Wastewater

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Greywater (a type of wastewater) in a settling tank

Wastewater (or waste water) is any water that has been contaminated by human

use. Wastewater is "used water from any combination of domestic, industrial,
commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer
inflow or sewer infiltration".[1] Therefore, wastewater is a byproduct of domestic,
industrial, commercial or agricultural activities. The characteristics of wastewater
vary depending on the source. Types of wastewater include: domestic wastewater
from households, municipal wastewater from communities (also called sewage)
and industrial wastewater. Wastewater can contain physical, chemical and
biological pollutants.
Households may produce wastewater from flush toilets, sinks, dishwashers, washing
machines, bath tubs, and showers. Households that use dry toilets produce less
wastewater than those that use flush toilets.
Wastewater may be conveyed in a sanitary sewer that conveys only sewage.
Alternatively, wastewater can be transported in a combined sewer that conveys
both stormwater runoff and sewage, and possibly also industrial wastewater. After
treatment at a wastewater treatment plant, treated wastewater (also called effluent)
is discharged to a receiving water body. The terms "wastewater reuse" and "water
reclamation" apply if the treated waste is used for another purpose. Wastewater that
is discharged to the environment without suitable treatment can cause water
pollution.
In developing countries and in rural areas with low population densities, wastewater
is often treated by various on-site sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers.
These systems include septic tanks connected to drain fields, on-site sewage
systems (OSS), vermifilter systems and many more.
 Contents

 1Terminology
 2Sources
 3Pollutants
o 3.1Chemical or physical pollutants
o 3.2Biological pollutants
o 3.3Quality indicators
 4Treatment
 5Disposal
 6Reuse
 7Legislation
o 7.1Australia
o 7.2Nigeria
o 7.3Philippines
o 7.4United States
 8See also
 9References

Terminology[edit]
The extremely broad term sanitation includes the management of
wastewater, human excreta, solid waste and stormwater. The term sewerage refers
to the physical infrastructure required to transport and treat wastewater.

Sources[edit]
Sources of wastewater include the following domestic or household activities:

 Human excreta (feces, urine, blood and other

bodily fluids) often mixed with used toilet
paper or wet wipes; this is known as blackwater if
it is collected from flush toilets
 Washing water (personal hygiene, clothes, floors,
dishes, cars, etc.), also known as greywater or
sullage
 Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic
sources (drinks, cooking
oil, pesticides, lubricating oil, paint, cleaning
detergents, etc.)
Activities producing industrial wastewater include:

 Industrial site drainage (silt, sand, alkali, oil,

chemical residues);
 Industrial cooling waters (biocides, heat, slimes,
silt)
 Industrial processing waters
  Organic or biodegradable waste including waste
from hospitals, abattoirs, creameries,
and food factories.
 Organic or non bio-degradable waste that is
difficult-to-treat
from pharmaceutical [2] or pesticide manufacturing
 Extreme pH waste
from acid and alkali manufacturing
 Toxic waste from
metal plating, cyanide production, pesticide manu
facturing, etc.
 Solids and emulsions from paper mills, factories
producing lubricants or hydraulic oils, foodstuffs,
etc.
 Water used in hydraulic fracturing
 Produced water from oil & natural gas production
Other related activities or events:

 Urban runoff from highways, roads, railway
tracks, car parks, roofs, pavements (contains oils,
animal feces/manure, food
waste, litter, petrol, diesel or rubber residues from
tyres, soapscum, metals from vehicle exhausts,
de-icing agents, herbicides and pesticides from
gardens, etc.)
 Agricultural pollution, direct and diffuse
Wastewater can be diluted or mixed with other types of water through the following
mechanisms:

 Seawater ingress (high volumes

of salt and microbes)
 Direct ingress of river water
 Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standings,
etc. (generally clean with traces of oils and fuel)
 Groundwater infiltrated into sewage
 Mixing with other types of wastewater or fecal
sludge

Pollutants[edit]
The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of pollutants that
may be contained in wastewater:
Chemical or physical pollutants[edit]

 Heavy metals, including mercury, lead,

and chromium
  Organic particles such as feces, hairs, food
waste, vomit, paper fibers, plant material, humus,
etc.;
 Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit
sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals,
etc.;
 Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal
particles, rubber residues from tires, ceramics,
etc.;
 Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia,
road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen
sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc.;
 Macro-solids such as sanitary
napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles,
children's toys, dead animals or plants, etc.;
 Gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, methane, etc.;
 Emulsions such
as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants,
emulsified oils, etc.;
 Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides,
etc.
 Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting
compounds, hormones, perfluorinated
compounds, siloxanes, drugs of abuse and other
hazardous substances [3][4][5]
 Microplastics such as polyethylene and
polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide [6]
 Thermal pollution from power stations and
industrial manufacturers
Biological pollutants[edit]
If the wastewater contains human feces, as is the case for sewage, then it may also
contain pathogens of one of the four types:[7][8]

