tool life Use cutting tool with lower
chemical affinity for workpiece
material
BUE: milling BUE: turning
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Chip Breakers Chip Breakers
Long, continuous chips are undesirable since: action of chip breaker clamped chip
breaker
become entangled and greatly interfere with machining
potential safety hazard
Chip-Breaker: breaks chips intermittently with cutting tools
Traditionally are clamped to rake face: bend and break the chip
Modern tools: built-
built-in chip breakers
Ideal chip: “C” or “9” shape
Grooves in tools act as
chip breakers
Chip Breakers
Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry to In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left
control chip flow along the workpiece at a constant velocity, V, and a
depth of cut, to
Chip thickness, tc
Chips produced in turning
Tightly curled chip Chips hits workpiece Continuous chip Chip hits tool
and breaks moving radially shank (body) and
away from the breaks off Idealized model; Orthogonal; 2-2-D cutting with a well-
well-
workpiece
defined shear plane; also called M.E. Merchant model
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Orthogonal cutting: It is two dimensional and the forces Cutting Ratio (r) or (Chip reduction/compression ratio (ϛ
(ϛ): is related
involved are perpendicular to each other to the two angles
Cutting tool has a rake angle of α and a relief or clearance shear angle, t sin
r 0
angle rake angle, γ t c cos
Shearing takes place in a shear zone at shear angle Φ
Chip thickness tc is always > than the depth of cut,
cut, to
Velocity diagram ⇒ the value of r is always less than unity (i.e. <1)
showing angular
relationship
Reciprocal of r (i.e. 1/r = ϛ) is known as the chip
chip--
among 3 speeds in compression ratio
ratio/coefficient
/coefficient or chip-
chip-compression
cutting zone:
V: cutting speed
factor
Basic mechanism It’s a measure of how thick the chip has become
Vs: shearing speed
of chip formation
by shearing Vc: chip velocity ϛ > 1 Always
Significance of the Chip reduction/compression ratio (ϛ
(ϛ) Making use of cutting ratio in evaluating cutting
ϛ determines the amount of energy invested for machining conditions:
Hence low value of ϛ is required to minimize the energy Depth of cut,
cut, to: machine setting (i.e. Indep
Indep.. Variable)
required
Chip thickness, tc can be measured using micrometer
Cutting ratio, r can then easily be calculated
As μ increases ϛ increase and vice versa Rake angle, is also known for cutting operation
As γ increases ϛ decreases and vice versa It is function of tool and workpiece geometry
Hence: decrease the value of μ and increase the value of γ Rake angle Cutting ratio and rake angle can be used to find shear
angle,
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Shear angle, Φ Average cutting strain, ɛ
r cos cos
tan
1 r sin sin r
Cutting Strain should be
Shear angle is angle of minimum to reduce
inclination of the shear plane investment in energy
from the velocity vector and
is on the orthogonal plane
Average cutting strain, ɛ
The shear strain (i.e. deformation relative to original size)
that the material undergoes can be expressed as
AB AO OB
cot tan
OC OC OC
Large shear strains (≥5) are associated with low shear angles or
with low or negative rake angles
Based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts itself to
minimize the cutting force,
force,
β = friction angle, related to μ :
μ = tanβ coefficient of friction
45
2 2
45 (when 0.5 ~ 2) More general form
