U. S.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
DANIEL C. ROPER, Secretary
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
LEO OTIS COLBERT, Director

Special Publication No. 197

Second (1938) Edition

PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION

and

THE USE OF THE AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

OF THE U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

BY
THOBURN C. LYON
ASSOCIATE CARTOGRAPHIC ENGINEER

6 c6\3
c

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1938
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

ERRATA NOTICE

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original document, please contact the NOAA Central Library in Silver Spring, MD at
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LASON
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January 1,2006
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
The aeronautical charts of the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey, because of the projection upon which they are constructed,
provide for very simple methods of air navigation. The advantages
which they afford were not generally understood, and the purpose
of this book has been to enable pilots to make full and efficient use
of these charts.
The first edition was quite brief. I n the present edition, the orig-
inal text has been expanded and made more complete, especially in
the case of radio navigation. I n keeping with developments in long-
distance flying, a chapter on celestial navigntion has been added, with
the necessary tables therefor. A chapter on meteorology, several new
graphs, and additional practical examples have also been included.
It is hoped that this second edition may be of wider service and may
contribute something to the development of practical air nnvigation.
11
FB9XnSPIECE.-AirrvaY map of the United States.
B l a n k page r e t a i n e d for p a g i n a t i o n
CONTENTS
VI CONTENTS

Page
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115
116
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121
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158
159
160
162
163
165
165
166
166
182
183

111

3
4
5
7
 CONTENTS VI1

Figure Psge
5. Cultural features ______________________________________ _________ 7
6. -
Cultural features (landmarks)- - - - _ _ _ _ - - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ - ______________ 8
7. Relief (elevation) - - - _______________________________________ 9
8. Contours illustrated by a sand pile- - _________
--1__ --- _ _ _ - ___ -____ 10
9. Ridges and valleys shown by contours_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 11
10. The seashore as a contour _______________________________________ 11
11. Altitude, form, and slope expressed by contours. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
12. - __ __
Airport classification- - - - _ _ - _ _ - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______ __
___ 13
13.
14. True compass rose (sectional and regional charts)
_ _ -
Aeronautical data (miscellaneous) _ - - _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _
__________________
15
16
15. Magnetic compass rose (radio direction finding charts) ____
-----_ -_ - _ 17
16. Spacing d i v i d e r s - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - - _ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - 22
17. Folding the chart for use in flight _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _24 _
18. Folding the chart as a strip _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 25 _
19. Making a route b o o k _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _25 _---_-__
20. Courses and bearings _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ 30
21. Course and track ________________________________________ 30
22. Subdividing a long route ________________________________________ 31
23. The correction for convergence of meridians _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 32
24. Protractor used as a long straightedge _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _32_
25. Magnetic variatipn in the United States, 1935 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 33
26. Magnetic v a r l a t i o n - - - - _ - - - - _ - - _ - _ - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34
27. Westerly variation (Portland, Maine) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - __ ___
-_ _ _ --_ _ 36
28.
29.
Easterly variation (Portland, Orcg.) - - - __ ____
Departure frqm +,ended track due to flying a mean magnetic course- -
- - _ r- _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - _ _ 36
37
__
30.
31.
Compass deviation- - - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _
Applying variation and dcviation to find the compass course- _ _ - - -
___ __
- - - - _ _ _ _- - - - - - - _ __ _
37
-.
38
32. Effect of current on a b o a t - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - - - _ _39 __------
33. Wind d r i f t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ - _ - _ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ -39 _
34. Correcting for the effect of current on a boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
35. Correction to course for wind, and determination of ground speed- - - - 40
36. Combining compass coursc and wind correction to find the compass
h e a d i n ~ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - ~ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ - - _ - - _ _ - - - -41 --------
37. Graphic definition of terms uscd in dead reckoning _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _42 ___-
38. Combining the true hending and drift to find the track (true coursc
made g o o d ) - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - _ - - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - 44
39. Plotting on the chart the track, or true course made good _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 45
40. Departure from intended track due to failure t o apply correction for
wind_-_--_-----------------------_--__--_---------_-------- 46
41. Departure from intended track due to over-correction for wind- _ _ _ _ _ 46
42. Radius of action; triangle of velocities for flight out ________________ 47
43. Radius of action; triangle of velocities for return flight- - - - - - - - - - - - _ 48
44. Radius of .action; triangle for flight out combined with triangle for
return f l i g h t _ - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - _ _ - _ - - 49 --
45. Radius of action when returning to some place other than the starting
point_---___---__---__-----_------_-_------------_-------- 50
46. The radio range system of the Department of Commerce- --_ ---- __- 53
47. Newark radio range station _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - _ _ _- - - _ - - -
54
48. Identification of the quadrant and range course; 90’ method- - - - - - - __ - 58
60
49. Identification of the quadrant and range course; fade-out method___-
50. Radio compass navigation (radio bearings) - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - __ _
51. Radio compass navigation; a “running fix” _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ 63
64
52. A radio line of position from bearing determined at plane- - - - - _ - - - 67 __
53. The radio compass and wind effect _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 68
54. Determination of wind by radio compass_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _69_
73
55. Relation between observed altitudes of a star and circles of position-_
56. Two circles of position establish location- - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - _
57. The line of position on large scale charts _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _75
__ __ 74
. -
_
___
58. The celestial sphere _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _76 ____---
59. The astronomical triangle--- _____ -
_ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 78 __ ___
80. R e f r a c t i o n _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - -80 --
61. P a r a l l a x _ _ _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - -81
62. Form for computing the line of position, showing all data obtained
by o b s e r v a t i o n _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - _ - _ _ - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -82
63. Form for computing the line of position, showing the complete solution- 84
64. Determining the local hour angle (LHA) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _86. . _ _ _
 VI11 CONTENTS

Figure Page
65. Latitude from Polaris _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _91_ - - _
66. Form for star identification _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _92 __
67. The civil day and sidereal time- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 94
68. The Greenwich hour angle and sidereal time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
69. Typical symbolized airway weather report, with interpretation----.. - - 114
70. Typical symbolized report of pilot balloon observations, with inter-
p r e t a t i o n _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ - _ - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ - _ _ _ - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 115 ----
71. Meteorological data symbols and descriptions _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 117
72. T pica1 weather map _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _(facing) _ _ _ _ _ _ 120
73. Cyoud formation illustrated by escaping steam- - - - - - - - - - - - - - (facing) 122
74. Development of a depression _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _123 ___
75. Typical de ression, with section through fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
__ _
76. Occlusion gold-front type)-- - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 125
77. Occlusion (warm-front type) _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - - - - - 125
78. Typical depression, showing isobars- _ _ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 126
79. Wind system of a low ________________________________________-- 127
80. Graphic determination of wind correction and ground speed-- - - - - - - - 135
81. Graphic determination of track and ground speed _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 136
82. A fix from radio bearings when the assumed position is considerably
in e r r o r _ - _ - - _ - - _ _ - _ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 138
. 83. Plotting a radio bearing on a radio direction finding chart _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 139
84. Portion of great circle route, New York to Paris ___________________ 142
85. Precomputed altitude curve for the moon _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 143 _
86. Graph for converting.miles-per-hour velocities and percentage veloci-
t i e s _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - - - - - _ _ - _ - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -147
_
87. Graph for finding the true air speed
88. Time-Speed-Distance
___.__________
_
graph- - - - - _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - -
149
151
89. Graph for finding the wind correction angle and ground speed when
_ _
the wind direction and velocity are known _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - (facing) 152
90. Determining the wind angle _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 153 _
91. Measuring the two drift angles _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 155
92. Graph for finding the wind correction angle and ground speed by the
__
double drift method- - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - -(facing) 156
93. Finding the wind direction and velocity from figure 92 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 157
94. Graph for finding the wind correction angle and ground speed from
one observation with a drift indicator ______ - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (facing) 158
95. Graph for rectifying heading and ground speed for wind--__--(facing) 159
96. Graph for findin the drift angle _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 161 ___
Plate I. Portion of 8leveland sectional chart - - - - - - - - - - - - - ___
Plate 11. Portion of 9 MN regional c h a r t _ - __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (facing)
- - - (facing) 18
18
TABLES
1. Coordinates of the celestial sphere and corresponding terms on the
__ __ _
terrestrial sphere-_- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ __ 77
2. The Greek alphabet ________________________________________----_ 97
3. Air mass designations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _123 _____---_
4. Correction to course for wind, and determination of ground speed-__-_ 154
6. Approximate radius of action for each hour of flying time available-_ - _ 162
6. Beaufort scale for estimating wind velocities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 163
7. Code adopted for airway use _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _164 ___
8. Airports of e n t r y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ - -164
--
9. Line of position table ________________________________________-_-- 167
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION

INTRODUCTION
The Air Commerce Act of 1926 provided for the charting of airways
and the publication of aviation maps necessary for safety in flying
and for the further development of air transportation. At that time
there were no suitable maps of the country as a whole, nor even maps
which could serve as an adequate base for the addition of aeronautical
data. A new type of map, especially designed to meet the needs of
a new industry, was urgently required, and the technical work of
investigating this field, and of compiling and publishing the new maps
of the airways was assigned to the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey of the Department of Commerce, with instructions “to provide
as adequate charts for air navigation as it now provides for ocean
navigation.”
I n order to satisfy tho most immediate and pressing demands, the
first maps published for this purpose by the Coast and Geodetic
Survey were strip maps of the principal airways. However, it was
realized that strip maps could not long meet the need, and in Decem-
ber 1930 an experimental edition of the first sectional airway map
was published.
Although these early maps were very favorably received, they were
little more than topographic maps showing the characteristic details
of the terrain. Many experiments have since been made, resulting
in a number of changes and improvements. With the development
of more advanced methods of navigation, features that once wem
considered essential were replaced by others of greater relative
importance. Certain items which should be included m a topographic
map are now omitted in order not to obscure details of more importance
to the navigator; other features are exaggerated beyond topographic
justification, because of their landmark value. Thus, with the addi-
tion of the system of hi hly developed aids to navigation, the airway
maps gradually assumeCf the character of the nautical charts so essen-
tial for safety a t sea, and the designation of these highly specialized
publications was changed to aeronautical charts.
The aeronautical chart cannot yet be considered as having reached
its final form. Changing conditions of flight (such as higher speeds,
longer flights, and higher altitudes) are fairly certain to result in
changed methods of navigation, and further changes and improre-
ments in the charts will be required. The chart should not merely
keep pace with these advances, but should anticipate them.
Maps in general may be thought of as containing information which
is subject, to comparafively little change, even over a considerable
period. By way of contrast, the aeronautical charts include 25,000
miles of airways equipped with beacon lights, radio ranges, teletype
1
2 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC S U R V E Y

service, and other related features. (See frontispiece.) Over such

an extensive system it is obvious that many changes must occur; new
airways are being established and old routes rebuilt for more efficient
operation; improved equipment is being installed, and aids are even
being provided for the navigation of air routes across the oceans.
The frequent correction of these charts to show the changes as they
occur is a most important function of the Government, and is impera-
tive for safety in all forms of air transportation.
The following aeronautical charts are now being published by the
Coast and Geodetic Survey:
Sectional charts, of the entire United States, in 87 sheets, at a scale of 1 : 500,000,
or about 8 miles to the inch (fig. 1).
Regional charts,' to cover the whole country, in 17 sheets, at a scale of
1 : 1,000,000, or about 16 miles to the inch (fig. 2).
Radio direction finding charts,' of the entire United States, in 6 sheets, a t a
scale of 1 : 2,000,000, or about 32 miles to the inch (fig. 3).
Aeronautical Planning Chart of the United States (chart No. 3060a), a t a scale
of 1 : 5,000,000, or about 80 miles to the inch.
Great-Circle Chart of the United States (chart No. 3074), at approximately the
same scale as chart No. 3060a.
Magnetic Chart of the United States (chart No. 3077), showing lines of equal
magnetic variation, a t a scale of approximately 1 : 7,500,000, or about 115 miles
to the inch.
The sectional charts are entireIy suitable for all forms of navigation,
but are intended primarily for use in piloting.
The regional charts are designed particularly for air navigation, as
contrasted with piloting. They are more convenient than the sec-
tional charts for comparatively long flights, with faster planes, since
pilots do not need to change charts as often while in the air. They
are also convenient for planning routes which extend beyond the limits
of a sectional chart, one regional chart ofton covering a route which
would require two or three soctional charts.
Because of the larger scale and the more complete information of
the sectional charts they are necessary supplements to the regional
series. They will always be required for detailed studies of an area,
and should generally be used whenever piloting is employed. Most
of the landmark data appearing on the sectional charts have been
eliminated from the regional charts, since, for their intended purpose,
clarity is more essential than completeness of detail.
The radio direction finding charts have been designed especially
for use in all forms of radio navigation. Their smaller scale and
wider extent mako it possible to plot bearings from radio stations
that would frequently be outside the limits of the local chart when
using either of the larger-scale series.
The Aeronautical Planning Chnrt of the United States is very useful
in planning routes between distant points, while the Great-Circle
Chart shows the shortest route betweon any two places. The s ecinl
uses of those two charts are described and compared more ful y on
pages 28 and 29.
P
1 Not all of the regional nnd direction finding charts have been published as yet. A list of those available
may he obtained by addressing the Director, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.
FIGWEI.-Index of sectional aeronauticslcharts.
 Chapter 1.-CHART READING
THE IMPORTANCE OF CHART READING
An aeronautical chart is a small-scale representation of a portion of
the earth and its culture, presenting to the trained eye a description
,of the charted region more nearly perfect than could be obtained from
the pages of a book. It depicts the landmarks and other information
found of value by pilots long familiar with the region. Consequently,
any time spent in learning to read and interpret its detailed information
will be well repaid; that this is beginning to be appreciated is evi-
denced by the growing demand for these charts.
I n charting the details of the terrain and the system of aids to navi-
gation, many conventional symbols are employed. Some of these
have been in use for many years, and their significance is generally
understood; others have been adopted more recently, and therefore
are not as well known. The following description of these symbols
and their significance has been prepared as an aid to chart reading.
It applies primarily to the sectional charts, since the scale of that series
permits the charting of .fairly complete information. On the smaller
scale charts many details must be omitted, but with few exceptions
those that can be included are shown by the same symbols.
The features shown on these charts may be divided into two groups:
:1 Those necessary to a clear and accurate topographic representation of t h e
region.
2. Aeronautical data and information of interest chiefly for air navigation.
The topographic features may in turn be subdivided into three
groups:
Water, including streams, lakes, canals, swamps, and other bodies
of water.
Culture, such as towns, cities, roads, railroads, and other works of
man.
Relief, including mountains, hills, valleys, and other inequalities
of the land surface.
WATER FEATURES
[See flg. 41

Water features are represented on the aeronautical charts in blue,

the smaller streams and cnnnls by single blue lines, the lrtrgor streams
and other bodics of water by blue tint within the solid blue lines
outlining their extent.
Intermittent streams are shown by a series of long dashes separated
by groups of three dots, suggesting the scattered pools into which
the diminished streams sink during the dry season.
Intermittent lakes and ponds are shown with broken shore line and
cross-ruling in blue.
In some sections of the country, the beds of dry lakes and ponds are
conspicuous lsndmsrks. Such fentiiros nre indicated by brown dots
within the broken “shore line” of blue.
6
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 7
Marsh areas are shown by horizontal blue lincs, with scattered
groups of short vertical dashes suggesting the clumps of marsh grass
common in such areas.
Glaciers are indicated by blue shading, representing the form lines
of the glacial area, superimposed on the conventional brown.

Glacier on
___
Intermittent lake ..-.... contoured peak

I.-Water fentures.
FIGURE

CULTURAL FEATURES
[See Ags. 6 and 61
Cultural features are generally indicated in black. Towns with a
population of less than 1,000 are indicated by a conventional black
circle. Towns having a population betwcen 1,000 and 5,000 are shown
by a yellow square outlined by purple, while the actual shapes of
larger cities are shown in yellow within a purple outline.
Railroads are represented by fairly heavy black lines with crossties
a t 5-mile intervals, electric railways (trolleys) by lighter black lines

less than 1,000 _ _ 0

___. one track_--.---

0
1,000 to 5,000..-... more tracks.--.-

[more than 5,000..