 Bacteria (for
example Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Vi
brio cholerae),
 Viruses (for example hepatitis
A, rotavirus, enteroviruses),
 Protozoa (for example Entamoeba
histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium
parvum) and
 Parasites such as helminths and their eggs
(e.g. Ascaris (roundworm), Ancylostoma (hookwo
rm) and Trichuris (whipworm));
It can also contain non-pathogenic bacteria and animals such
as insects, arthropods and small fish.
Quality indicators[edit]
Main article: Wastewater quality indicators
Since all natural waterways contain bacteria and nutrients, almost any waste
compounds introduced into such waterways will initiate biochemical reactions such
as detailed above. Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the
laboratory as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Such chemicals are also liable
to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents and these chemical reactions
create what is measured in the laboratory as the chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect
of a waste contaminant. Both have been widely adopted as a measure
of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the oxygen demand
of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of
oxidizable pollutants.
Any oxidizable material present in an aerobic natural waterway or in an industrial
wastewater will be oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes.
The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased.
Aquatic toxicology tests are used to provide qualitative and quantitative data on
adverse effects on aquatic organisms from a toxicant. Testing types include acute
(short-term exposure), chronic (life span) and bioaccumulation tests. [9] Many
industrial facilities in the US conduct "whole effluent toxicity" tests on their
wastewater discharges, typically in combination with chemical tests for selected
pollutants.[10]

Treatment[edit]
Main article: Wastewater treatment
At a global level, around 80% of wastewater produced is discharged into the
environment untreated, causing widespread water pollution.[11]:2
There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending
on the type and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be treated in wastewater
treatment plants which include physical, chemical and biological treatment
processes. Municipal wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants (which may
also be referred to as wastewater treatment plants). Agricultural wastewater may be
treated in agricultural wastewater treatment processes, whereas industrial
wastewater is treated in industrial wastewater treatment processes.
For municipal wastewater the use of septic tanks and other On-Site Sewage
Facilities (OSSF) is widespread in some rural areas, for example serving up to 20
percent of the homes in the U.S.[12]
One type of aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based on the
maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms
able to absorb and adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic
wastewater treatment processes (UASB, EGSB) are also widely applied in the
treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be
highly treated and reused as reclaimed water. Constructed wetlands are also being
used.

Disposal[edit]
Industrial wastewater effluent with neutralized pH from tailing runoff in Peru.

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In many cities, municipal wastewater is carried together with stormwater, in

a combined sewer system, to a sewage treatment plant. In some urban areas,
municipal wastewater is carried separately in sanitary sewers and runoff from streets
is carried in storm drains. Access to these systems, for maintenance purposes, is
typically through a manhole.
During high precipitation periods a combined sewer system may experience
a combined sewer overflow event, which forces untreated sewage to flow directly to
receiving waters. This can pose a serious threat to public health and the surrounding
environment.
In less-developed or rural regions, sewage may drain directly into
major watersheds with minimal or no treatment. This usually has serious impacts on
the quality of an environment and on human health. Pathogens can cause a variety
of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very low concentrations and can
remain a threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulation in animal or
human tissue.
Wastewater from factories, power plants and other industrial activities is extensively
regulated in developed nations, and treatment is required before discharge to
surface waters. (See Industrial wastewater treatment.) Some facilities such as oil
and gas wells may be permitted to pump their wastewater underground
through injection wells. Wastewater injection has been linked to induced seismicity.[13]

Reuse[edit]
Main articles: Reclaimed water and Reuse of excreta
Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers), in
artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture and in the rehabilitation of natural
ecosystems (for example in wetlands). In rarer cases it is also used to
augment drinking water supplies. There are several technologies used to treat
wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment
standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free
from bacteria and viruses. The following are some of the typical
technologies: Ozonation, ultrafiltration, aerobic treatment (membrane
bioreactor), forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation.
Some water demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case,
wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is
in the domestic environment where toilets can be flushed using greywater from baths
and showers with little or no treatment.
Irrigation with recycled wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains
nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In developing
countries, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation - often in an unsafe
manner. There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated
wastewater in agriculture. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for
safe use of wastewater in 2006.[14]

Legislation[edit]
Further information: Reclaimed water §  Guidelines and regulations
Australia[edit]
As part of the Environmental Protection Act 1994, the Environmental Protection
(Water) Policy 2009 is responsible for the water management of Queensland,
Australia.[15]
Nigeria[edit]
In Nigeria, the Water Resources Act of 1993 is the law responsible for all kinds of
water management.
Philippines[edit]
In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean
Water Act of 2004,[16] is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that
it is the country's policy to protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh,
brackish and marine waters, for which wastewater management plays a particular
role.[16]
United States[edit]
The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water
pollution in surface waters.[17] It is implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency in collaboration with states, territories, and tribes. [18] Groundwater protection
provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, and the Superfund act.

