Thermodynamics(11) Wah Engineering college
(a)
Since one engine cycle in a two-stroke engine is completed in one crankshaft
rotation, gas exchange has to occur while the piston is near BDC. There are two
important consequences of this:
i. Since gas exchange commences before and ends after BDC, a portion of the
expansion and compression stroke is unusable.
ii. Piston velocity is low during the entire gas exchange phase and is unable to
provide a significant pumping effect on the cylinder charge. Hence, gas exchange can
only occur when the intake pressure is sufficiently higher than the exhaust pressure to
allow the incoming fresh charge to displace the burned gas in the time available. This
process of simultaneously purging exhaust gas from the previous cycle and filling the
cylinder with fresh charge for a new cycle is referred to as scavenging. To ensure
adequate scavenging, two-stroke engines must be equipped with some form of intake
air compression and the intake and exhaust ports and/or valves must be open
simultaneously for a sufficient period of time.
In an internal combustion engine, scavenging is the process of replacing the exhaust
gas in a cylinder with the fresh air/fuel mixture (or fresh air, in the case of
direct-injection engines) for the next cycle. ... Scavenging is equally important for
both two-stroke and four-stroke engines.
Scavenging in two-stroke engines is performed mainly by one of three methods:
Cross-scavenging
Loop-scavenging
Uniflow-scavenging
In a four-stroke cycle engine, scavenging is very effective because during the exhaust
stroke the piston pushes out the burnt gases from the engine cylinder. Note that a
small quantity of burnt gases remains in the engine cylinder in the clearance space.
In a two-stroke cycle engine, scavenging is less effective because the exhaust port is
open for a small fraction of the crank rotation. As the transfer and exhaust port arc
open simultaneously during a part of the crank rotation, the fresh charge also escapes
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Thermodynamics(11) Wah Engineering college
out along with the burnt gases. This is overcome by way of designing the piston
crown of a particular shape.
Specific engine output is largely determined by the efficiency of the scavenging
system and is directly related to bMEP. Scavenging efficiency varies with the delivery
ratio and the type of scavenging. In this respect, cross-scavenging is the least efficient
and produces the lowest bMEP. This is because the scavenging air flows through the
cylinder but does not expel the exhaust residual gases effectively. The loop
scavenging method is better than the cross-flow scavenging method. Even with a
delivery ratio of 1.0, in all cases the scavenging efficiencies are approximately 53%,
67%, and 80% for cross-, loop, and uniflow scavenging systems with corresponding
values of bMEPs of 3.5, 4.5, and 5.8 bar.
The delivery ratio Rdel (Eq. 2.2) compares the actual scavenging air mass (or mixture
mass) to that required in an ideal charging process [17]:
(b)
Design of the diesel fuel injector nozzle is critical to the performance and
emissions of modern diesel engines. Some of the important injector nozzle design
parameters include details of the injector seat, the injector sac and nozzle hole size
and shape. These features not only affect the combustion characteristics of the diesel
engine, they can also affect the stability of the emissions and performance over the
lifetime of the engine and the mechanical durability of the injector.
All nozzles must produce a fuel spray that meets the requirements of the performance
and emissions goals of the market for which the engine is produced regardless of
details of the fuel system design (i.e., regardless if the fuel system is of the common
rail, unit injector, unit pump or pump-line-nozzle type). Additionally, specific
requirements for injection nozzles can also depend on the fuel system type [Potz
2000]:
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Thermodynamics(11) Wah Engineering college
Common rail—nozzle operates under more demanding tribological conditions
and must be better designed to prevent leakage.
Unit injector/unit pump—pressure pulsing conditions create more demanding
fatigue strength requirements.
Pump-line-nozzle—hydraulic dead volume must be minimized.