(actual shape)

Prominent highway _ . _ _ _ _

Secondary highway _ _ _ . _ _ _
a Railroads

i
abandoned ...--I-

trolley _ _ _ _ _____
with tunnel --..*:=c---C-
-
---I-

FloURE 5.--CllltUrRl f&UrfS.

with crossties a t 2>&milointervals. Thus, whcn the routc pttrallcls a

railroad or electric railway, the spacing of crossties provides a con-
venient check on ground speed and distance covered.
Singla-track railroads are shown with single crossties, while for
railrosds of two or more tracks the crosstics are in pairs.
Even if a railroad has been abwdoned or torn up, the old roadbed
is sometimes a prominent feature from tho air; whcn this is tlie case,
it is indicated on the chart by a broken black line.
Tunnels are indicated not only because they servc as landmarks,
but also because they are a sourcc of potential dangcr. If a pilot
is following a railroaid through territory with wluch he is not familiar,
and thc railroad enters a tunnel, he may find himself suddenly con-
fronted by a mountain side, without sufficient space either to turn
8 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

or to climb above it. This difficulty is seldom encountered in the

case of highways, but any highway tunnels are shown by the same
symb 01.
Prominent highways are indicated by a heavy purple line, sec-
ondary highways by lighter lines in purple. I n a few instances very
poor roads are charted because of unusual landmark value, and such
roads are shown by a broken purple line (the conventional symbol for
a trail).
“Prominent highways” and “secondary highways” must be under-
stood as only relative terms. I n some of the thnly settled western
districts, roads are so few that practically all of them are shown;
the most important through highway may be only a well-graded
dirt or gravel road, yet it is so prominent in its own vicinit that it is
charted with a heavy line. On the other hand, in the thic ly settled
eastern sections there are so many roads that it is impossible even to
E
include all the highly improved roads. The treatment of highways,
then, vanes with the region under consideration, but in each case an
attempt is made to delineate the distinctive road pattern as it would
be seen from the air.
Race tracks are prominent landmarks, and whenever possible their
characteristic oval shapes are indicated in black. I n congested areas
Race track __ _____ m
______._____. _____f
Forest ranger station... .___-

Prominent
transmission line -.- - - -T-.-- Quarry or mine.. ____________-.. *
________ -.+
:::.“t,
/
Coast Guard station. C 0 326

Mise. landmark- ___ - - - -

FIGURE
Lookout tower.
B.-Cultural features (landmarks).
-- ___ - - - _-___- -024

where the actual shape cannot be shown, the location is sometimes

indicated by a heavy dot, and the words “Race Track,” or the letters
“R. T.” are printed in the nearest open space, with an arrow leading
- - t,he
to ---- dot,.
- - -.
Prominent transmission lines are shown by a symbol representing
the poles, or towers, with wires between. These lines may be con-
sidered either as landmarks or as obstructions, and because of their
importance to air traffic they are shown in red (fig. 13). Usually, only
steel tower lines are shown on the aeronautical charts, but occasionally
ole lines are shown, if they are particularly prominent when viewed
Prom the air.
Lookout towers in the state and national forests are located on
the highest ground in the vicinity, afid are usually quite promnent.
In some cases they have been airmarked with a number, and these
numbers appear on the chart adjacent to the symbols, in vertical
black figures. Elevations of the ground at the towers are added in
black italics.
Forest ranger stations are shown by small symbols suggestive of the
ranger station and its flag.
A quarry, or a mine, is represented by a symbol suggesting the pick
and hammer of the miner.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 9
A Coast Guard station is indicated by a small black “boat,” accom-
panied by the number with which it has been marked for identification
from the air.
I n addition to the foregoing, there are in many localities a number
of unclassified distinctive landmarks which are of great assistance in
identifying position. These are usually indicated on tho sectional
charts with a dot and descriptive note.
I t should be understood that, even on the larger-scale charts, certain
features must be exaggerated in size. For example, if a prominent
highwa is measured by the scale of statute miles on a sectional chart,
il
the hig way appears to be about 650 feet in width, but this exaggera-
tion is necessary for the sake of clarity and emphasis. Again, in a
narrow canyon it may be required to show a stream with a railroad on
one side and a highway on the other. On the ground the three
features ma o c y p y a space no more than 75 feet in width, yet on
the chart, sTIowing the three symbols as close together as possible,
they appear to occupy about 2,000 feet. Or, in the case of water
features, a lake 300 feet wide and 2,000 feet long may be an outstand-
ing landmark; at the actual scale of the chart 300 feet would be reduced
to a fine single line; i t must be exaggerated in width enough to show a
small area of blue tint between two limiting shore lines of solid blue,
and in length enough to preserve in a eneral way, at least, the shape
%
of the lake. Whenever possible, sym 01s arc! centered on their true
locations and exaggerated only as much as may be essential to a clear
representation.
RELIEF
ism Ag. 71
Relief is shown by contour lines in brown, and is emphasized b
a series of gradient tints ranging from green at sea level to a dar $
brown above 9,000 feet.
Some prominent peaks, or steep cliffs, are also accentuated by
hachuring, or shading, with the elevations in black italic figures.
Hachured peak Mountain pass
with elevation-.. - ----- ~
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ .__-
with elevation

LIGHT PALE LIGHT MEDIUM DEEP DARK

OREEN GREEN BROWN BROWN BROWN BROWN BROWN
10 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

other details. With a little practice, one may read from the contours
not only the elevations, but also the shape of the terrain, as easily
as from a relief map and much more accurately.
Any contour is the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane
with the surface of the terrain. To illustrate, figure 8 represents
a pile of sand, from the nearer side of which sand has been carried
away until a “valley” has been formed. The top of the sand pile
is 5 feet above the pavement, and an imaginary plane is passed
through the pile at n, height of 2 feet. I n the lower part of the
figure is shown the “contour,” or the trace of the intersection of the
plane with the sand. The trace of the lower edge of the pile of
sand on the pavement may be considered a s the “shore line,” or the
line of zero altitude.
If it were raining, water would flow down the “valley” in the
direction indicated by the arrow, which may be considered as a

8.-Contours illustrated by a sand pile

FIGURE

“stream.” Thus we see that when contours cross a, stream .they

bend toward the source of the stream which is, of course, on higher
ground; conversely, when crossing a ridge the contours bend away
from the higher ground.
I n figure 9 the curves at V , V , V , represent valleys of varying
width and depth, while R,R, R, represent ridges or hills.
One way of visualizing more readily the significance of the contours
is to think of them as successive shore lines if the sea should rise to
the levels indicated by the respective contours. The line of the sea-
coast itself is a contour, every point thereon having the same altitude
(zero) with respect to mean high wntor. Any valleys running down
to the shore line are represented by n. curve or indentation landward;
any ridges result in a curve seaward (fig. 10). Now if the sea should
 PRAC‘l?ICAL AIR NAVIGATION 11
rise 1,000 feet, the 1,000-foot contour would become the shore line;
valleys would still be indicated by a curve toward the higher ground
(which could now be called “landward”), and ridges would be indi-
cated by a curve toward the lower ground (“seaward”).
If a cliff should rise almost vertically above the shore line for 1,000
feet, the 1,000-foot contour would appear on the chart very close to
the shore. When the terrain slopes gently upward from the coast,
the 1,000-foot contour is a considerable distance inland. Thus,
contour lines that are far apart on the chart indicate a gentle slope,
while lines that are close together indicate a steep slope; contours
that run together indicate a cliff.
The manner in which contours express altitude, form, and degree
of slope is shown in figure 11. The sketch in the upper part of the
figure represents a river valley that lies between two hills. I n the
foreground is the sea, with a bay that is partly enclosed by a hooked

F ~ G W IY.-RidRes
W ami valleys shown by 10.--Tho seitsliore us n contour.
I’IGURF.
contours.

sand bar. On each side of the valley is a terrace into which small
streams have cut narrow gullies. The hill on the right has a rounded
a
summit and gently sloping spurs se arated by ravines. The spurs
are cut off sharply at their lower en s by a sea cliff. The hill at the
left terminates abrupt1 a t the valley in a steep and almost vertical
3
bluff, from which it s opes gradually away and forms an inclined
tableland that is traversed by a few shallow gullies. I n the lower
part of the figure, each of these features is represented, directly
beneath its position in the sketch, by contour lines.
I n figure 11 the contours represent successive differences in eleva-
tion of 20 feet-that is, the “contour interval” is 20 feet. For the
sectional and regional aeronautical charts a contour interval of 1,000
feet has been adopted.
In order to maintain a safe flying altitude, unless the elevat,ionof the
top of a ridge or peak is given in figures, it should be assumed that the
elevation is a full thousand feet above the highest contour shown. For
example, the highest charted contour along a ridge may be only 2,000
feet, yet the ridge may be topped by minor summits rising to 2,800
feet or more. Assuming trees approximately 100 feet in height, the
extreme elevation of the ridge may be almost 3,000 feet, yet the addi-
tion of the 3,000-foot contour is not warranted. It should be rioted
that the gradient tint usod in this case (pale brown, soe fig. 7), indi-
cates not merely an elevation of 2,000 feet, but includes any elevation
short of 3,000 feet. Unless absolutely certain of their position, when-
1 On a few of the charts, because of unusual local conditions, Intermadlate contours at 600-foot interval#
am shown.
12 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

ever visibility is poor, pilots should be careful to fly at a safe margin

above the highest ground in the entire region.
The 3-fOOt depth curve, in water areas (fig. 7), may be thought of as
an under-water contour, and every point along the curve is 3 feet be-
low low water. It is shown by a row of brown dots, and serves as a
sort of danger line within which seaplanes should not attempt to land.
Three feet of water is not sufficient for large flying boats, and on new
editions the 3-foot curve is being replaced by a 6-foot curve.
Sand and sand dunes are indicated by brown dots (fig. 7).
All the foregoing features are combined by the cartographer in such
a manner as to reproduce the characteristic details of the region ac-
curately, but without confusion. Then to this basic topographic

1 I

FIOUBB
11.-Altitude, form,and slope expressed by contours.

representation are added those features of special interest for air

navigation.
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
[Beeflgs. 12 and 131
Aeronautical information and features of interest chiefly for air
navigation-such as airports, beacon li hts, radio ranges, radio call
letters and identification signals-are orfinarily shown in red? These
data are subject to constant change, and it is well to remember that
On the nlght flying oharts these features are ahown in black.
 PRACTICAL AIR XAVIGATION 13
charts are safe only as long as their data are correct. The elimination
of certain airports, with changes in beacon lights or radio aids to navi-
gation, makes the use of an obsolete chart as dan erous in the air as
a t sea. For this reason, new editions are frequent y printed, showing
the latest information available, with the date of the edition printed
7
in red in the lower left corner of each chart.
The same date also appears in small red italic figures, immediately
under the black border in the same corner, this being known as the
“print date.” When the chart is printed again, if only minor changes
are made the edition date (in large t pe) is not changed, but a second
print date is added, and so on. T%e aeronautical information may
therefore be considered as corrected for reports received to the latest
print date indicated. Whenever an extensive revision is made, all
previous dates are removed, and a “new edition” is issued, with new
edition date and new print date. The pilot’s own interests and the
safety of the public make it imperative that obsolete charts be dis-
carded and re laced by new editions as they are issued.
?Airport anlairway changes subsequent to the date of printing are
isted in the Air Commerce Bulletin (which is published monthly by
Army, Navy or Marine Corps Field .... 0 Seaplane bare _ -_--_-__
___-_--__.
@
(with ramp, belch and hdndllnp factllliel)

Commercial or MuniclpalAirport.,--..
0 Anchorage - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.- s
( w l h rsfuelinp ana usual harbor l a c ~ l i l ~ e t )

Oept. of Commerce Intermedlate Field

0 Anchorage. - - - - - - -- __ - - -- - - - - -- f;

+
(with limited facdiliest

Marked Auxiliary Fleld---. - __ __ -. Mooring mart. _______ __________ r

FloWRE 12.-Airport classiflication.

the Department, and may be had free upon request), and in the
weekly Notices to Airmen (which are osted at principal airports).
A pilot should note such changes on &s own eo ies of the charts
affected. Even then, whenever possible, he shoud obtain local in-
formation as to the continued availability of facilities shown upon
P
the chart.
Airports are classified as to their operation (whether commercial,
municipal, Army, etc.), and are shown in accordance with the accom-
panying legend (fig. 12). I t is important to consider the classification
of a field before landing, as frequently civilians cannot obtain supplies
or service a t an Army or Navy field.
With the growth of international air traffic, information regarding
airports of entry (customs airports) is becormng increasingly impor-
tant. Accordin@y, when an aEport has been designated as a port of
entry, this fact is noted near the airport name. A complete list of
air orts of entry is included in the A pendix (p. 164).
Elevations of airports above sea p1eve1 are indicated by slanting
numerals adjacent to the airport.
The letters LF adjacent to an airport symbol indicate that the field
is equipped with lighting facilities for landing at night. Sometimes
these facilities are operated only at certain hours, or on request. The
same is true of certain other beacon lights and aids, and for corn lete
information on these points pilots should refer to Airway Bul etin
No. 2, or obtain local information.
P
 14 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

A rotating beacon is indicated by a star with open center. Arrows

in conjunction with the beacon symbol indicate that the beacon is
equipped with course lights, and show the direction in which they are
pointed. Adjacent to the symbol are placed the number of the
beacon, and the corresponding code signal which is flashed by the
course lights for identification a t night. When there is a power shed
at the beacon, the site number is also painted on the shed roof for
daylight identification.
The number of any intermediate field or beacon is obtained by
dropping the final digit of the mileage from the origin of the airway
on which it is located. For example, beacon No. 19 on any airway
is approximately 190 miles from the origin of the airway. The course
lights flash the code for only the last figure of the beacon number,
the code signals being the same for beacons numbered 9, 19, 29, etc.
Beacons having the same signal are approximately 100 miles apart,
and a pilot should know on which 100-mile section of the airway he
is flying. For convenient identification, the code used along the
airways is shown in table 7, page 161.
A t some places the rotating beacon is supplemented by an auxiliary
beacon which flashes an identifying code signal. In this case, rays
are added to the rotating beacon symbol and the code signal flashed
by the auxiliary beacon is placed nearby.
A flashing beacon, or other nonrotating beacon, is indicated by a
solid star, smaller than the rotating beacon symbol; for a beacon
flashing in code, rays are added around the star.
If an airport is equipped with beacon light, the proper beacon sym-
bol is placed in the center of the airport symbol.
A light for marine navigation is shown by a large dot. It should be
noted that a powerful light of this kind is often inconspicuous from
the air, because its light is directed along the surface, for the benefit
01 surface navigation.
. A landmark beacon, operated by private interests or by a commer-
cial establishment for advertising purposes as well as for the benefit
of airmen, is represented by the proper beacon symbol (rotating or
flashing), as described above. As a rule these beacons are located
neither on an established air route nor a t an airport, but they serve
to identify a point from which a pilot may proceed to his destination.
A rotating landmark beacon usually rotates a t two revolutions per
minute, in order to distinguish it from an airway beacon, which
makes six revolutions per minute. An arrow in conjunction with this
symbol indicates that the beacon is equipped with a stationary bearing
projector, or fixed beam of light pointing toward the airport; on the
chart the arrow is placed so that it points to the airport toward which
the projector is directed.
Certain areas near proving grounds and test-firing ranges of the
Army and Nnvy are prohibited to aircraft, for the safety of pilots as
well as for military reasons. These areas are indicated by _ prominent
-
cross ruling.
There are other more limit,ed areas where auantities of high exdo-
sives are stored. Pilots are forbidden to fly o;er such areas,%nd they
are shown on the chart as in figure 13. The “marked” areas are
ground-marked with the same symbol used on the charts.
8 Formerly this feature was indicntod by a heavy asterisk, and is still so represented on some of the charta.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 15
Flying is also rohibited in other limited areas for special reasons-
E
for example, in t e vicinity of the White House and Capitol, in Wash-
ington. I n such localities t,he charts are aIready too congested to
indicate the restricted area, and pilots should keep informed of such
matters through the Department's Air Commerce Bulletin, Notice
to Airmen, and through local sources.
Isolated obstructions are shown as indicated in the figure, together
with numerals indicating the height of the obst,ruction above the
ground, in feet. The center of the symbol marks the location of the
obstruction.
A radio range station is indicated by a dot within a small circle, and
the positions of the range C O ~ I ~ S Care
S shown by a pink tint. Magnetic

-.* ---,./'--\,
Rotating beacon _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Radio
_ marker beacon _____

____--_____..-*+ q
[ (with frequency a n d .
identification signal)
Rotating beacon '.-/'
t w l h course hghts)

Rotating beacon _ _ _ - - - _ _ _ _ ----%

( w t h llashing codc beacon) ( w i t h call letters a n d frequency)
Radio direction
Flashing beacon _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _* finder station _ _ _ _ _ _ - _aRC[375f
(with call letters and
_.

Flashing code beacon _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .%c

Irequencv)

Marine radiobeacon.---aR
(with frequency and
Bn 1
x
1
ldrntification signal)
Marine navigational light-------. Radio range beacon
(statlon locdtton)
____ ~ OR
_ _ _ _R. Bn

-
Courses are magnetic

Prohibited area ___-__ Obstruction .- .. .- - - - -....- - - - - -.

( w i t h height above ground i n l e e t ) 366
A
Prominent
(marked.. . . H l b X transmission line. ~ ~ ?T- T-
High explosive area
unmarked. ..
Lines of equal
magnetic variation.. ...- - - 17" E
13 -Aeronautical data (miscellaneous),
FIGURE

courses toward or away from the station are indicat'ed, and large
letters mark the A and N quadrants of tho system. Smaller letters
are placed adjaccnt 40 and near the end of many of the range courses,
to avoid any confusron as to quadrant dosignation. The method of
flying the radio ranges is treated in detail in a later scction (pp. 52-70).
A radio marker beacon is indicated by a broken circle nround the
Iocation of tho station. The new fan-type marker bcncons (see p. 62)
will probably be shown by a brokcn ellipse, suggesting the space
pattern of these stations.
Weather broadcast schedules, as well as thc call letters arid identi-
fying signals of the various radio stations, are shown adjacent to the
air orts to which they appl .
!. number of commercia1y broadcasting stations are shown on the
charts. Originally, they were included chiefly because of their danger
as obstructions; with the development of the aircraft riLdio compass,
16 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

however, these stations have also become of navigational importance.

Radio stations suitable for this purpose are shown by the conventional
circle-and-dot symbol, the initials RS,and the fre uency. Stations
operating at less than 500 watts are not charted. a
or stations with
power between 500 and 1,000 watts, the power is indicated on the
chart as some guide to the distance a t which satisfactor reception
may be expected. For stations of one kilowatt or more, t e power is
omitted.
i
Radio direction finder stations are seldom used by aircraft today.
However, these stations are indicated by a circle-and-dot symbol and
the initials RC (from their former designation a3 “Radio Compass’’

ll.-True compass rose (sectional and regional charts).