See also[edit]

 Water portal

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Wastewater.
 Scholia has a topic profile
for Wastewater.

 Fecal sludge management

 List of waste-water treatment technologies
 Sanitation
 Wastewater-based epidemiology
 Waste management
 Water management
 Water pollution
 Grey water

References[edit]
1. ^ Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph., Zurbrügg,
C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and
Technologies – (2nd Revised ed.). Swiss Federal Institute
of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag),
Duebendorf, Switzerland. p. 175.  ISBN  978-3-906484-
57-0. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016.
2. ^ Naddeo, V.; Meriç, S.; Kassinos, D.; Belgiorno, V.;
Guida, M. (September 2009). "Fate of pharmaceuticals in
contaminated urban wastewater effluent under ultrasonic
irradiation". Water Research.  43  (16): 4019–
4027.  doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.05.027. PMID 19589554
.
3. ^ Arvaniti and Stasinakis, 2015. Review on the
occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated
compounds during wastewater treatment. Science of the
Total Environment vol. 524-525, August 2015, p. 81-
92. Arvaniti and Stasinakis, 2015
4. ^ Bletsou et al., 2013. Mass loading and fate of linear and
cyclic siloxanes in a wastewater treatment plant in
Greece. Environmental Science and Technology vol. 47,
January 2015, p. 1824-1832. Bletsou et al., 2013
5. ^ Gatidou et al., 2016. Drugs of abuse and alcohol
consumption among different groups of population on the
Greek island of Lesvos through sewage-based
epidemiology. Science of the Total Environment vol. 563-
564, September 2016, p. 633-640. Gatidou et al., 2016
6. ^ Gatidou et al. 2019. Review on the occurrence and fate
of microplastics in Sewage Treatment Plants. Journal of
Hazardous Materials, vol. 367, April 2019, p. 504-
512. Gatidou et al., 2019
7. ^ World Health Organization (2006). Guidelines for the
safe use of wastewater, excreta, and greywater. World
Health Organization. p.  31. ISBN 978-
9241546850.  OCLC 71253096.
8. ^ Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B.,
Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and
Trimmer, C. (2016). Sanitation, Wastewater Management
and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource
Recovery Archived 1 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment
 Programme and Stockholm Environment
Institute. ISBN 978-92-807-3488-1, p. 56
9. ^ Rand, Gary M., ed. (1995). Fundamentals of Aquatic
Toxicology  (2nd ed.). London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-
56032-091-5.
10. ^ "Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET)".  National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 17
September 2019.
11. ^ WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment
Programme) (2017). The United Nations World Water
Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped
Resource. Paris.  ISBN  978-92-3-100201-4. Archived
from  the original on 8 April 2017.
12. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C. (2008). "Septic Systems Fact Sheet." Archived 12
April 2013 at the Wayback Machine EPA publication no.
832-F-08-057.
13. ^ van der Baan, Mirko; Calixto, Frank J. (1 July
2017). "Human-induced seismicity and large-scale
hydrocarbon production in the USA and
Canada".  Geochemistry, Geophysics,
Geosystems. 18 (7): 2467–
2485.  Bibcode:2017GGG....18.2467V. doi:10.1002/2017g
c006915.  ISSN  1525-2027.
14. ^ WHO (2006). WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of
Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater – Volume IV: Excreta
and greywater use in agriculture Archived 17 October
2014 at the Wayback Machine. World Health Organization
(WHO), Geneva, Switzerland
15. ^ "Environmental policy and legislation". Department of
Environmental and Heritage Protection. Queensland
Government. 25 September 2015. Archived from the
original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved  20 October 2017.
16. ^ Jump up to:a b "An Act Providing For A Comprehensive
Water Quality Management And For Other
Purposes". The LawPhil Project.  Archived  from the
original on 21 September 2016. Retrieved  30
September  2016.
17. ^ United States. Clean Water Act. 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et
seq. Pub.L. 92-500Archived 16 May 2013 at the Wayback
Machine, 18 October 1972; as amended.
18. ^ Jim Hanlon, Mike Cook, Mike Quigley, Bob
Wayland. “Water Quality: A Half Century of
Progress.” EPA Alumni Association. March 2016.

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