What is a cell?
Inside the cell
Cell division
Types
Humans are made up of trillions of cells — the
basic unit of life on earth. In this article, we
explain some of the structures found in cells and
describe a few of the many types of cell found in
our bodies.
Cells can be thought of as tiny packages that contain minute factories,
warehouses, transport systems, and power plants. They function on their own,
creating their own energy and self-replicating — the cell is the smallest unit of
life that can replicate.
However, cells also communicate with each other and connect to create a
solid, well stuck-together animal. Cells build tissues, which form organs; and
organs work together to keep the organism alive.
Robert Hook first discovered cells in 1665. He gave them their name because
they resembled the cella (Latin for "small rooms") where monks lived in
monasteries.
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Inside the cell
Different cell types can look wildly different, and carry out very different roles
within the body.
For instance, a sperm cell resembles a tadpole, a female egg cell is spherical,
and nerve cells are essentially thin tubes.
Despite their differences, they often share certain structures; these are
referred to as organelles (mini-organs). Below are some of the most
important:
A simplified diagram of a human cell.
Nucleus
The nucleus can be thought of as the cell's headquarters. There is normally
one nucleus per cell, but this is not always the case, skeletal muscle cells, for
instance, have two. The nucleus contains the majority of the cell's DNA (a
small amount is housed in the mitochondria, see below). The nucleus sends
out messages to tell the cell to grow, divide, or die.
The nucleus is separated from the rest of the cell by a membrane called the
nuclear envelope; nuclear pores within the membrane allow through small
molecules and ions, while larger molecules need transport proteins to help
them through.
Plasma membrane
To ensure each cell remains separate from its neighbor, it is enveloped in a
special membrane known as the plasma membrane. This membrane is
predominantly made of phospholipids, which prevent water-based substances
from entering the cell. The plasma membrane contains a range of receptors,
which carry out a number of tasks, including being:
Gatekeepers: Some receptors allow certain molecules through and
stop others.
Markers: These receptors act as name badges, informing the immune
system that they are part of the organism and not a foreign invader.
Communicators: Some receptors help the cell communicate with other
cells and the environment.
Fasteners: Some receptors help bind the cell to its neighbors.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the interior of the cell that surrounds the nucleus and is
around 80 percent water; it includes the organelles and a jelly-like fluid called
the cytosol. Many of the important reactions that take place in the cell occur in
the cytoplasm.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes
Both lysosomes and peroxisomes are essentially bags of enzymes.
Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down large molecules, including old
parts of the cells and foreign material. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that
destroy toxic materials, including peroxide.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton can be considered the scaffolding of the cell. It helps it
maintain the correct shape. However, unlike regular scaffolding, the
cytoskeleton is flexible; it plays a role in cell division and cell motility — the
ability of some cells to move, such as sperm cells, for instance.
The cytoskeleton also helps in cell signaling through its involvement in the
uptake of material from outside the cell (endocytosis) and is involved in
moving materials around within the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) processes molecules within the cell and
helps transport them to their final destinations. In particular, it synthesizes,
folds, modifies, and transports proteins.
The ER is made up of elongated sacs, called cisternae, held together by the
cytoskeleton. There are two types: rough ER and smooth ER.
Golgi apparatus
Once molecules have been processed by the ER, they travel to the Golgi
apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is sometimes considered the post office of the
cell, where items are packaged and labeled. Once materials leave, they may
be used within the cell or taken outside of the cell for use elsewhere.
Mitochondria
Often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria help turn energy
from the food that we eat into energy that the cell can use — adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). However, mitochondria have a number of other jobs,
including calcium storage and a role in cell death (apoptosis).
Ribosomes
In the nucleus, DNA is transcribed into RNA (ribonucleic acid), a molecule
similar to DNA, which carries the same message. Ribosomes read the RNA
and translate it into protein by sticking together amino acids in the order
defined by the RNA.
Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm; others are attached to the ER.