FIGURE

stations). Marine radio beacon stations are indicated by the same

symbol and the initials R Bn.
Places a t which the magnetic variation is the same in direction and
magnitude, are connected on the charts by broken lines known as
lines of equal magnetic variation, or isogonic lines. The amount and
direction of variation are also shown.
Compass roses (fig. 14), oriented to true north, are printed on the
sectional and regional charts. If a protractor is not available, these
roses may be used for the approximate measurement of courses and
bearings. Because of the convergence of meridians in the Lambert
projection, some inaccuracy is introduced if a compass rose is used for
the measurement of direction a t a point more than 1’ or 2’ of longi-
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 17
tude away. Therefore, compass roses are printed at intervals suffi-
ciently close that courses may be measured from them with pra.ctica1
accuracy, and one is usually available no matter how the chart is
folded. On some charts, the direction and amount of ma.gnetic
variation are represented on the compass roses, in addition to their
representation by isogonic lines.
Specially designed compass roses (fig. 15), oriented to magnetic
north, are used on the radio direction finding charts. These roses are
graduated to read both from
magnetic south and from mag-
netic north. The outer figures
are ordinarily used, and are
therefore larger; they are in-
tended for use in plotting re-
ciprocal bearings (the radio
compass bearing observed a t
the plane plus or minus M O O ) ,
and for that reason read from
0 at magnetic south. For cer-
tain other problems a rose
reading from 0 at magnetic
north is more convenient, and
for such problems the inner
(smaller) figures are also avail-
able. These roses should not
be confused with the conven-
tional compass roses appearing FIGURE15.-Magnetic compass rose (radio direction
on the sectional and regional flndlng charts).
charts. nor used in the same
mannir; their special use is explained in detail on pages 65 and 66.
PROJECTION AND SCALES
All aeronautical charts of the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey are on the Lambert cqnformal pro’ection, which affords
many advantages for air navigation in the nited States. I n this d
rojection, variations in scale are extreme,ly small; therefore, in the
gorders of these charts there are conveniently rrtduated scales of
statute miles by means of which distances may %e scaled anywhere
on the chart with a high degree of accuracy.
There are slight variations in scale between adjacent charts to the
north or south, as may be seen from the scale of statute miles on chart
No. 3060a; however, as already stated, this difference in scale is so
slight as to be negligible in practice. The scale of miles appearing on
any particular chart is the average scale for that chart, but it could be
used even on the adjoining charts with very satisfactory results.
The expressions 1 : 500,000 and 1 : 1,000,000, used to denote the scale
of a chart, are read as “one to five hundred thousand” and “one to one
million.’’ They represent the proportion existing between the chart
and the portion of the earth represented thereon. Thus, in the first
case, 1 inch on the chart represents 500,000 inches on the ground;
similarly, any other unit, as 1 foot, 1 yard, or 1 centimeter, represents
500,000 of the same units on the ground. Such a proportion is some-
1
times written as a fraction, as 600,000. and is occasionally referred to
4 Except the Great-Circle Chart (No. 3074), the magnetio chart (No. 3077), and the two night flying charts
(seep. 18).
18 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC S U R V E Y

as the fractional scale, or representative fraction of the chart to which

it applies.
I n the margins of the sectional charts (1:500,000) there are scales
subdivided into minutes of latitude, and into minutes of longitude.
These scales are convenient for plotting points when their geographic
coordinates (latitude and longitude) are known, or for determining the
geographic coordinates of points from their positions on the charts.
Their use is discussed in a later section (p. 140). On some charts
the meridians and parallels have been subdivided into minutes of
latitude and longitude; in this case, of course, the marginal scales are
unnecessary and have been omitted.
Entirely around each of the regional charts (1:1,000,000) are
border scales subdivided into minutes of latitude and longitude.
Meridians and parallels are drawn across the entire chart a t intervals
of 15 minutes each way, and every fourth one, representing each whole
degree, has been subdivided into minutes. Any point to be plotted
will never be very far from one of the meridians and parallels and in
most cases it can be plotted with sufficient accuracy by referring to the
subdivided lines and estimating by eye the distance from the nearest
meridian and parallel.
Should a scale of nauticaI miIes be desired, the scale of minutes of
latitude--tha t is, the subdivisions along the meridians-will serve,
since a minute of latitude may be considered as a nautical mile for all
practical p ~ r p o s e s . ~
NIGHT FLYING CHARTS
Two of the published regional charts are available in a special edi-
tion, with a night flying chart printed on the reverse side." All detail
that is lost to view a t night has been eliminated from these charts,
and there are shown only those features of interest in night flying:
major drainage, principal cities, radio aids to navigation, obstructions,
and hcacon lights and airports a t which the availability of lighting
iacilities is assured. (See back of pl. 11.)
The night flying charts are on the Mercator projection, a t a scale of
1 : 1,000,000 a t latitude 40'. As may be noted from the scale of miles
appearing in the margin, there is considerable variation in scale on this
projection, and it is reconimcnded that this side of the chart should not
be used for scaling distances, excopt for the approximate measurement
of short distances. I n making any such measurements the scale of
miles for the middle latitude between the two points in question must
be used.
Like the regional (day flying) chart on the obverse side, the borders
are subdivided into minutes of latitude and longtitude, facilitating the
plotting of positions. Courses may be measured with any convenient
meridian (instead of using the method described in pp. 29 and 30), but
the night flying chart should not be used for methods of radio naviga-
tion other than flying the radio range. (See p. 52.) It is intended to
furnish a simplified chart showing the features essential for night fly-
ing, but sufficiently free from details to permit easy reading tit night.
The soft grey background is designed to eliminate glare and to make
easier the adjustment of vision when looking from the illuminated
chart back into the darkness of the night.
inora8sinp with the latitude,
0 Since tliooarth is not R perfcct sphero, tho 1~n~tliof~inlntiteoll~titudcvarlos.
from tile Erlu:itor to tho palm In tho Uuitcd Stnres, however. tho longth or n nautical mile is definitely
flxed at (i 080.20 feet.
8 The IAttor N i s added to the ordinary &Agnation of these chsrts. Thus, 9 MN indicates regiond chdrt
9 M with night flying chart on the reverse side.
C.&C.S. R l n t A J S S
'PI
 Chapter 11.-CROSS-COUNTRY FLYING-PILOTING
PROCEDURE
Air navigation is a subject to which much study can be given.
Ordinary cross-coiintry flying may be satisfactorily accomplished,
however, over land areas and in clear weather, by very simple methods.
If the pilot has a thorough knowledge of chart reading, few instruments
will be required other than reliable charts of the route to be flown;
the use of a compass is liiphly desirable (see p. 21), but is not absolutely
essential.
When flying between points on the same aeronautical chart, the
following steps are necessary for this type of flying:
1. Draw a straight line on the chart between the points in qucstion.
2. Make a careful study of t h e intervenin country, in order t o decide whether
t o fly the dircct route, or whcther some fetour may be desirable in order t o
avoid flying over large bodies of water, mountains, or other hazardous terrain.
3. Note any characteristic landmarks along t h e route (such as prominent hills,
or the pattern of stream, railroad, and highway crossings).
4. Shape the course in t h e air with reference t o the landmarks noted.
Obviously, there are other factors to be taken into considcration:
the route must be laid out so that a field with refueling facilities is
availahla within the safe cruising radius of the plane, even allowing
for unexpectad head winds; it should also be laid out to take advantage
of established airways and in tervoning airports for enicrgency landings;
weather conditions along the route and a t the destination, as well as
a t the starting point, must be taken into account; and the time
required for the trip must be checked against the number of hours of
daylight yet remaining. However, these factors have to do mith the
safe operation of the plane, while the four steps noted above deal with
flying from place to place by reference to visible landmarks which
can be identified on the chart.
Plying a plane from one place to another solely by reference to
visible landmarks is known as piloting.
LANDMARKS
The cultural features of the terrain constitute a most important
class of landmarks. For example (pl. I), compare the distinctive
railroad pattern a t Kenton with that a t Urbana, or the different
highway pattern southeast of Urbana with that southeast of Kenton.
Similarly, the pattern of roads, railroads, and other cultural features
gives to each locality its own distinguishing marks.
Many other distinctive landmarks have been included on the
sectional charts as an aid to identifying ground position. Refer-
ring again to plate I, note the stadium in Columbus and the black
tank northeast of the city; the black tank in Worthington; the dams
on the Scioto River; the mill and the factory and chimney south of
Marion; the gravel pit and “gravel pit lakes” north of Marion; the
gravel pit southwest of Kenton; the race tracks a t Bollefontaine,
Urbana, and Hilliards; and the silver tank a t St. Paris.
19
20 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

The intermediate fields and most of the beacons of the Department

of Commerce are air marked with their site numbers, to facilitate
their use in landmark flying by day; however, beacon sites are of
necessity so small that from any considerable altitude they are often
very inconspicuous.
The topographic features are frequently of outstanding impor-
tance in steering a course. For example, in flying from Winchester,
Va., to Washington, D. C., it is only necessary to head the plane for
the prominent notch in the Blue Ridge Mountains toward the east;
Washington may be reached by continuing on approximately the
same course after passing the notch. This notch is apparent on the
sectional chart because of the highway passing through it, and also
because of the diminished width of the contoured ridge a t that point.
Other typical and better known landmarks of this kind are the
Delaware Water Gap, Stone Mountain, El Capitan, Sugarloaf Moun-
tain, and so on. Such features may be readily selected from the
chart by those experienced in chart reading and the interpretation of
relief.
Landmark flying is so generally understood and practiced that i t is
scarcely necessary to give an example; however, suppose that it is
desired to fly from Sprm field Airport to Port Buc rus (pl. I). After
7 B
taking off from Springfie d and gaining the desire altitude, the edge
of the city is circled until the tracks of the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago, & St. Louis Railroad are seen. This railroad is followed
through Mechanicsburg and Milford Center (identified by railroad
crossing; double track) to Marysville. From this point, the highway
(identified by its sharp reverse curve) is followed to Marion, then the
Pennsylvania Railroad (single track; note gravel pit and gravel pit
lakes) in to Port Bucyrus.
STEERING A RANGE
I n order to keep on the desired route, it is a good practice when-
ever possible to select two landmarks ahead, which are known to be on
the course, and steer the plane so as to keep the two objects in line.
This is known as steering a ran e. Before the first of the two land-
f
marks is reached, another more istant object in line with them should
be selected and a second range steered.
To illustrate the use of ranges, under conditions of good visibility
and ceiling, suppose that a flight is planned from Norton Airport, a t
Columbus, to Cedar Lawn Ai ort, a t Kenton, Ohio ( 1. I). After
f B
takin off, the airport is circle';puntil the desired altitu e is reached;
the p ane is then headed toward the eastern edge of the built-up area
a t Linden Heights, which is in line with the center of Worthington
(marked by a black tank). Before reaching Worthington, the town
of Powell can be seen, on the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad (double
track), and a heading is maintained which will pass just to the left of
Powell and just to the right of the bend in the Scioto River (at Rath-
bone). Continuing on the same heading, the town of Ostrander is
reached, and the point where the stream crosses the Margsville-
Marion Highway is lined up with the town of Claiborne. From
Claiborne, the plane is headed so that it gradually approaches the
highwa to Kenton, which can now be seen on the left; upon reaching
the higyhway a t Mount Victory, it is followed toward Kenton, and
Cedar Lawn Airport is found on the left, just before reaching the city.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 21
If desired, a table such as the following, listing landmarks and other
data which may be obtained from a sectional chart, can be prepared
for any given route.
Norton Airport (Columbus) to Cedur Lawn Airport (Kenton)
I I I
Distance
Landmarks Location with respect to route

I -/I
J h d e n Heights ________ _____ _ _ _ _ _ _____
---- Just west _____ - ____ __ __ ___ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _
--
__________________________________ - -
Mile8
5
,\fin. See.
2 46
Black tank _ . _ _ _ _ _ _1_
Powell--. ____________________________
~
mile
_ west
Worthington (black tank) - _ _ _ _ _ _ _O- -n coursB.-. - - - - - __ ~ __ __ __ __ ___ _ _ __
_____________
~ -- --
Just east; dam on Scioto River, with road to
---
7 _3_ _
11
17
6
9
46 _
0
0
Powell, 2 miles west.
Scioto Rlver (crossing at Rathbone).- ..-_-_-____--________.----------
Ostrander _____ __ ______________ _____ ________________
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _- Just west ~

Road and stream crossing-_______---- On course; town of Magnetic Springs about

2 miles east.
On c o u m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
On course; crossing of highway and double
track railroad.
_________________ __
Highway t o Kenton
__ __
I On course' follow to Cedar Lawn (on left)_-.
Cedar Lawn Airport-..-. - - - - - - - West of highway and railroad; 2 miles south
~

of city.

1 Flying time estimated from fig. 88, using known cruising speed of plane (100 m. p. h.)' plus reported tail
wind (10 m. p. h.), or 110 m. P.h.

Sometimes the selection of a range is very easy, as when a road or

railroad parallels the route; a t other times, the selection of a contin-
uous series of ranges may prpve difficult; for this reason, and also as
an added factor of safety, it is deslrable to refer to the magnetic com-
pass as well. For this purpose we need not be concerned with magnetic
variation, compass deviation, or wind drift; it is only necessary,
while steering a range that is definitely known to lie along the route,
to note the compass heading. This heading is the correct course to
steer, and i t should be maintained until another range is available.
Then if the compass heading!! compared again, any change in mag-
netic variation or wind conditions will be taken care of in the new
compass heading noted.
For example (pl. I), the route from Springfield Airport to Marion
Airport lies between and roughly parallel to the Erie Railroad and
the S ringfield-Marion Highway. Flying this route, when a plane
i
was a out opposite Marysville a compass heading of 35' was noted.
Short1 afterward an ares of poor visibility was encountered unex-
d
pecte ly, but the compass headlng of 3 5 O was maintained; on running
into better conditions again, near Claiborne, it was found that the
plane was still on the intended track, and position could easily be
identified from the highway pattern east of Richwood.
MARKING DISTANCE ALONG THE PLOTTED ROUTE
It will be of considerable assistance in flight if, before taking off,
the plotted route on the chart is divided into IO- or 20-mile intervals.
The cross-marks for 50- or 100-mile intervals should be made heavier,
or emphasized, if in no other way, by noting opposite them the total
mileage from the starting point. This scale of miles furnishes an
excellent check on the ground speed being made good along the route.
22 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

MARKING TIME INTERVALS

An alternative method preferred by some of the leading pilots is to
divide the plotted route on the c h a r t h t o time intervals, instead of
miles. For example, if the plane has a cruising speed of 90 miles per
hour, i t will make 1.5 milos per minute, or 15 miles in 10 minutes.
The first cross-mark would be made 15 miles from the starting point
but marked 10 minutes; the second, a t 30 miles, would be marked 20
minutes, and so on. If these time intervals are added to the clock
time for the beginning of the flight, we have the clock time when we
may expect to reach the various points.
Of course, time intervals obtained in this way would hold good only
under still-air conditions. A stiff head wind would retard the plane
considerably, while a tail wind would place i t progressively ahead of
time. Some pilots, therefore, make such allowance as they can for
wind effect, from weather reports, before beginning flight; others
prefer to note the timeintervals on the chart
while in flight with the aid of an instrument
called “spacing dividers.”
The spacing dividers (fig. 16) can usually
be obtained from companies selling drafting
instruments. This instrument affords the
quickest and easiest means of dividing the
route into equal time intervals while in flight
and of determining the exact time when any
point will be reached in flight. The instru-
ment consists of 11 teeth, numbered from
0 to 10 and so adjusted that they always
divide the extreme setting of the dividers
into 10 equal parts.
Now suppose that a lotted route crosses
P
a railroad about 15 mi es from an airport,
and this railroad is identified and passed
just 9 minutes after taking off. The tooth
of the spacing dividers marked 0 is placed
, on the airport, and the dividers set so that
FIGURIElO,-spsclngdividers. the tooth marked 9 is a t the point where
the route mosses the railroad. The first 9
teeth of the dividers now indicate the position of the plane a t the end
of each of the first 9 minutes of fight, and the tooth marked 10 indi-
cates the point the plane will have reached a t the end of 10 minutes.
I n other words, the distance between teeth numbered 0 and 10 is the
distance that will be made good during each 10 minutes of flight,
provided there is little change in speed or wind conditions. With
the dividers, 10-minute intervals can now be stepped off along the
straight line on the chart, and by means of the intermediate teeth
the exact minute when any prominent object will be reached can be
noted.
An added reason for dividing the route into time intervals is that
the fuel supply is usually reckoned in terms of time, rather than dis-
tance. Many pilots prefer, however, to combine the two methods,
dividing the plotted route on the chart into 10- or 20-mile intervals
before taking off, and noting on the chart while in flight, by means of
the spacing dividers, the time for reaching the various landninrks
along the WRY.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 23
For the sectional charts, a t about 8 miles to the inch, the spacing
dividers can be set so that each tooth represents 1 minute of flying
time, as suggested above. For the regional series, a t about 16 miles
to the inch, the dividers cannot be set that closely, and usually each
tooth will be made to represent 2 minutes of flying time.
Included in the Appendix is a graph which will prove very useful
in determining the ground speed and dividing the route into time
intervals when spacing dividers are not available. The use of the
graph may be illustrated by the example given above, in which a
railroad 15 miles distant was crossed in 9 minutes of flying time.
Referring to the graph (fig. 88, p. 149), follow the horizontal line
corresponding to 9 minutes across to its intersection with the (inter-
polated) vertical line representing 15 miles; the diagonal line drawn
through this point, 100 m..p. h., represents the ground speed being
made good. Following thls same ground speed line to its intersec-
tion with the horizontal line representing 10 minutes, directly above
,it may be read a t the top of the graph the number of miles made
ood in 10 minutes. I n the same way, the number of miles made good
for each successive 10-minute interval may be read a t the top of
the graph and plotted on the chart. Also, if a given landmark or
airport is known to be ?t a certain distance, following the vertical
line representing that distance down to its intersection with the
correct ground-speed line, and thence to the left border, will give the
exact number of minutes required to reach the point in question.
LONG FLIGHTS
I n the foregoing discussion we have considered cases within the
limits of one chart. When the route lies between cities on different
charts it is only necessary to join carefully the edges of adjacent
charts, draw a straight line between the two points across all the
charts involved, and proceed as before. This is possible because, in
each series, any individual chart is constructed as though it were a
section cut out of one big chart of the United States drawn a t the
scale of the series; obviously, then, any number of charts, in any
direction, may be joined perfectly.
When the route lies between cities a long distance apart and on
widely separated charts, it may prove more convenient first to draw
on a smaller-scale chart of the United States a straight line between
the two points. The points a t which the straight line crosses the
meridians and parallels on the smaller chart should then be measured
and the points transferred to the larger charts. The various sections
of the straight line are drawn between these points on the large-
scale charts and the same procedure followed as before. Chart No.
3060a of the Coast and Geodetic Survey (Aeronautical Planning
Chart, United States), may well serve as the smaller-scale chart
of the United States. It is especially suitable for this purpose,
since it is constructed on the same framework, or projection, a s the
sectional and regional charts. Its scale is just one-tenth the scale of
the sectional charts.
FOLDING THE CHARTS
For laying out routes before taking off, for all detailed studies of a
region, and for all general use, a flat chart, free from folds and wrinkles,
is very drsirnble.
24 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

During actual flight, even in the larger transport planes, lack of

space usually prevent! the use of an unfolded chart. As a result,
many methods of foldlng the charts have been devised, while those
flying regular routes have made up strip charts or books cut from the
published charts.
I n order to avoid the handling of numerous charts even for short
trips, and the resultin annoyance in all navigational problems, both
Fi
sectional and regiona charts have been designed to cover fairly
large areas; nevertheless, charts of both series will be found very
convenient for use in the air when properly folded. It is recom-
mended that the charts be folded once, back to back, along the line
I I
I I
I I
II I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I
I I I !
I I I I
I I
II I
II I 1
I I
I I
A----- 7
I
- - - Fo‘bI back-
r- - - -I - - -line- -A!B - - - - _ I _ - - - - - B
along the
L
I

I I I I I
I I I I
I I
I
I
I I
I I I
I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I f
I
I
I I
I I

17.-Folding the chart for use In flight.