(c)
Since the fuel and air is mixed in the cylinder and over a very short time,
utilisation of all the oxygen in the intake air is not possible. Diesel engines therefore
always operate lean of stoichiometric, i.e. with an excess of air. However, due to the
higher compression ratios used, and the resulting higher temperature levels, the
formation of temperature-dependent emissions, most notably nitrogen oxides, in
Diesel engines is comparable to that of spark ignition engines. (The exact NOx levels
can vary significantly in both engine types and depend heavily on operational
parameters such as injection/ignition timing.) Emissions of CO and HC are negligible
in Diesel engines; however, particulates emissions represent a major
challenge. Particulate matter, or soot, poses significant health risks, and is a particular
problem with fuels having poor ignition and combustion characteristics, such as
bio-oils. Particulate emissions comprise complex hydrocarbons that have not been
fully oxidised, and can be reduced by increasing the combustion temperatures, for
example through advancing the start of injection. However, while this increases the
oxidation of soot particles, the higher temperatures lead to increased NOx formation,
and also influences fuel efficiency, hence there is a trade-off. (This Catch-22-like
situation, that measures to reduce particulates emissions tends to increase NOx, and
vice versa, is known as ‘the Diesel dilemma’.)
Both NOx and particulate emissions are formed in the fuel spray in Diesel engines,
and the injection properties therefore have very high influence on the emissions.
Much research effort is going into the improvement of fuel injection systems, and
there is a clear trend towards higher injection pressures to give a finer fuel spray and
better fuel break-up and atomisation.
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Thermodynamics(11) Wah Engineering college
(d)
i. The present paper reassumes the results of an experimental study focused on the
effects of the nozzle injector’s coking varying the flow number (FN); the
performance and emissions of an automotive Euro5 diesel engine have been
analyzed using diesel fuel. As the improvement of the diesel engine performance
requires a continuous development of the injection system and in particular of the
nozzle design, in the last years the general trend among OEMs is lowering nozzle
flow number and, as a consequence, nozzle holes size. The study carried out
moves from the consideration that a reduction of the nozzle holes diameter could
increase the impact of their coking process. For this purpose, an experimental
campaign has been realized, testing the engine in steady state in three partial load
operating points, representative of the European homologation driving cycle, and
in full load conditions. Three sets of injectors with different flow number (480
cc/30s, 390cc/30s, 300cc/30s) have been used for the experimental campaign; in
a first phase new injectors have been used, then, after an accelerated coking
procedure of the same injectors, the tests have been repeated to compare the
results. The impact of the different FN and coking grade on the engine behaviour
has been investigated performing exhaust gas recirculation ratio and lambda
sweeps, at partial and full load engine conditions, respectively. The study has
evidenced the benefits of the FN reduction on smoke emissions especially at low
load conditions. Also as expected, it has been observed a general deterioration of
engine performance in the tests carried out after the injectors’ coking procedure,
that is evidenced by an increase of smoke, CO and HC; moreover the results have
shown a greater tendency to suffer the effects of coking for the nozzle with lower
FN.
ii. Studies show that fuel-injection equipment and variables such as nozzle
configuration affect pollutant production and emission because they affect
fuel-air mixing. An increased rate of injection or air swirl increases the rate of
fuel-air mixing and reduces the amount of exhaust smoke and its dependence on
injection timing. An increase in rate or swirl ratio increases nitric oxide emission
at a given injection timing, but the increase is relatively small compared with
reduction obtained by retarding injection timing.
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Thermodynamics(11) Wah Engineering college
iii. Fuel injection parameters play an important role in diesel engine performance for
obtaining proper combustion. The performance and emission characteristics of
diesel engine depend on many parameters. The important parameters which
influence the performance and emission of diesel engine are fuel injection
pressure, fuel nozzle holes and its size. An experimental study was performed on
a light duty direct injection diesel engine at 200 bar, 220 bar and 240 bar injection
pressure to study its effect on performance and emission. The injection pressure
was changed by adjusting the fuel injector spring tension. Future emission
legislation will require substantial reductions of NO x and Smoke emissions from
diesel engines. The combustion and formation in a diesel engine is governed
mainly by spray formation and mixing. Important parameters governing these are
droplet size, distribution concentration and injection velocity. Smaller orifices are
believed to give smaller droplet size, even with reduce injection pressure, which
leads to better fuel atomization, faster evaporation and better mixing. The
performance and emission characteristics were presented graphically to conclude
that they were found better with 5 hole nozzle of O = 0.2 mm at the fuel injection
pressure 220 bar for the light duty engine.