FIQURE

AB (fig. 17), then in 4 or 6 “accordion folds” in the other direction,

along the vertical broken lines indicated in the figure. In thls way
the entire chart may be consulted merely by turnmg over the accor-
dion folds.
Strip. charts are very convenient for those flying frequently over
the same route; however, as already suggested, they cannot fully
satisfy the need even for this type of flyin . A pilot may be compelled
B
to leave the charted airway? because o adverse weather conditions
or other reasons, and find hmself over unfamiliar territory with no
chart of the round below. I n recognition of this dan er, the regula-
%
tions of the epartment of Commerce require that pi ots engaged in f
regular transport operations carry in the pilot’s compartment charts
covering the area at least 75 miles on each side of the airway and
beyond each of the terminals involved.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 25
Private pilots are not definitely affected by this requirement, yet
compliance therewith is obviously to their advantage. If a strip chart
.or book is prepared showing only the region immediately adjacent to
the route, complete sectional charts showing a wider area, folded for
most convenient reference in case of need, should also be carried.
Some very ingenious folds and route books have been devised, by
means of which the entire route, or even whole charts, can be followed
from point to point by the flip of a page; however, if such folds are

FIOURE
18.-Foldlng the chart as a strip.

1. Paste end fold of strip chart to book cover with rubber cement.
2. Attach center folds of strip to back of book by strips of adhesive tape.
3. Paste other end fold to remaining book cover.
4. Entire route can then be consulted by turning folds as pages of a book.
FIGURE 19.-Making a route book.

made by pasting portions of the chart together, they cannot be con-

,sidered satisfactory for all purposes, since the chart cannot be spread
flat a ain for the plotting of new courses, etc. Folds of this sort
shoulf by all means be supplemented by a flat chart or one so folded
that it may a ain be opened out flat.
%
If a strip c art is deslred and an additional chart is not available
for reference in an emergency, the chart can be folded as a strip without
3367"0&--8
26 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

destroying or cutting away any part of it. For example, if it is desired

to make a strip chart covering the route CD (fig. IS), fold the chart so
as to leave the route in the center of a strip 10 or 12 inches wide;
then fold the strip in the accordion fold illustrated in figure 17. By
this method the folded-back portions of the chart are still available if
they should be needed.
A route book can also be prepared with little difficulty. (See fig. 19.)
To do this, cut out the strip showing the plotted route and fold it
accordion style; then paste one of the end folds to the inside cover of a
book or cardboard cover of convenient size; next fasten to the back
of the book the folds touching that part, using adhesive tape or similar
means; and, finally, paste the other end fold to the remaining book
cover. Mounted in this way, the more rigid covers to which the strip
is attached facilitate handling in the air, and any part of the route may
be consulted merely by turning the folds as pages of the book.
Whenever charts or portions of charts are to be 'oined together, as
B
is often the case when making up strip charts, rub er cement should
be used, since it does not cause the wrinkles and distortions so common
when using other adhesives. If the rubber cement is applied to both
the surfaces to be joined, and allowed to dry before pressing the
surfaces together, a very permanent junction can be made.
 Chapter 111.-AIR NAVIGATION BY DEAD RECKONING
THE ADVANTAGES OF' DEAD RECKONING
Cross-country flying by elementary methods of piloting is so simple
under conditions of good visibility that many pilots practice no other
form of navigation. Piloting a plane by reference to visible landmarks
is fundamental and must be combined with any other form of naviga-
tion that may be used; however, when a pilot is limited to flying by
landmarks alone, he loses the saving in distance of the direct air route.
Furthermore, if the weather should close in unexpectedly during
flight and the familiar landmarks could not be found, the results
might be extremely serious, not only to the pilot, but to the life and
property of others as well.
In September 1935 a pilot, flyin east, unexpectedly ran into fog
just 20 miles east of Pittsburgh. 4hinking it only a local condition,
the flight was continued until it would have been as dangorous to
turn back as to proceed. Relying solely upon dead rockoning, the
ship was brought safely over the mountains, although the ground
was not seen again until near Hagsrstown, Md. If this pilot had
been trained only in landmark flying, a crash would have been most
probable.
By means of dead reckoning a pilot can fly fairly close to the land-
marks for which he is looking, even when his information is not very
reliable. Because he knows just about when and where t o look for
them, he will often succeed in finding them when a pilot without such
training would miss them altogether. If he has fairly accurate
knowledge of his own course and speed, and of wind direction and
velocity, he may proceed even under adverb weather conditions
with more certainty than an untrained pilot might have in clear
weather. In any event, the ability to navigate by more advanced
methods is certain to result in increased safety and greater operating
efficiency, and will give considerable confidence and mental satisfaction
to the pilot as well.
THE LAMBERT CONFORMAL PROJECTION
The solution of all problems of dead reckoning depends entirely
upon the projection employed. The Lambert conformal conic
projection, which was chosen for the aeronautical charts, was devised
nearly 200 ears ago, although i t did not come into prominence until
the World G a r ; at that time it was adopted for the military maps
of the Allied forces because it afforded a maximum accuracy in the
measurement of distances and directions.
Distance and direction are the two basic problems of all naviga-
tion, since these two factors definitely determine position; conse-
quently, when the Coast and Geodetic Survey was assigned the task
ob preparing charts for uir navigation the Lambert projection was
given serious consideration. It was selected, however, only after a
27
28 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

thorough investigation had indicated that it afforded a remarkable

combination of properties and advantages, among which are the
following:
1. It permits a perfect junction between any number of charts in any direction.
2. It is unexcelled for scaling distances in all directions in the United States.
3. Its directions, or azimuths, conform very closely to directions on the earth,
i.e., reat-circle directions.
4. f t provides the best possible chart for piloting.
5. It affords a eimple and satisfactory solution for all problems of dead reckon-
ing, not excepting the rhumb line.
6. It affords the simplest possible means of practical great-circle navigation.
7. It is unsurpassed for all types of radio navigation.
8. It is unusually suitable for celestial navigation and all problems requiring
the plotting of positions.
These conclusions were reached after many practioal tests by the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and anyone particularly
interested may obtain further data by adressing the Director of thh
Bureau.
In the Lambert projection, the meridians of the earth are repre-
sented by straight lines converging toward a common point outside
the borders of the chart, and the parallels by curved lines which are
sections of concentric circles whose center is at the point of intersec-
tion of the meridians. Meridians and parallels intersect a t right
angles and the angles formed by any two lines on the earth’s surface
are correctly represented.
The scale error of any single chart is so small that distances may
be measured directly by means of the graphic scales printed in the
borders. If the entire United States is shown in a single chart
(as No. 3060a), the maximum scale error for nearly 90 percent of the
chart is about one-half of 1 percent-an error quite negligible in
practice.
SMALL-SCALE CONTROL CHARTS
Reference has been made already to the use of chart No. 3060a
for laying out routes between widely separated points. A second
chart which may be used for this purpose is Coast and Geodetic
Survey chart No. 3074, the Great-Circle Chart of the United States.
As an aid to the most effective use of these two charts, there follows
a brief description of the special properties of each.
Chart No, 3060a is on the Lambert projection and is at a scale of
1:5,000,000, or about 80 miles to the inch, which is exactly one-tenth
the scale of the sectional charts. I t affords a high degree of accuracy
in the measurement of distances between widely separated points,
and may also be used for the plotting of radio bearings, the necessary
instructions for performing these operations being printed on the chart
itself. Abcut 40 of the principal broadcasting stations and 250 of the
most important airports are shown in red, facilitating radio compass
navigation and the plotting of routes. The plotting of routes is fur-
ther simplified by an overprint showing the limits of each sectional
chart; in this way the pilot may see at once which sectional charts will
be required for a projected flight, and also the approximate location
of the intended route on each chart. Lines of equal magnetic varia-
tion are shown. Courses may also be measured thereon, although in
general they should be measured on one of the larger-scale charts, as
recommended on pages 29 to 31. A straight line on this chart is a
close approximation to the path of a great circle, and for all practical
purposes may be regarded as the shortest route between two points.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 29
Chart No. 3074, being on the gnomonic projection, can have no
constant scale, although it is at ap roximately the same scale as
chart No. 3060a. It is not suitable %f the measurement of courses,
bearings, or distances, but any straight line on the gnomonic projection
represents a precise reat-ctrcle track, and the chart is therefore very
3 a
useful for an exact etermination of the reat-circle route over long
distances. The airports shown on chart 0. 3060a are included on
this chart also; the radio stations are omitted, however, since the
gnomonic projection is not adapted to radio navigation.
BASIC PROBLEMS IN DEAD RECKONING
There are two basic problems in navigation by dead reckoning, one
being essentially the reverse of the other. They are:
Case I. When planning a flight, before taking off, to
determine from the chart the distance and the compass
heading to be folIowed between two points.
Case 11. While in flight, from the observed compass
heading and air speed of the plane, to determine and plot
on the chart the track being made good and the position of
the plane along the track a t any time,
CASE I
Having drawn on the chart the intended track, either as a straight
line or as a series of straight lines, in order to determine the compass
headings to be followed four steps are necessary:
1. Measure the true course, or courses, on the chart;
2. Find the magnetic course by applying magnetic variation;
3. Find the compass course by applying compass deviation; and
4. Find the compass heading from the compass course by making allowancr
for the effect of wind.
Figure 37 provides a graphic definition of these terms.
1. TO MEASURE THE TRUE COURSE

I n order to understand clearly problems involving directions, it

is important to distinguish carefully between a course and a bearing
a
(or azimuth). Fi ure 20 illustrates the difference between these
terms, as well as t e methods of measuring courses and bearings on
the Lambert projection, between any two points, A and B. Refer-
ring to the figure-
Angle a is the course to be followed from A to B;
Angle b is the course to be followed from B to A;
Angle Z is the bearing, or azimuth, of B as measured at the point A;
Angle 2' is the bearing, or azimuth, of A as measured at the point B.
It should be noted that on the Lambert projection a course is always
measured a t the meridian nearest halfway between the two points in
uestion; a bearing (or azimuth) is measured a t the meridian passing
h the place a t which the bearing is determined (or to be deter-
Both courses and bearings are measured clockwise from the north,
from 0' up to 360'.
* For theoretlcal recision long coursBB should be measured with the meridian of middleIon ltude between
the points in uwtron rath& than the merldlan nearest halfway. This appllea only to ver Tong dlatanm.
however, and% an uiwarranted reflnement, the maxlmum course mor from thla cause be%M too small for
practlcnl conrlderatlon.
30 U. S. COAST AX’D GEODETIC SURVEY

A course may be followed without change for the entire distance

between the two points (if, for the moment, we disregard magnetic
variation, compass deviation, and wind); a bearing (or azimuth) is
constantly changing as we progress along the route and is different at
every point thereon (except for the special cases in which the two
points are both on the same meridian, or are both on the equator).
The course from A to B is the exact reciprocal of the course from
B to A (that is, exactly 180’ different); the bearing of A from H is
never the exact reciprocal of the bearing of H from A , but differs
bherefrom by an amount equal to the angular convergence between
the meridians through the two places.
Courses are used continually in all problems of dead reckoning;
the use of bearings (azimuths) is confined to radio navigation and
celestial navigation almost exclusively.
The terms “bearing” and “azimuth” are identical, but the former
term is generally used in radio navigation, the latter in celestial
navigation.
If a course between two points is mistakenly measured as a bear-
ing, with the initial meridian instead of with the meridian nearest
halfway, considerable error may result.
To clear up any confusion that may yet remain, it should be
explained that when the course is measured with the meridian nearest

FIOURE ZO.-Courses and hearings. FIGURE

Zl.-Courxc and track.

halfway (as the angle a, fig. 20), a plane following that course will
not exactly follow the straight line A B on the chart, but will slightly
depart therefrom near the middle of the route, as indicated by the
light, broken line (greatly exaggerated) in figure 21. However,
when courses are measured as recommended in the following para-
graphs, the departure is so slight that it may be considered that the
lane does exactly track the straight line throughout its entire
fength.
A course measured with the true geographic meridian printed on
the chart is the true course.
When the two points are separated by not more than 3’ or 4’ of
Ion itude the true course may be measured with the meridian nearest
P
ha1 way, as described above and as illustrated in figure 20, and the
entire distance flown as one course.
When the difference of longitude between the two points is more
than 3’ or 4’ the straight line on the chart should be divided into
sections crossing approximately 2’ of longitude each, .and the. true
course to be flown for each section should be measured wlth the middle
meridian of that section.
For example, figure 22 illustrates the method of determining the
series of true courses to be flown between St. Louis and Minot.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATIOX 31
The distance is 862.7 miles, and the difference of longitude is nearly
1 2 O , which is too great to be flown satisfactorily in one course. The
route is therefore divided into five sections crossing approximately
2 O of longitude each, the two end sections being slightly longer than the
others. The true course to be flown throughout the total length of
each section should be measured with the middle meridian of that
section, and the course should be changed in flight as the end of each
succeeding section is reached.
On the Lambert projection, for all practical purposes, a straight
line is the great-circle route (shortest possible distance) between its
96'

!
41NO

\
\

\
\

\
\

22.-Subdividing B long route.

FIOCRE

extremities. The method just outlined makes it possible to fly the

great-circle route by a series of short courses (rhumb lines).
For the Ai ht from St. Louis to hfinot only two regional charts are
f
required, an it would be a simple matter to join these two charts and
draw the straight line between the two places. When using the sec-
tional series six charts are necessary, and it is inconvenient to join SO
many charts; in this case, therefore, the route should first be plotted
on one of the small-scale control diarts and transferred to the sectional
charts, as described on pages 23 and 28.
 32 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

Some pilots object to making frequent measurements with a pro-

tractor. Whenever possible, that is the safest and best procedure, but
under conditions of flight there are times when the frequent use of a
protractor is impractical, if not impossible.
If the need should arise for laying out a new course while in flight,
the stra’ h t line may be drawn to the destination on the planning
4i
chart itse f, and subdivided thereon into convenient sections. With a
protractor determine the true course to be followed for the first sec-
tion; to find the true course for each succeeding section subtract
6x0 of a degree for each degree of lon itude between the middle me-
P
ridian of the first section and the midd e meridian of the section under
consideration, for flight in a westerly direc-
tion; add X o of a degree for each degree of
lon itude for flight in an easterly direction.
s method is used and there is any
difficulty in remembering when to add and
when to subtract the correction, an exag-
gerated sketch similar to figure 23 urlll
remove any doubt. It is obvious that
F*ouRE correction lor conver- the course angle at B is greater than the
gence of merldI811S.
angle at A ; therefore, add the correction
when going toward B (east), subtract when going toward A (west).
Instead of applying a correction of six-tenths of a degree for each
degree of longitude crossed, some prefer to think of the correction as 2 O
for every 3’ of longitude crossed, which is just as accurate. These

24.-Protractor used 8s a long strslghtedge.

FIGURE

pilots then make it a practice to change course a t the central meridian

and edge of each sectional chart, remembering only to add 2’ at each
course change when flying east, and to subtract 2’ at each change when
flying west. This is only the change in true course, and does not take
into account the change in magnetic variation.
A long straightedge is not always available, even for plotting on the
ground. A very satisfactory substitute is a protractor used as illus-
trated in figure 24. This protractor was especially designed for use
with the aeronautical charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, on the
Lambert projection, It ma also be used as a parallel ruler, and con-
9
tains scales of statute miles or both the sectional charts (1 : 500,000),
and the regional charts (1 : 1,000,000); the scale of miles for the sec-
tional series is equally suitable for chart No. 3060a, since it is exactly
one-tenth their scale (I : 5,000,000). If a long straight line is-desired
as between A and B in the figure, a knotted thread may be inserted

-
in the hole a t the center of the protractor; then with one end of the
straightedge of the protractor at A, the thread is stretched to pass
I Thls Is the an le of convergence between merldkns 1” apart on all (Lambert) aeronautical charts of the
united states. I! is not preolss the exact flgure b i u g 0 . w S ’ however for any ordlnary distancm it is entire-
ly ratisiaetory. The maxlmuni COWHIerror introduced by’using t d approsln’ate amount8 to only
N o of a degree for an wt.west flight of 600 mlles. for the flnal section of the longest stralght-llne fllght pos-
sible In the Unlted states. the error amounts to jess than 1.7’.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 33
through the point B; the other end of the straighted e is caused to
line up with the thread and the line AC is drawn. 8 h e operation is
then reversedwith the straightedge a t B and the thread passing throu h
A, and another section of the line is drawn; any center sections ma %e
drawn in the same way, and the long straight line completed. h i s
can be done more quickly and easily than it can be described.
2. TO FIND THE MAGNETIC COURSE

As explained above, the true course is measured with reference to a

true meridian printed on the chart, or true north. However, magnetic
compasses are used in air navigation, and these instruments, of course,
refer all directions to magnetic north. I n most localities magnetic
north does not coincide with true north, chiefly because the earth’s
magnetic poles are at considerable distances from the true north and

~~~ ~

FIGURE
S~.-MagnetIc variation in the United States, 1935.

south poles. The angular differencebetween true north and magnetic

north at any place is known in navigation as the magnetic variation
of the place.a I t is called westerly variation or easterly variation,
depending upon whether magnetic north lies to the west or to the east
of true north.
Figure 25 shows the lines of e ual magnetic variation in the United
.
States for 1935, at intervals of 59 These lines, which are also known
as isogonic lines, are shown on the aeronautical charts for each degree
of variation, and in a few cases for each half degree. A chart of the
United States (No. 3077), size 22 by 28 inches, showing lines of equal
magnetic variation at 1’ intervals, may be obtained from the Director,
Coast and Geodetic Survey.
I It Is also known an variation of the corn 899 or aimply varlatlon. In englneedng and mlentlUc work
variation la known as magnetlo decllnatlon, %uth e term “varlation” has been used at aen for many yearn 1;
order to avold confusion with the term “decllnailon” as employed In celestial navigatlon, and thin usage has
very proper)y been continued In alr nsvlgatlon.
34 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

At all points along any given isogonic line, the magnetic variation
is the same in direction and magnitude. Referring to the figure, it
may be seen that in the eastern part of the United States the magnetic
compass points west of true north (that is, the variation is westerly) ;
in the western part of the country the magnetic compass points east
of true north (easterly variation). The dividing line between these
two areas of opposite variation, that is, the line of 0' variation, is
known as the agonic line. At all points along the line the direction of
magnetic north and true north are the same. Minor bends and turns
in the isogonic lines are chiefly the result of local attraction.
When a course is referred to magnetic north rather than true north,
it is known as a magnetic course.
A magnetic course has no importance of its own to a pilot; it is
simply a necessary step in converting a true course to a compass
heading, and as such must have some name for reference. It may be
defined further as the true course d u s or minus magnetic variation.
There is no other &gle item in the
N whole field of navigation as important
M as the proper application of magnetic
variation. Ships have been piled on
the rocks, and planes have crashed into
the sides of mountains or have been
completely lost because of misapplica-
tion of this item.
For our present problem just one
rule is necessary, but it should be
learned so thoroughly that a wrong
application is impossible. To convert
a-true course into a magnetic course,
ADD WESTERLY VARIATION.
FIGURE%.-Magnetic variation.
Numerous rhvmes and iineles have
been contrived i o help nLvi5tors re-
member this rule, but often the rhymes have proved more confusing
and harder to remember than the rule itself. It is believed that if the
pilot can fix in his mind the relation pictured in figure 26, there will
uever be any question as to the correct application of magnetic
variation.
I n figure 26, N represents the true geographic meridian, and angle 1
is the true course for the route shown.
M represents the direction of magnetic north in the vicinity of 0
and is west of true north as indicated.
Angle NOM is the magnetic variation, which is westerly.
Obviously, when magnetic north lies to the west of true north,
the angle NOM must be added to the true course (angle 1) to
obtain the magnetic course (angle 2), or the magnetic direction of the
route.
If westerly variation is to be added, easterl variation must be
9
subtracted; but if we can always remember the ru e, ADD WESTERLY
VARIATION, there will never be any danger of an erroneous treat-
ment.
The application of magnetic variation may be further clarified by
two specific illustrations:
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 35
Near Portland, Maine, the variation is about 17' west, resulting in
the condition shown in figure 27. Note that in this case the magnetic
compass reading is everywhere 17' greater than the corresponding
true direction.
Near Portland, Oreg., the variation is about 22' enst, as in figure 28,
the magnetic compass reading being 22' less than the true for any
chosen course.
After dividing the route into sections of practical length and de-
termining the series of true courses, as already outlined, the average
magnetic variation for each section is applied in order to find the
series of magnetic courses.
If this procedure is disregarded and a long route is flown in one
mean magnetic course, considerablc departure from the intended
trnck may result. For example, figure 29 shows the conditions
actually existing in 1935 along the Canadian border between longitudes
90' arid 9 6 O , a distance of 273 miles. The true course for the route
from 0 to C is 270O; the magnetic direction a t the point 0 is 268'
while the mean magnetic course for thc route as a whole is 264'. It
this mean magnetic course is flown for the entire distance, beginning
a t 0 the course is in error by about 4 O , and the plane will track tho
broken line south of the parallel. At the center of the route the track
will be 4.1 miles south of the parallel, gradually returning to meet it
a t C. These conditions are typical for the northeast quarter of the
United States, the departure from this cause being greatest, of course,
where the greatest differences. in magnetic variation occur.
The following examples w ~ l lhelp to fix in mind the application
of magnetic variation.
True coiirse (measured from chart) I Moan magnetic variation (from rhart)l Magnetic course

-
1 When the truo course to be ronverted is neafOO,3f10° niay bo added or subtracted as necessary In order
to perform the required operations.
3. TO FIND THE COMPASS COURSE

Ifagnetic attractions in the plane itself-metal parts, ignition

system, electric lights, plncing of tools or cargo, etc.-affect the com-
ass so that it fails to indicate magnetic north correctly on most
Readings.
This may be seen in a general way from figure 30, in which it is
assumed that the aircraft engine E exerts a magnetic attraction upon
the compass needle C. When the airplane is headed npprosimntely
along the magnetic meridian M (that is, toward magnetic north), the
attraction of the engine is exerted in the same direction as the earth's
magnetic force, and there would be little or no error in the indication
of magnetic north from this cause. When the plane is headed to
the left, the attraction of the engine is a t right angles to the earth's
magnetic force, resulting in a deflection of the needle to the left of
magnetic north; when the plane is headed in the opposite direction a
deflection of the needle to the right results.
FIGUREn.--At Portland, Mgne. magnetic variation is about 17' west, and the mag- FIGURE
%.-At Portland, Oreg., magnetic variation is about '22' east, and the mag-
netic compass reading IS 17' greater than the true for any chosen c o w . netic compass reading is i"" less than the true for any chosen course.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 37

I \

--+ .- -
I

I
\
i
- 4 ~ m i ._ -. -
38 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

deviation with the plane in flying position and motor running, a

second for the same conditions but with navigation lights on, etc.
This should not be necessary, however, if the compass is properly
installed and compensated.
Deviation is subject to change from time to time, for varying causes;
it is also subject to change from place to place, especial1 where any
considerable difference of latitude is involved, and shoul be checked
often-certainly before beginning any important flight.
B
The correction for compass deviation is exactly similar to the cor-
rection for magnetic variation, and we need change only one word in
our rule: ADD WESTERLY DEVIATION.

++$+
As with magnetic variation, it is obvious that if westerly deviation
is to be added, easterly deviation must be subtracted.

westerly variation westerly variation eas!erly variation easterly variation

westerly deviation easterly deviation easterly devi-tion wes:erly deviation
CC = T C + V a r t D e v CC=TC+Var-Dev C C = TC-Var-Dev CC=TC-Var+Dev

N = True N o r t h TC = True Course

M = Magnetic North Var = Variation
C = Compass North Dev= Deviation
CC = Compass Course
Froum 31 -Applying variation and deviation to find the compass course.

Figure 31 illustrates the conversion of the true course for different

conditions of variation and deviation.
4. TO FIND THE COMPASS HEADING

As defined above, the compass course is the direction by compass in

which a plane should be headed in ordcr to reach its destination in
still air, or with the wind parallel to the course; it also was defined
as the true course plus or minus variation and deviation, but with no
allowance for wind. I n practice, however, the same term is often
applied to the heading of the plane after due allowance has been made
for wind.
To avoid any confusion at this point, the use of two separate arid
distinctive terms is very desirable, and the following formal defini-
tions are given:
Compass course: The true course plus or minus variation and devitt-
tion, but without allowance for wind effect.
Compass heading: The true course plus or minus variation and
deviation, and including allowance for wind; the direction by compass
in which the plane is pointed.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 39
Figure 37 provides a graphic definition of these terms. Already
they have found limited acceptance in air navigation, and their
general adoption is recommended.
c I n order to make the necessar allowance for the effect of wind,
P
and to find the compass heading rom the compass course, the action
of the wind upon an aircraft must be fully understood.
A free balloon is carried with the wind and a t the same speed as
the wind, just as a cork is carried on the surface of a stream. Now if
we substitute for the cork a toy motorboat which requires a minute
to cross a small stream, and the stream is flowing a t the rate of 10
feet per minute (fi . 32), even though the boat is headed directly
B
across stream it wil still feel the full effect of the current; during the

- - c

FIoURE 32.-Effect of current on a boat.

minute of its crossing it will also be swept 10 feet,downstream and will

reach the opposite bank a t a point 10 feet below the point of departure.
The solid line of figure 32 represents the path of the boat in crossing
the stream. I n exactly the same way, an airplane in flight is subject
to the full effect of the wind, even though the plane may be moving
under its own power in an entirely different direction.
For example, a plane headed due east from A (fig. 33) flying at
an air speed of 100 m. p. h., shquld reach B (100 miles distant) in
1 hour; but, during the hour of flight the plane has also been subject
to the full effect of a wind of 20 m. p. h., from 315'. As indicated in
the figure, it actually reaches C, the line AC representing the track
followed by the plane over the ground. If the length of AC is
A
-- - _ _
--
Air Speed of Plane 100 mph

- - - - G r 2 n---
d SPeed

C
FIoURE 33.-Wind drift.

measured by the same scale with which A B and BC were laid off,
we may determine also the speed the plane has made over the ground
in passing from A to C, or 115 m. p. h.
Air speed is the speed of the plane with respect to the air, and is
the speed registered by thc air speed indicator (when corrected for
altitude, temperature, and lnstallation error; see p. 148). It is repre-
sented by the line A B in the figure.
Ground speed is the speed of the plane with respect to the ground,
and is the resultant of the heading and air speed of the lane and the
direction and velocity of the wind. I t is representef by the line
AC in the figure. A B is the compass heading, while AC is the track,
or line of flight.
40 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

Figure 33 illustrates what would happen if a pilot followed a com-

pass course without regard for wind effect. Under the conditions
shown, the plane would pass well south of and beyond its objective,
the angle BAC being known as the drift angle. I n order to avoid
such an error, the plane must be headed into the wind at such an angle
that the effect of the wind is counteracted; if thls 1s done correctly
the lane will be over the intended track throughout the flight. This
P
ang e at which the plane must be headed into the wind in order to
make good the intended course is known as the wind. correction angle.
Man pilots think that they have satisfactonly corrected for
K
wind e ect if they turn into the wind the same number of degrees as

-- - -
FIQIJEE
34.-Correcting for the effect of current on a boat.

the observed drift angle; however, if we return to the illustration of

the toy motorboat, we may see that the wind correction angle is
always greater than the drift angle. Referring to figure 34, if the
boat is headed toward a point 10 feet upstream from the starting
point A , it will re uire as much time to cross the stream as though
1
it actually travele the line AB. Since the time required is more
than 1 minute, the boat will be carried more than 10 feet downstream
in crossing and will reach the opposite bank a t a point downstream
from the starting point, the line AC representing the actual track
of the boat. To reach the other bank at a pomt opposite A , the
boat must be headed toward a point more than 10 feet u stream.
When the wind direction and velocity are known a pi ot can deter- P
c'

C
36.-Correction to course for wlnd, and determination of ground speed.
FIQIJRE

mine gra hically the wind correction angle required to make good
B
the inten ed course. The procedure is as follows:
The true course from A to a distant point, D (fig. 35) is found to
be 90°, or due east. From the point of departure, A, on any con-
venient scale lay off AC to represent the direction and velocity of
the wind. From C, with radius equal to the air s eed of the plane,
describe an arc meetin the intended track at 0. h a w AC' parallel
to CO, and C'O para118 to AC. In the figure it is now evident that
AC'= CO= air speed of plane; C'O= AC= wind d i r e c t i o n and
velocity; and the angle C'AO is the wind correction angle, or the
number of degrees the plane must be headed into the wind in order
to track the line AD exactly. The angle may be measured with ri
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 41
protractor and applied to the. co-mpasscourse (obtained by correcting
the true course of 90’ for vanahon and deviation).
A 0 is measured and found to represent 113 m. p. h., the ground
speed along the route; from the ground speed the exact flying time
between A and D can be obtained.
AC’ represents the compass heading, or the direction in which
the plane must be pointed in order to make good the intended track AD.
It must be remembered that wind directions given in weather reports
are true directions: in constructing the “triangIe of velocities” to
obtain the wind correction and ground speed, the course and the
wind direction both must be in true directions, or both must be
converted to compass directions. The results obtained would be
the same whether true directions or compass directions are used, but
it is important that both directions should be in the same terms.
Referring again to figure 35, it has been stated that the angle
C’AO is the wind correction angle. It is also the drift an le that
will be observed in flight as long as the plane is headed in the irection t

CH-CC-W CH = CC +W CH = CC +W CH=CC- W

C
CH
-- Compass N o r t h
Compass Heading
CC = Compass Course
W = Wind Correction Angle
FIGURE
36.-Combininy compnss course and wind correctlon to 5nd the compass hending.

AC’ and there is no material chan e in wind. This constitutes a

fl
valuable check, enabling the pilot w ‘le in flight to determine easil
if the wind conditions bein met are in accordance with those predictei
K
Winds vary with time, p ace, and altitude, and the conditions ex-
perienced in flight may differ considerably from those indicated in
weather reports and forecasts. One robable cause of changing
conditions may often be eliminated y! maintainin a constant
altitude. Whenever an appreciably different drift ang e is observed,
it is a warning that wind conditions have changed and revised cor-
B
rections must be determined and applied. For the best methods
of doing this whde m the air, see Appendix, pages 145-164.
Practically all methods of determining ground speed are based
on the assumption of constant air speed, which in turn is based on
the assumption of level fli ht. Quite obviously, the forward speed
f
over the ground is materia ly reduced when climbing, and allowance
for any such periods should be made when determining the position
along the intended track.
Figure 36 illustrates the application of the allowance, or correc-
tion, for wind effect under varying conditions. For any particular
case it is believed that a rough sketch similar to one of those in the
33573-3*4
42 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

figure will remove any doubt the pilot may have as to whether the
allowance for wind should be added or subtracted.
By comparing the various parts of figure 36 we can formulate this
general rule: For wind from the right, add the correction; for wind
from the left, subtract. This may be remembered. more readily if we
follow the form of our rule for applying variation and deviation,
making this rule read, ADD WIND RIGHT-and, of course, we would
not wish to add wrong!
There are many methods of obtaining the wind correction and
ground speed when the wind direction and velocity are known, but
the method just outlined is the foundation on which all others are

N = True North (geographic meridian)

M = Magnetic North
angle NOM = Magnetic variation (westerly)
C = Compass North
angle MOC = ,Compass deviation on this heading (westerly)
angle 1 = True Course
angle 2 = Magnetic Course
Bngle 3 = Compass Course
angle 4 = Compass Heading
AB = Track (or intended track)
FIGURE
37.-Graphic definition of terms used in dead reckoning.

based, and is certain to find frequent use. Among the other types of
solution commonly used, the following may be mentioned:
1. Tabular solutions.-These are of two kinds, (a) a special table, or series of
tables, based upon the air speed of each particular plane; (b) a general table
giving wind ve1oc;ties in percent of air speed. For convenient use theseper.
centages should be converted into wind velocities corresponding to the air speed
of any given plane.
2. Mechanical solutions, in which the triangle of velocities and other naviga-
tional problems are solved by means of mechanical devices.
3. Graphic solutions, in which lengthy tabulated corrections have been reduced
t o the form of simple graphs (see Appendix).
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 43
By way of summary, figure 37 affords a graphic definition of
the terms commonly used in navigation by dead reckoning, and of
their interrelation.‘
CASE I1
In the preceding discussion only the first of the two cases of dead
reckoning has been considered, namely, determining from the chart,
when planning a flight and before taking off, the distance and com-
pass heading to be followed.
The second case is concerned with plotting on the chart while in
flight, from the observed compass heading and ground speed, the
track being made good and the position of the plane along the
track at any time. It may seem that this should never be necessary
if the course is properly determined before beginning the flight;
however, wide departures from the charted route are altogether pos-
sible, intentionally or otherwise. I n this event it may happen that
after leaving a certain position the only data which can be obtained
are (1) the compass heading, (2) the approximate ground speed,
and (3) the elapsed time.
Essentially, this problem is the reverse of the first. I n Case I we
start with the true course measured on the chart and apply variation,
deviation, and an allowance for wind effect in order to obtain the
compass heading. I n Case 11, starting with the compass heading
observed in flight, all these factors are included and must be taken
away in order to obtain the true course to be plotted on the chart.
Obviously, then, all the rules of Case I must be reversed: whatever
would have been added then must be subtracted now, and vice versa.
This process of “taking away” may be called rectifying. As in
Case I, four steps are necessary:
1. Rectify the compass heading for deviation t o obtain the magnetic heading
(magnetic direction in which the plane is pointed).
2. Rectify the magnetic heading for variation to obtain the true heading (true
direction in which the plane is pointed).
3. Rectify the true heading for wind to obtain the true course (track) being
made good over the ground.
4. Plot the true course on the chart, using the same procedure outlinedfor
measuring a course.
1. TO RECTIFY THE COMPASS HEADING FOR DEVIATION

If we remember the rule laid down that to convert R magnetic

course to a compass-course under Case I we ADD WESTERLY
DEVIATION, it is evident that to rectify the compass heading we
must reverse the process and subtract westerly deviation; easterly
deviation, of course, should be added.
4 For utmost precision the correction for coin ass deviation should be applied last after the correction
for wind has been a plie’d. as the deviation on t i e Anal heading may diffor somewhit from the deviation
for the no-wind hea&ng. For this reason some recorninend that the four steps be taken up in the follow-ing
order:
1. Measure the true course.
2. Correct for wind.
3. Correct for variation.
4. Correct for deviation.
However, the three factors of true course, variation, and deviation all are known when working with the
chart. while the wind information is usuallv the last to be known and must even he revised freniirntlv
wh:iein flight. The advantage of being atlie to apply at one time, while working with-itlc ch&i.’iili;;i.
rrc:ions exrspt that for wind, in most cases outwcighs the thooretical gain in precision that might resnlt
from applying deviation last. If the c0InI)ass Is not iroisrly inst~liedand compensated and the tievia-
tions on adlacent headings are large or appreciably dderent, it is obvious that deviation sdould be aimlied
last: but if the compass is roperly compensated the difforenca in deviation between adfacent headings
ordinarily should be so smal? as to be negligihle in practice, and the order of procedure given in the preced-
ing pages is considered preferable.
44 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

2. TO RECTIFY THE MAGNETIC HEADING FOR VARIATION

As with deviation, we must reverse the rule of Case I, subtracting

westerly variation and adding easterly variation.
If there should remain any confusion as between adding in Case I
and subtracting in Case 11, it should be necessary only to remember
that problem one, finding the compass heading from the chart, is
normally the first and basic operation, and for Case I we must ADD
WESTERLY variation or deviation. For the second operation, per-
formed in the air, we simply reverse the procedure.
8. TO RECTIFY THE TRUE HEADING FOR WIND

When the drift angle can be obtained, the true heading of the plane
may be rectified for wind simply by adding or subtracting the drift
an le.
Sigure 38 illustrates the rectifying of the true heading for wind
under varying conditions. By comparing the various parts of the

TC = TH t D TC = TH -D TC = TH -D TC = TH t D

N = True North TH = True Heading

TC = True Course D = Drift Angle
%.-Combining the true heading and drift to 5nd the track (true course made good).
FIGURE

figure, we see that here, again, we reverse the rule of Case I, and
subtract the drift angle for wind from the right.
When drift observations are not possible because of adverse weather
conditions, the true heading is rectified for wind by means of a tri-
angle of velocities (see example 4, p. 136), using the wind direction and
velocity as given in weather reports or as last known.
4. TO PLOT THE TRUE COURSE ON THE CHART

Having obtained the true course (track) from the three preceding
steps, there remains only the problem of lotting it on the chart.
Here we must remember again that we are lealing with a course, not
a bearing; if we are to avoid error i t must be plotted, not with the
meridian of the last known Tosition, but with the meridian nearest
halfway between that position and the new position.
This may be done satisfactorily by estimating roughly the course
and distance on the chart, selecting the meridian nearest halfway,
laying off the course therewith, and paralleling the line so obtained
with a line through the last known position.
To illustrate, in figure 39, A marks the last known position of a
plane and the known data are as follows:
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 45
Compass heading in flight _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ 5-5'_ - - - _ _ _ - - -
Ground speed (approximate) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _110 - _ -m.
- _p._ -h.- - - -
Elapsed time 1 hr. 20 min.
Drift angle (wind from left) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 _0'- - _ _ - - _ _ _ -
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ^ _ _ - - _ - _ _

Compass deviation on compass heading of 5 5 ' _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _3'_ _W. _

Magnetic variation, average, from chart _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7' E.
The true course is found in accordance with the rules already given,
8s follows:
1. Magnetic heading= Compass heading- deviation (westerly).
= 550- 30= 520.
2. True heading = Magnetic heading+ variation (easterly).
=52'+ 7
'
1 59'.
3. True course =True heading+ drift angle (wind from left).
=59'+ 1O0-69'.
4. The approximate distance covered in lh20m at 110 m. p. h. is 147 miles.
By inspection i t ia seen that 147 miles on a true course of 69' crosses approxi-
mately 3' of longitude. The course angle of 69' is measured with the meridian
nearest halfway, 1'30' east of A, a t any convenient intersection, 0, and the line
TC obtained. The line AB, drawn from A parallel to TC,is the dead reckoning

FrauRE BP.-Plottlng On the chart the track, or true course made good.

track made good; a oint, B,on the track line, 147 miles distant from A, marke
thc position of the p f k e by dead reckoning.
The following comparison may serve to fix in mind the procedure
in the two general cases of dead reckoning:
Case I: Chart to compass heading: Case 11: Compass heading to chart:
1. Measure the true course. 1. Subtract westerly deviation.
2. ADD WEETERLY VARIATION. 2. Subtract westerly variation.
3. ADD WESTERLY DEVIATION. 3. Subtract wind right, i. e., for wind
4. ADD WIND RIQHT, i. e., add the from the right.
correction for wind from right. 4. Plot true courae on chart.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DEAD RECKONING

BETUBMNQ TO THE INTENDED TBACK

As already stated, intentional departures from the plotted route are

sometimes made in order to avoid unfavorable weather conditions, or
for other reasons; often, however, the departure is unintentional and
46 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

is not realized until the position is definitely determined in flight, by

reference to known landmarks or other methods. Ordinarily, when a
departure from the intended track is noted, a new course is laid out on
the chart from the newly determined position to the destination; by
applying variation, deviation, and a revised allowance for wind, the
proper compass heading to make good the course is. obtained. Under
other conditions it may be desired to return to the intended track arid
complete the flight as originally planned.
To return the plane to the intended track many approximate
methods are practiced. Some of these are unsound in principle, and
are therefore not very satisfactory. To be satisfactory, any method
must take into account the reasons causing the departure. For ex-
ample, in figure 40,a pilot is flying from A to B , 100 miles due east, at
100 m. p. h. After 30 minutes flight when he should be a t C , he finds
A
c-
Intended Track C B
Wind
0 (no allowance made)
FIGUREIO.-Departure from intended track due t o failure to apply correction for wind.

himself directly over a town at D. Since he was making no correction

or allowance for wind, the line CD represents the direction and velocity
of the wind; AD is the track, and the angle CAD is the drift angle.
I n figure 41, on another occasion a pilot is flying between the same
two points, making allowance for a northwest wind of 30 m. p. h.
After proceeding on the proper heading AV for 30 minutes he should
be a t C, but finds himself over a town at E, due to the fact that the
wind was only 20 m. p. h., instead of 30 m. p. h . as reported. I t
should be evident that to return to the intended track under them

41.-Departure from intended track due to overcorrection for wind.

FIQURE

conditions will require a procedure different from that required in

the preceding figure.
A good general rule to follow is to head the plane toward the in-
tended track at an angle of about 4 5 O thereto. Allowance for wind
can be made, taking into account the wind data just learned from the
determination of position, and the time of arrival over the plotted
route can be found with a fair degree of accuracy.
The simplest method (if the wind is at such an angle to the plotted
route that i t is practical) is to line the plane up with the wind, ap-
proaching the intended track directly into the wind (fig. 40), or with
the wind (fig. 41). In either case the ground speed may be known
from the air speed of the plane and the wind velocitv, and the timo
of arrival over the intended track is most easily determined.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 47
RADIUS OF ACTION

By radius of action is meant the distance an aircraft may fly, with

a given amount of fuel and given wind conditions, and still return
to the startin point. The solution of this problem also includes
the courses to Ff,e steered on the flight out and on the return trip, the
ground speed in each direction, and the time to turn back.
This problem is important to the private pilot in determining how
far (or how long) he may fly in a particular direction and still return
to the sta,rting point before dark; how long he may fly over scenic
regions and still be certain that he has enough fuel for the return
tnp, and so on. It is important to the transport pilot when the
weather at his destination is doubtful and he wishes to know how

42.-Radius of action; triangle of velocities for flight out.

FIQURE

long he may continue toward his destination and still be able to

return to his starting point, if need be.
Favorable winds reduce flying time for a one-way trip, but if the
same wind continues for the roturn flight the round trip always
requires more flying timo than it would if there were no wind. In
other words, for a two-way trip wind is always a hindrance, never
a help.6
Radius of action problems consist of two parts, each of which may
be solved by a triangle of velocities similar to that shown in figure 35.
To illustrate, let it be required that a plane fly from A (fig. 42) as
far as possible toward a distant point D,and return to A . Cruising
speed of plane 100 m. p. h., wind 20 m. p. h. from the west (270°),
true course 60' for trip out, 240' for return flight. The total time
available is 3 hours. Figure 42 is the triangle of velocities for the
flight out, figure 43 the triangle for the return flight. Tn each case
the correct heading to steer is ascertained, and the ground speed that
will be made good along the corrected heading.
6 This is always true unless the wind changes during flight so as to afford a tail wind in both directions.
48 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

In practice, these two triangles are usually combined into one

figure, as shown in figure 44, in order to save time in laying off angles
and distances. Havlng found the ground speed out and the ground
speed back, the radius of action for each hour of flying time available
is found from the formula,
.
ground speed outxground speed back
radius of action =
ground speed out +ground speed back
In the example just given, then,
radius of a c t i o n = u 2 = 4 8 , 2 miles for eacb hour.
117+82
Since 3 hours of flying time are available, the total radius of action
is 3X48.2, or 144.6 miles. The time required to reach the point of

A,’
0
I
FIGURE
43.-Radius of action; triangle of velocities for return flight.

turning back is the time required to fly 144.6 miles at the ground
speed (out) of 117 m. p. h., or 1 17- hours, or 1 hour 14 min-
144*6-1.24
utes.
From the above example it should be obvious that the radius of
action is the same whether the flight out is with the wind or against
the wind. If the example were reversed, fi re 43 would represent
r
the flight out, figure 42 the return flight, an the same values would
be used to compute the radius of action. In this case, however,
the time to turn back would be the time required to fly 144.6 miles
at the ground speed (out) of 82 m. p. h., or 1.76 hours=l hour 46
minutes .
It is also of interest that minimum radius of action exists with
wind parallel to the route (head or tail winds); maximum radius
occurs with the wind a t right angles to the route.
Results obtained as above are precise; for man purposes, less
exact values are satisfactory, and a convenient ta le a h p e g the
approximate radius of action for various wind conditions IS given in
c
ma7 prove valuable in
the radius of action before
 m
C
._
D (figure 42)
i

(figure 4 3) A

0
FIGWE&.--Radius of action; triangle for fight out oombined with triangle for return Wt.
50 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

returning to some point other than the starting point. For example,
(fig. 45), a pilot leaves an airport at A, for a distant point B, with
just 4 hours fuel supply, aside from the required reserve. Weather
conditions at B are very uncertain, but conditions at C are satis-
factory and are expected to remain so. How far may he proceed
toward B and still have fuel enough to reach C if advised by radio
that the weather at B has closed in altogether?

45.-Radius of action when returning to some place other than the starting point.
FIGURE

The known data are as follows:

AB= 350 miles, true course 50'.
BC= 140 miles, due south.
Air speed of plane, 90 m. p. h.
Wind, 30 m. p. h., from 270'.
The first step is to plot the three points, A , B, and C, in their proper
relative positions. The line AB, drawn a t an angle of 50' to the
meridian halfway between A and I?, represents the intended track,
or the true course it is desired to make good.
The next step is to construct a triangle of velocities ADE, in order
t o determine the correction to the course for wind. The true heading
 PRACTICAL AIR XAVIGATIOS 51
to be steered, AB', is laid off, equal to the total time available multi-
plied by the air speed of the plane-in this case 4X90=360 miles,
From C lay off CG into the wind and equal to the wind velocity
multiplied by the total time in the air, which is 4 x 3 0 , or 120 miles;
draw FG.
Next it is desired to draw a line from 0 to some point R on the line
A F , so that HG=IIF. The easiest way to do this is to ercct a per-
pendicular to the line FG a t its middle point; the intersection of this
perpendicular with AF provides the point H , and by simple geometry
€€G=€€F. HJ is drawn parallel to the wind.
A simple explanation of this seemingly complicated plotting now
becomes possible. A plane leaving A on the heading AF with 4
hours' fuel supply can make good the air distance represented by AF.
Since I€G=HF, it may also fly an air distance represented by AH+HG
in 4 hours' time; but since a plane in flight is also sub'ect to the
1
full effect of the wind (see p. 39), the plane in this case wil have been
drifted due east a distance equal to the wind velocity multiplied by
the total time in the air, or 30X4=120 miles=the line CQ, by
construction.
Wo may now see that if a plane flies the headings A H and Elcf for
a total time of 4 hours, and during the 4 hours is subject to a total
drift represented by CG, the final position of the plane will be the
point C. Also, the heading AF was determined in order to make good
the track AB; in flyin that heading an air distance equal to AH, the
f
plane will have drifte eastward by an amount equal to the line HJ,
and will have made good the track AJ.
The point J is the farthest point to which the pilot may fly toward
B and still be able to return to C within 4 hours of flying time.
JG', parallel to IIG, is the heading required to make good the
desired track JC.
The time required to reach the point of turning back may be found
cither by scaling the distance AJ and dividing by the ground speed,
or by scaling AH and dividing by the air speed. A€€ measures 24%
miles, which divided byr90=2 hours 45 minutes; JG' measures 113
miles, which divided by 90=1 hour 15 minutes; total, 4 hours.
 Chapter 1V.-RADIO NAVIGATION
THE IMPORTANCE OF AERONAUTICAL RADIO
I n many respects, radio navigation offers the simplest and easiest
method of position-finding in flight. Its importance is steadily
increasing, not only because of improved equipment a?d an increasing
number of aids, but also because it continues to function in blind fly-
ing, when other methods fail or become very uncertain.
For the United States, a chart on the Lambert projection is ideal for
all methods of radio navigation, since its meridians converge so nearly
in conformity with the meridians of the earth that no corrections nor
computations of any sort are required. A radio bearing may be
plotted directly and correctly on the chart.
THE RADIO RANGE SYSTEM
Of the various methods of radio navigation, perhaps the simplest
and best known is provided by the radio range system of the Depart-
ment of Commerce, illustrated in figure 46.
Each radio range station marks four courses, or equisignal zones,
which are normally 90' apart, although this s acing is often varied in
%
order that the courses may coincide with t e established airways.
For example (see fig. 47), the northeast course of the Newark radio
range station is directed along the New York-Boston airway; the
wester1 course is directed toward Bellefonte, along the Chicago-
New qork route, and the southwest course along the Atlanta-
New York route. The easterly course serves no particular airway.
The four courses from each station are obtained as follows:
Into two diagonally o posite quadrants (fig. 47) the letter N
(- .) is transmitted in J orse code, and into the remaining
quadrants the letter A (. -) is transmitted. Each quadrant s ightlyFir Of
overlaps the nei hboring quadrants, and in the narrow wedge formed
E
by the overlap t e two s i p a l s are heard with equal intensity, the dots
and dashes of the two signals interlocking to produce a continuous
signal, or monotone. Thus, a pilot will hear the continuous dash
while he is on course; if he deviates to one side of the course he will
hear the dot-dash ( A ) signal, and if he deviates to the other side he
will hear the dash-dot (N) signal.
On the aeronautical charts of the Coast and Geodetic Survey tho
radio range system is shown in a pink tint, and the A and N quadrants
of each station are indicated by conspicuous letters. By reference to
the chart pilots may know from the signals received whether they are
on course, or to the right or left of the course.
The on-course (equisignal) zone is about 3 O in width, dep.ending
largely upon the orientation of the courses, the receiving equipment
used, and the technique of the observer. Maximum sharpness of
course is obtained with the receiving set tuned to the minimum prac-
tical volume.
As an aid to orientation, a uniform procedure is followed in the
designation of quadrants. The letter N is always assigned to the
52
 /+ I

&.--The radio range system of the Department of Commerce.

FIGWEE
54 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

quadrant through which the true north line from the station passes;
or if the center of an equisignal zone coincides with true north, the
letter N is assigned to the adjacent quadrant on the west.
The range signals are interrupted about twice each minute for the
transmission of the identifying signal of the station, which consists of
two letters in continental code. (See p. 164.) This signal is always
transmitted first in the N pair of quadrants, then in the A quadrants.
If a pilot is near the bisector of a n N quadrant, he will hear the dash-
dot ( N )signal, followed by the identifying signal, but will not hear the
dot-dash ( A ) signal, nor the identifying signal which is transmitted
into the A quadrants.
If he is on course, he will hear a dash, or monotone 25 seconds long,
(the A and N signals interlocked) followed by the identifying signals,

47.--Neu;ark radio range station.

FIGURE

which are transmitted first into the N quadrants and then into the A
quadrants. AS long as a pilot remains in the equisignal zone, the
identifying signals from both the A and the N quadrants will be
heard with equal intensity; when flying a radio range course, therefore,
some pilots steer so as to keep these two signals of equal strength
instead of trying to maintain the on-course monotone. If a departure
from the course occurs, one identifying signal becomes .noticeably
weaker than the other; if the first of the two signals received is the
weaker, the pilot knows he is in an A quadrant; if the second signal
is weaker, he is in an N quadrant. I n either case, of course, he knows
his position with reference to the equisignal zone. When oft' coiirso,
experienced pilots are able to estimate approximately the angulnr
departure from the course by means of the relative strength of the
two identifying signals received.
Under good receiving conditions the first method (flying so as to
maintain the on-course monotone) is more precise; undor unfavorable
atmospheric conditions the latter method is generally preferrcd.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 55
The range signals are also interrupted a t scheduled intervals for
brief weather reports of interest to those flying the airway on which
the station is located. I n order to provide continuous range opera-
tion in emergencies, weather broadcasts map be omitted on request;
for the same reason, provision has been made a t some stations for
broadcasting all voice communications on a standard frequency of
236 kilocycles. Equipment providing for simultaneous reception of
range signals and broadcasts on the same frequency is now being
installed by the Bureau of Air Commerce, thus eliminating the neces-
sity of omitting either the range or telephone service.
The radio range stations are usually located near a terminal airport
or an intermediate landing field, and, whenever possible, they are so
situated that one of the four courses lies olong the principal runway
or landing area of the airport, thus facilitating radio approach land-
ings under conditions of low visibility.
One of the greatest advantages of this system is that pilots need not
be concerned with corrections for drift. As long as they keep the
plane along the right side of the equisignal zone (with reasonnble
precaution against multiple courses; see p. 56), they can be certain
of the track being made. good over the ground.
In addition to the airway radio range stations operated by the
Department of Commerce, a number of important terminal airports
are also equipped with privately operated airport radio range stations.
These are exactly similar to the radio range stations already described,
except that they are of quite limited power and range. They are
always so located as to localize the landing area very definitely, and
provide a positive control of landings in bad weather. The courses
from the airport radio range stations are also shown by a pink tint
on the aeronautical charts; however, to avoid confusion in the con-
gested areas surrounding major airports, full information is not indi-
cated on the charts. Pilots desinng complete data should obtain
them from the “Tabulation of Air Navigation Radio Aids,” which
is issued by the Bureau of Air Commerce and may be had free upon
request.
From the foregoing it is evident that the use of the radio range
system is basically quite simple, and should present little difficulty
even for pilots with no previous training in this type of navigation;
however, there are several factors which may prove confusing until
the principles involved are understood.
First, it is obvious that as a plane passes over a radio range station
there is an apparent reversal of the directions of the A and N quadrants
For example, a plane approaching the radio station of figure 47 from
the west will have the A quadrant on its right, the N quadrant on
its left, but as soon as it has passed the station the N quadrant will
be to the right and the A quadrant to the left.
Directly above the antennas or towers of the radio range station
thero is a cone of silence, a limited area shaped like an inverted cone,
in which all signals fade out. Just before entering the cone of silence
the volume of the signals increases rapidly; as the plane enters the
cone, the signals fade out abruptly for a few seconds, the length of
time depending on the speed of the plane and the diameter of the cone
at the level of flight. When the plane first leaves the cono, the signals
surge back with great volumo before they begin to fade as the distance
from the station increases. If the plane passes over the station a
56 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

bit to one side of the cone, and the receiver is not kept to minimum
volume, the signals do not entirely fade out.
Sometimes there is a momenta fading of signals., or a false cone
T
of silence, at other points along t e airway, but ths can be distin-
guished from the true cone of silence by the absence of the surge of
volume a t the edges of the cone, and by the nonreversal of signals,
which should have taken place in passing over the station, I n
order to avoid any uncertainty from this cause, some-ranges are
being equipped with a new t pe of marker beacon, which emits a
distinctive, high frequency r a 2 o signal in the cone of silence.
When flying away from a radio range station it is important to
check the magnetic course being made good (thecompass heading
plus or minus deviation and wind effect) at frequent intervals, as
multiple courses exist a t some locations-particularly in mountainous
country. By checking the magnetic course bein made good against
the magnetic direction of the range course printe on the chart, pilots %
can lessen the danger of following one of these false courses away from
the established airway; also, a multiple course can often be recognized
by its narrow width in comparison with the true range course. This
item is of less importance when flyin toward the station, since even
P
a false range course would serve per ectly as a homing device; how-
ever, in this case it should be remembered that such a course may lead
over terrain that is dangerous because of high mountain peaks.
A related difficulty is found in bent courses. As a rule, the bend
is relatively small, and is of little importance since it-bends away
from and around the obstruction that causes it; however, in mountain-
ous country bends of as much as 4 5 O have been noted. Several such
bends may occur in a short distance, and to-attempt to follow them
without a thorough knowledge of their relation to the terrain, prev-
iously gained under conditons of good visibility, might prove impos-
sible. If the plane continues in skraight flight under these conditions,
the range courses seem to be swingmg from side to side. Courses
from range stations using the old loop antenna usually swing exces-
sively at night beyond 25 miles from the station. This phenomenon
is known as night effect, and has been practically eliminated in recent
installations by using four vertical radiators instead of two crossed
loop antennas. In view of the difficulties mentioned, when flyin
blind (on instruments) it is important to maint!in Fn altitude we
above any nearby peaks or obstructions-and in interpreting the
a
word “nearby” a generous allowance should be made for any possible
uncertainty as to the position of the plane.
Some of these difficulties may be greatly reduced as the result of
development work now being conducted by the Bureau of Air Com-
merce. For example, a supplementary range service o n ultrahi h
frequencies has already been made available a t some stations, resuft-
ing in definitely improved performance. I n any event, mention of
these weaknesses should not destroy confidence in the radio range
system, which as a whole is very dependable, and the most,effective
aid yet developed. They are presented here in order that pdots may
be ever on the alert, taking nothing for granted when the safety of life
and property is a t stake.
1 That is, the e uisi a1 zone, whloh Is normally about a0 in width, ma be broken Up Into a nnmber of
narrow on-course%an%with a total spread of 100 or ISo, or even more. getween the pn-course band8 tho
proper quadrant slgnal is usmlly heard, Blthouph an A slgnal Is often found In an N qnsdnnt, and vlw
versa.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 57
For most effective use, the radio range system should be regarded
as an aid to dead reckoning. With any form of radio navigation there
is always the possibility of excessive static and of mechanical failure,
either in transmission or reception; in such cases, the pilot who has
neglected other methods of navigation may find himself hopelessly lost
and without the information necessar for safely completing the flight.
, the most difficult proglem that may arise is that of
if
Ordinari entification and of finding the range course as
quadrant
ossible from an unknown position. For the solution of Yjcldy t is prob-
as
k m an accurate aeronautical chart is indispensable: only from this
source can the pilot learn the identifying signals of the stations in
his vicinity, the relative position of the four radio range courses from
each station, and the magnetic directions of the courses. Here, again,
the fact should be emphasized that a chart, once sold, can be corrected
only by the user. Before beginning any fli h t in which the use of
radio may become necessary, the charted ata should be checked %
against the Department’s latest Tabulation of Air Navigation Radio
Aids and the subsequent Notices to Airmen, and any changes should
be noted on the chart.
There are several favored methods of quadrant identification and
of finding the range course as uickly as possible. No one method
1
is suitable for all conditions, an the pilot should become thorough1
familiar with each of them in order to solve any given problem witTl
the least delay. I n the following discussion of the various methods
it will be assumed in each case that the pilot knows, from the signals
received, that he is in one of the two A uadrants of the Harrisburg
radio range station, but does not know w ich one. 81
The 90’ method.-Under this system a course is flown at right
angles to the average bisector of the two possible quadrants (fig. 48).
When the course-pattern of a station is not symmetrical it is important
to use the average bisector, since it is equally suitable for either of
the two quadrants in which the plane may be located, I n this
case, a course a t right angles to the average bisector may be either
337’ or 157O.
If the course of 337’ is chosen, then it is certain that courses 2 and
3 are somewhere behind the plane.
The pilot continues on the course of 337O until the on-course si nal
is received; through the equisignal zone until the first N signa on
the other side is heard; then makes a 90° turn to the right.
P
He knows he has intercepted either course 1 or course 4. If it is
course 4, the N signal continues after the turn; if it is course 1, the
on-course signals will be.heard first, then the A signal again. Thus
the signals received defimtely identify the course intercepted.
I n either case, the pilot makes a general turn to the left, away
from the station, and gradually eases into the equisignal zone, as
shown; he then follows the range course in to the station, and from
that point on to the local airport or a more distant destination.
When approaching the radio range station and close to it, pilots
may fly in the on-course zone; pilots flying from a station are defi-
nitely required to fly to the right of the equsignal zone.’
If the course of 157’ is chosen, rather than 337O, the procedure w i l l
still be the same as before, as shown in figure 48.
I Provided for in the Cfvil Air Regulations, which may be obtained from the Director, Bureau Of Air
Commerce.
asm-s&--~l
58 U . S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

Where multiple courses are known to exist, instead of making the

90' turn as soon as the first N signal is heard, it is advisable to fly
for some little distance before making the turn, selecting the true
range course from among the several false ones encountered, if
possible.
After identifying the course intercepted, by means of the 90° turn
to the right described above, instead of making the general turn to
the left i t was formerly the practice in some cases to make another
turn to the right until the range course was again intercepted, and
then follow it in to the station. This has the disadvantage that the

!\
0-

N
-.
r' \
\
A
-- /
/

48.-Identiflcation of the quadrant and range course; OOo method.

FIQIJRB

plane crosses the course a t a very sharp angle, nearer to the station;
if the distance from the station is not great, the course is so narrow
that it may be crossed without the pilot being aware of it, and further
time is lost feeling the way back to the equisignal zone again. Also,
if the plane is close to the range station, making the second turn to
the right may cause it to cross not only the course first intercepted,
but another course as well. I n this case confusiou would certainly
result, and valuable time would be lost while the entire problem is
worked out once more.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 59
I n the example just given it was assumed that the pilot was near
the center of an A quadrant; now su pose he is near enough to one
Y
of the range courses that he can faint y hear the identification signal
transmitted into the N quadrants as well as t,he identification signal
transmitted into the A quadrants. This means that he is either just
north of course 2 or course 3, or just south of course 4 or course 1.
If he flies the 337' course, a t right a,ngles to the avern,ge bisector
of the quadrants, and the faint signal begins to fade, he knows he
is flying away from the nearest on-course zone, and that he is there-
fore just north of course 2 or course 3; he makes a 180' turn, ap-
proaching the equisignal zone on the 157' course, and the procedure
from this point is identical with that illustrated in figure 48.
If he flies the 337' course and the faint signal becomes stronger,
the pilot knows he is approaching the equisignal zone, and that his
position is therefore just south of course 4 or course 1. He therefore
continues on the same heading, his further procedure being exactly as
shown in the figure.
If flying entirely blind, the pilot should make sure that he is
maintaining a safe altitude above the highest elevation in either A
quadrant. The highest contour shown on the chart within reason-
able distance of the Harrisburg station is 2,000 feet, hut the color
gradient of elevations, as shown in the margin, is from 2,000 to
3,000 feet; therefore an altitude well above 3,000 feet should be
maintained until the position of the plane can be definitely known.
This is the most dependable method. Its chief disadvantage may
be seen from figure 47. If the plane is in a quadrant where the
courses meet at a wide angle (as the southeast quadrant of the figure),
on a course a t right angles to the average bisector of the quadrants
it may be necessa to fly a considerable distance before picking up
7
the on-course signa s.
The fade-out method.-Under this system the pilot flies a course
paralleling the average bisector of the two quadrants (instead of a t
right angles thereto), with the volume of his receiver as low as pos-
sible. If the signal fades out, he knows that he is flying away from
the station; if the volume increases, he knows that he is ap roaching
R
it. This procedure identifies the particular quadrant in w ich he is
flying, unless some of the difficultiesmentioned later prevent.
Referring to figure 49, if the pilot is fiying a course of 67' and the
signal fades out, he knows he is in the easterly A quadrant with the
station behind him; he makes a 180' turn and flies to and through an
equisignal zone. As soon as the first N signal is received, he turns
left, not more than 180°, until the on-course signal is again received.
Then, with volume as low as practical, he straightens out along the
right side of the range course and flies until the volume fades out or
builds up appreciably. If it is increasing, he follows i t in to the
station; if it fades out, he makes a 180' turn and then follows i t in to
the station as a new point of departure.
The weakness of this system is that for some stations the signal
strength is variable due to irregularities of the terrain, or night effect;
the signals from these stations alternately increase and fade so that
i t is difficult to decide definitely, without undue loss of time, whether
the volume is increasing or fading out. Also, in the case of "squeezed
courses" (that is, when the courses are not 90' apart; see fig. 47) i t
60 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

is possible to fly away from a station and have the signals become
stronger, instead of weaker.
Several combinations of these two methods will sug est themselves.
For example, after intercepting an equisignal zone, tFi,e range course
may be identified and followed in to the station by essentially the same
procedure as that illustrated in figure 48. Also, as in the first method,
if the two identification signals are heard, one loud and one weak,
and the weak one begins to fade out, it is evident that the pilot is
flying away from the nearest range course as well as from the station;

/I -.
FIGWEE
4Q.--Identiflcatlon of the quadrant and range course; fade-out method.

the 180' turn is made a t once, and the procedure is then as shown in
the figure.
The individual conditions a t any one station must be considered in
choosing the method to be used. For example (fig. 47), for a pilot
in one of the N quadrants a t Newark, it would be generally desirable
to fl the average bisector toward the northwest; if he were in the
i
sout east quadrant, either the reverse course or a course at right
an les to the bisector mi h t carry him out to sea.
!he parallel method.-6nder this system the quadrant is identified
a
by flying alon the average bisector and notin the fading or increase
in volume. ?hen, if it is desired to reach t e station over a par-
ticular course of the range, the pilot flies parallel to the other range
course limitin that quadrant until the desired on-course zone is
f
reached, and ollows it in to the station.
For example, a pilot determines his position somewhere in the
northeast quadrant of figure 49. He desires to approach the station
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 61
by way of the easterly course, and therefore flies parallel to the
northerly course, 1 9 4 O , until the easterly course is intercepted, then
follows i t to the station.
Various other methods of quadrant identification have been used,
but i t is believed that the three just described represent the simplest
yet developed, the 90’ method being the most positive and reliable.
At least one of the three will be found suitable for any problem that
ma arise.
&ith a radio compass using a visual indicator, quadrant identifica-
tion is generally unnecessary, since the pilot may determine the direc-
tion of the station and fly directly to it, setting a new course from
that point toward his destination.
I n addition to the eneral problem of quadrant identification,
%
certain other rules must e observed. For example,in order to prevent
meetin aircraft flying in the opposite direction, i t is important t h a t
1
pilots y to the right of the radio range courses. As an added safe-
uard, the Civil Air Regulations require that flights along an airwa
%e made a t definite altitudes-in one direction a t the odd thousanz
foot levels (as 1,000, 3,000, or 5,000 feet above sea level), and in the
opposite direction a t the even thousand-foot levels (as 2,000, 4,000,
or 6,000 feet). This insures that there will always be at, least 1,000
feet vertical se aration between planes flying in opposite directions.
0
Definite altitu es are fixed for crossing another airway, and other
restrictions have been placed upon instrument flying within 25 miles
of the center of an estab!ished civil airway by pilots not engaged in
scheduled air transportation. All these requirements are set forth in
detail in the Civil Air Re lations published by the Bureau of Air
$”
Commerce; pilots are urge to obtain the latest copy of these regula-
tions, and to become thoroughly familiar with them.
Due to the effect of wind,. as well as irregularities in steering, it is
seldom possible to hold steadlly to the course marked out by the range.
Instead, if the pilot is slightly to the right of the course he heads a few
degrees to the left until the on-course signals are heard, then a few
degrees to the right until the off-course signals again predominate,
etc. In this way he “weaves” along the right-hand edge of the
equisignal zone, malung frequent checks of the course by means of
his compass.
At cntical points along the radio range courses there are also radio
marker beacons. These are low power transmitters which emit a
distinctive signal on the same fre uency as that of the range on which
P
they are located, and serve to in orm the pilot of his progress along
the route. When located a t the intersection, or junction, of courses
from two radio range stations, marker beacons operate on the fre-
quencies of both stations. When the pilot receives the signal of a
marker beacon so located, i t serves as a reminder to tune his set to the
frequency of the radio range next ahead of him.
In thick weather, when visual observations cannot be made, ground
speed can be dettermined by notin the time required to reach a
K
given marker beacon, or from the e apsed time between passing suc-
cessive marker beacons, range stations, or cross beams from other
radio range stations.
All radio marker beacons are equipped for two-way voice commun-
ication, and are prepared to furnish weather reports and other emer-
gency information, or to report the passage of a plane, on request. In
62 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

case the plane is not equipped with a transmitter, if the pilot circles the
marker beacon the operator will come on the air with the weather for
that particular airway. The pilot indicates that. he has received the
information by a series of short blasts of his engine, and proceeds on
his way.
Under the 1938 program of construction, the Bureau of Air Com-
merce is establishing a number of new “fan type” ultrahigh frequency
radio marker beacons. Four of these beacons are installed around a
given radio range station, one on each of the four courses, or equisignal
zones, a.nd about 20 miles distant from the range station. Each such
marker beacon transmits a fan-shaped radio pattern across the equi-
signal zone, and is keyed to give a distinctive signal identifying both
the radio range station and the particular course on which it is located.
It therefore definitely fixes thelocation of the plane. I n addition, these
beacons will constitute an important link in the system of airways
traffic control.
THE RADIO COMPASS
There are several types of equipment under the general head of
“radio compass.” Signals may be received aurally or visually, or both,
by means of a loop antenna, which may be either fixed or rotatable.
Strictly speaking, the radio compass refers to installations emplo ing
a fixed loop and a visual indicator, With this arrangement, as ong
as the plane is headed directly toward a radio station the indicator
K
hand remuins centered; headings to the right or left of the station
result in a corresponding deflection of the hand. The radio compass is
chiefly used as a “homing device,” and bearings of radio stations off
the line of flight may be obtained only by turning the plane toward the
station and noting the compass heading when the indicator is centered.
With the rotatable loop, bearings may be obtained without turning
the plane itself. The loop is rotated until the position of minimum
signal strength, or “null,” is obtained; the bearing of the station with
respect to the heading of the plane may then be read from a graduated
dial. This equipment is properly referred to as a “radio direction
finder.”
Both the radio compass and the direction finder are valuable aids
when flying the radio range system. For example, if a pilot is flying a
range course and is able at the same time to obtain the bearing of some
off-course radio station, the intersection of this bearing with the range
course, when plotted on the chart, definitely fixes the position of the
plane along the course a t the moment the observation was made. Or
If the pilot is appreciably off course he may identify the quadrant in
which he is flying by means of the observed bearing to the radio
station. This also informs him of the location of the equisignal zones,
and he may proceed to the station without the extra flying required
by other methods.
This is a very limited application of the radio compass, however;
when used with charts on the Lambert projection it is as useful for
direction finding and position determination off the airways as on the
radio range system itself. By its use pilots are enabled to tune in any
broadcasting station of which the position is known-commercial or
Government-and fly directly to the station selected, merely by head-
ing the plane so as to keep the pointer of the indicator centered. A
straight line drawn on the (Lambert) chart from any given position
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 63
to the radio station in question, represents the no-wind track the plane
would make good over the ground in flying to the station.
Or if the pilot wishes only to determine his position, rather than to
r
fl to the station, he may obtain the true bearing of the station and
p ot it on the chart; the intersection of this bearing with a bearing from
a second station determines the position of the plane. Unlike most
other projections, the projection used for these charts is so accurate
that no computations nor. corrections for distortion are required.
The simplicity of plotting the observed bearings is illustrated in
figure 50. A pilot flying in the vicinity of F determines the bearing X
of the radio station RS. He is uncertain of his position, but assumes
that he is near the point P and plots the observed bearing on the
chart a t the meridian nearest the assumed position, moving the pro-
tractor along the meridian until the bearing passes through the radio
station. For all practical purposes the line so drawn may be considered

P.

FIGURE
M).--Hadio compass navigation (radio bearings).

as a radio line of position (see p. 661, a t some point on which the plane
is located.
I n the same figure, RC is a naval radio direction finder station. By
means of equipment similar to that on the aircraft itself, and a t the
same time the above bearing was obtained, this station determined the
bearing Y of the aircraft from the station, and reported i t to the pilot
by radio. I n this case, the bearing is plotted with the meridian nearest
RC, and the intersection of the two bearings fixes the location of the
plane a t F.
For the plotting of radio bearings a protractor of the type illus-
trated in figure 24 will be found most convenient. If the arm of the
protractor is not long enough to reach from the assumed position to
the radio station, the observed bearing may be plotted from any con-
venient point on the meridian nearest the assumed position; a line
drawn parallel thereto from the radio station represents the bearing.
I n the example just given, the radio direction finder station was
introduced in order to illustrate the plotting of bearings so determined.
Also, for the sake of simplicity it was assumed that the bearing of the
plane was determined there a t the same time that the pilot observed
the bearing of the other radio station; in practice, this could scarcely
be the case. The services of a direction finder station are not always
64 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

available, and even if they were, some time interval would certainly
elapse between the determination of the two bearings. If the pilot
must determine both bearings himself from the plane, an appreciable
time interval may intervene.
When any considerable time elapses between the determination of
the two bearings, the position of the plane is determined by what is
known as a “running fix.” For example, figure 51 illustrates the
same problem as that of figure 50, except that the direction finder
station RC is replaced by a second radio station R, and that after
obtaining the bearing X,the plane flew due east (true) for a period
of 10 minutes a t a ground speed of 180 m. p. h., before obtaining the
bearing Y of the second radio station.
I n 10 minutes a t a ground speed of 180 m. p. h. the phne will
have traveled 30 miles. From any convenient point 2 on the line
representing the bearing to the first station, draw a line 22’ running
due east a distance of 30 miles. Then through the point 2’ draw a

FIGURE
bl.-Rsdio compass navigation; a “running fix.”

line parallel to the original bea,ring line; the intersection of this line
with the plotted bearing of the second radio station fixes the position
of the plane a t the time the second benring was obtained. Note that
the bearing Y is plotted with the next meridian east of the one used
for plotting the bearing X,since the assumed position has also moved
30 miles eastward, and is now nearer to the more easterly meridian.
If, after carrying forward the bearing X , it is found that the assumed
position is greatly in error-say, by one degree of longitude or more-
a more accurate determination of position may be had by replotting
the observed bearings at the meridian nearest the fix. I n the second
plotting of the bearing the line representing the bearing of the first
radio station must still be carried forward to obtain the fix, exactly
as in the first plotting.s
3 From a theoretical standpoint, the nemr the point selected is to the correct position Of the Plane a t the
time of the 5rst obaervstion, the more accurate will be the results. In practice, however, “any convenient
point” will be well within any desired limits of accuracy.
4 An error in the latitude of the assumed position, however great, will not affect the accuracy of the result.
‘ For utmmt precision on1 the last bearing should be plotted at the meridian nearest the flx. the flrst
bearing should be plotted at t%emeridian nearest the p i n t where I t was observed, and then carried forward.
This meridian could be found by carrying the Ax bac ward the dead reckoning distance and direction made
e d between the two bearings; however. if both bearings are plotted at the same meridian and the Urst
aring is then carried forward, the maximum error in the a x , with a run of 60 mile8 or more between the
two observations, would only be about 1 mile for every 100 miles diatance from the radio station, which I s
too small to justify the longer procedure Re ardless of the meridian Elected for plotting the 5rst bearing
the line must still be carried forward as desmi%edabove.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 65
When the radio station observed falls within the limits of the chart
being used, the method illustrated in figure 50-plotting the observed
bearing from the meridian nearest the assumed position P through the
radio station-is the simplest and most accurate. When using the
sectional charts for this purpose it is quite likely that the station
observed may be off the chnrt. In this case, since it is not practical
to join the two charts while in flight, it will be necessary to plot the
bearing directly from the radio station on the ndjoining chart to the
border, and to measure the angle at which the plotted bearin,o. crosses
the last meridian before reaching the border; the point of crossing
that meridian must then be transferred to the other chart, and the
bearing line continued at the same angle.
To plot the bearing directly from the station some pilots add (or
subtract) 180' and plot the reciprocal bearing, but this is inaccurate.
Due to convergence of the meridians (see p. 30) the bearing at the
radio station is never the reciprocal of the bearing observed at the
plane. The bearing to be plotted from the radio station is obtained as
follows:
1. To the bearing observed at the plane, add (or subtract) 180'.
2. If the PLANE is WEST of the radio station ADD of a degree for each degree
of longitude between them; if the plane is east of the station subtract x0 of
a degree for each degree of longitude.
I t will be noted that the foregoing rules follow the same form as our
rule for applying magnetic variation and deviation, and that the rule
begins with the plane, where the bearings are actually determined.
The rule may also be remembered from the familiar initials, PWA.
SPECIAL CHARTS FOR RADIO DIRECTION FINDING
The receding discussion and methods apply to all standard aero-
P
nautica charts on the Lambert projection, and are essential to a clear
understanding of the subject. However, the scale of both the sec-
tional and regional charts is too large for convenient use in this work,
while the scale of chart No. 3060a is too small. To bridge this gap
and to provide the quickest and easiest means of position-finding from
radio bearings, the series of aeronautical charts for radio direction
finding was designed.
These special charts are at a scale of 1:2,000,000, six charts being
required to cover the United States (fig. 3). As a result, it is seldom, if
ever, necessary t o p!ot a bearing from a station on an adjoining chart.
Around each-radio range station there is a special compass rose
(see fig. 15) onented to the magnetic meridian instead of the true
meridian. These compass roses are intended primarily for plotting
reciprocal bearings, and therefore the larger (outer) figures read from
0 at magnetic south. When plotting bearings from these stations
it is not necessary to add or subtract 180' to obtain a reciprocal
bearing, nor to apply the correction for convergence described in the
preceding section. It is only necessary to draw a line from the radio
station through the graduation corresponding to the observed mag-
netic bearing (using the outer figures). The line so drawn is the
desired line of position. (See example 8, p. 139.)
Some inaccuracy is introduced by this method, since the magnetic
variation a t the station is used, rather than the variation a t the point
of observation (that is, at the position of the plane); also, no correc-
 66 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

tion is made for convergence of the meridians. If utmost accuracy is

required, corrections may be applied for these two items. The
correction for convergence has already been described (p. 65). The
difference between the magnetic variation a t the airplane and a t the
radio station should be added if the variation at the airplane is smaller
westerly or greater easterly than at the radio station; subtracted if
the reverse. In the majority of cases, this correction will be of the
same sign as the correction for convergence.
Some may more readily understand the application of the correction
for the difference in variation by thinking of variation as being a
maximum in the eastern United States and gradually decreasing
through zero (at the agonic line) to a minimum on the west coast.
The rule may then be stated as follows: ADD the difference if the
variation a t the plane is LESS than a t the radio station; subtract if the
variation a t the plane is greater.
For all ordinary purposes these two corrections need not be applied.
In planning these charts it was felt that the rapid and frequent deter-
mination of approximate positions was more desirable than more
tedious though more exact methods-particularly in view of the
limited accuracy of radio bearings now attainable.
A number of commercial radio broadcasting stations, selected with
regard to their suitability for radio direction finding, also appear on
these charts. Because of congestion it is impossible to print compass
roses around these stations, and bearings from them must be plotted
in the conventional manner described in the preceding section.
ERRORS OF THE RADIO COMPASS
Like the magnetic compass, and for much the same reasons, the
radio compass is usually subject to deviation on some headings.
This may be determined and applied in exactly the same way that
-deviation of the magnetic compass is determined and applied; how-
ever, in some installations, especially when the rotatable loop antenna
is used, the deviation is incorporated in the dial scale so that bearings
may be used directly as read. Obviously, this is to bo preferred.
It should be remembered that radio compass bertrings are subject
to the same distortions that produce multiple radio range courses in
mountainous country. They are also affected by interference between
stations broadcasting on the same frequency, and by “night effect.”
A RADIO LINE OF POSITION
I n the preceding section reference has been made to a radio line of
position. While a full understanding of this term is not strictly
necessary, it should help to clarify the problem and may be useful
under certain conditions.
If the bearing of a plane is determined at a radio station, and plotted
a t the meridian of the station, then the straight line between the
station and the plane is a radio line of position. The radio station is
‘definitely fixed on the chart, and the bearing of the plane is accurately
known; therefore, the line between them has been positively deter-
mined as the line on which the plane is located.
If the bearing X of the radio station R (fig. 5 2 ) , is determined at the
plane and plotted at the meridian nearest the assumed position of the
plane, then the point Y on the meridian is only a point on the radio
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 67
line of position. There is also a point P on another meridian where
the same bearing might have been observed, a similar point P2 on
still another meridian, and so on; the plane might have been located
a t any point on the curved line (greatly exaggerated) drawn through
these points where the bearing of R is the same. Strictly speaking,
then, this curved line is the radio line of position RS detmmined a t the
uncertain location of the plane.
If strictest accuracy in plotting is required, the radio line of
position may be easily cbtained by plotting the observed bearing
at two or three meridians on each side of the assumed position and
drawing a curved line through the points so obtained. For all prac-
tical purposes this is unnecessary; unless the assumed position is
greatly in error (say 50 miles or more), the bearing plotted a t the
meridian nearest the assumed position so nearly coincides with the
radio line of position that they may be considered identical. If the
assumed position is proved to be greatly in error when a preliminary

52.-A radio line of position from bearing determined at plane.

FIGURE

fix is obtained, entirely satisfactory results may be had by a second

plotting of the bearing, as already described.
RADIO AND THE CORRECTION FOR WIND
In radio compass navigation, as in all other methods, wind is the
principal complicating factor; once understood, however, the proper
allowance for wind can be made and the pilot may proceed with
certainty even though the ground is not visible.
Two general types of radio compass are in use on aircraft, the one
employing a rotatable loop antenna, the other a nonrotatable loop.
With the former, bearings may be taken of stations in an) direction
by rotating the loop, without turning the plane; the latter is used
chiefly as a homing device, and cross bearings can be obtained only
by turning the ship itself to head toward the station in question.
The nonrotatable loop is not without its advantages for the pilot-
navigator, but with it the allowance for wind is more complicated
and precise navigation a little more difficult.
When using the radio compass solely as a homing device, even
though the pilot heads his plane directly for the radio station RS of
figure 53, under the effect of cross winds the plane will follow the
round-about broken line of the figure instead of t'he direct route.
68 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

From the standpoint of the added distance alone this is often

unimportant, since it would seldom require appreciably more time to
fly the round-about course than to head into the wind and crab
along the intended track at reduced ground speed; on the other
hand, it is always desirable to know with reasonable precision the
track being made good. A t times this is absolutely essential in
order to keep the plane over favorable terrain or to avoid dangerous
flying conditions. Furthermore, as is usually the case, more precise
methods of navigation do result in some saving of flying time.
I n view of the wind factor, precise navigation with the radio com-
pass is possible only in conjunction with a stable magnetic compass,
or with a gyro compass. To illustrate, suppose that a pilot leaves a
point A and proceeds toward a distant radio station B. From the
chart he knows that the true course from A to B is 90°. With a
true heading of 90°, he soon finds from his radio compass that he has

83.-The radio compm and wfnd effect.

FIQUBE

drifted to the left. Heading slightly into the wind, after another
period of flying he finds he has now returned to the direct route; this
means that he has made more allowance for wind than is necessary
in order only to maintain the intended track, so he assumes a heading
between the first and second. After a period of flight on this inter-
mediate heading, he turns momentarily to the onginal heading of
90°, just long enough to determine from the radio cornpass that he is
still on the direct line to the station at B ; this indicates that he is
making the proper allowance for wind, and he returns to the inter-
mediate heading. Subsequent checks made by turning the plane
momentarily to the original heading of 90° will keep him advised of
any deviation from the direct route and enable him to make any
further changes in heading that may prove necessa . An additional
7
check is found in the fact that; while the correct hea ing is maintained
&he indicator hand will read off center. As long as it remains off
center by the same amount it may be considered that the plane is
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 69

the direct route toward the

station. If the route being
followed is a long one, as
the route from St. Louis to 7 5 mi
F
hiinot (fig. 22), the head- ,- \ Intended
ing must be changed to A 80 mi B track -
(40 rnin dt 120 rnph)
conform to the change in
true course as the end of I
70 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

sents the heading and air speed of the plane, AF the track and ground
speed, and the angle at A the drift angle. BF represents the wind
direction and velocity, which is found to scale 7 miles, and is from the
southeast (135'); since the 7-mile drift occurred in a period of 40
minutes, the wind velocity is 10 m. p. h.
If the plane is proceeding from a radio station as a point of de-
parture, using the radio compass as a homing device (flying away
from home), and the visual indicator shows a deviation from the
direct route the drift angle may be determined simply by heading the
plane so as to center the indicator and noting the difference in degrees
from the original heading. While one drift angle cannot determine
a position, if this angle is plotted on the chart and the estimated
distance made good is scaled along it, an approximate position is ob-
tained which may be of some assistance.
 Chapter V .-CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
PRACTICAL VALUE
Celestial navigation is the art of determining position on the earth
from observations of celestial bodies (the sun, moon, stars, and
planets).
For flights of 500 to 1,000 miles, celestial navigation with present
methods and equipment will seldom prove of practical importance.
For such distances, its chief value is that of a fascinating hobby which
may some day prove of value, since the combined use of piloting, dead
reckoning, and radio should ordinarily afford satisfactory results.
With the development of large transports capable of flying great
distances nonstop, longer and longer flights have been included in
air transportation schedules. Regular flights from the West coast
to the Orient are already commonplace, and a route across the North
Atlantic is now an accepted fact. For flights such as these celestial
navigation is not only practical, but necessary.
The Pacific route to the Orient, like the airways within the United
States, is equipped with the latest and best radio facilities. There
are those who believe that radio will always provide the leading
navigational method in air transportation, and probably they are
right. For oommunications it is a necessity, and for easy position
finding it is unexcelled; however, it is always possible that failure may
occur, either in transmission or reception, and celestial navigation
should be practiced in order to assure proficiency in such emergencies,
if for no other reason.
Efficient operation demands that long flights be made at high alti-
tudes, and a large percentage of such flights would be above any
overcast. This would prevent the direct determination of drift and
ground speed, and would make dead reckoning of doubtful value;
it would not affect radio, except in the event of complete failure or
oxcessive static, and it would not affect celestial navigation. For
longer flights, then, especially over ocean routes, celestial navigation
bocomes a primary method, and of a t least equal importance with
radio.
ACCURACY
The accuracy of tho results depends on the skill of the observer, the
instrumental equipment, and the conditions under which the sextant
observntions are tnlron. By means of astronomical observations a
surveyor on the stable earth can determine the geographic location of
his position within a few yards; on a ship at sea, position can usually be
dotermined within a mile or two. Under avcragc conditions in the air,
an accuracy of 5 to 10 milos should ordinarily be obtained, although
considerably greater-errors may occur with a light plane and bumpy
air.
Since a single obsorvation may bo greatly in error, it is common
prnctice to take from 5 to 10 observations in quick succession, and to
71
72 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

determine the line of position from the average of the observations.

Obviously, the better the flying conditions the smaller the number of
observations needed for a satisfactory determination.
SIMPLICITY
There is a widespread belief that celestial navigation is very diffi-
cult, and can be used only by experts. On the contrary the method is
very simple. I n the practice of celestial navigation the most difficult
part of the whole process is the taking of the sextant observation;
obviously, this is largely a matter of mechanical practice.
Aside from the observation with a sextant, three other steps are
necessary. The first is to note the exact time of the observation;
the second is to compute the line of position from the sextant observa-
tion and the time it was made; and the third is to plot the line of
position on the chart. An error of 4 seconds in notmg the time of
observation will produce a maximum error of only 1 mile in the line
of position; the computations have been reduced to simple arithmetic,
and the plotting of the position line on the chart is as simple as measur-
ing the course angle.
I n addition to the instruments ordinarily used in other methods of
navigation, the following equipment is required: Sextant, chronometer
(accurate watch), Nautical Almanac for the current year, and tables
for performing the necessary computations, such as the line of osition
table appearing in pages 167 to 181 of this book. A suitable orm for
computing the line of position is convenient, but is not absolutely
P
necessary.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Almost directly above the North Pole of the earth there is a fairly
bright star known to most people as the North Star. It is also called
t h e Pole Star, or, more properly, Polaris. Let us suppose that this
star were exactly over the North Pole: To an observer a t that point its
altitude, or angle of elevation above the horizon, would be 90°, or
exactly overhead (in the zenith). Now if the observer moves south-
ward for a distance of loo, to latitude 80°, the altitude of the star is
found to be 80°;from any point on this parallel, whether toward Asia
from the Pole or toward North America, the altitude is the same. The
80th parallel may therefore be called a circle of position, and all points
a t which the altitude of Polaris is 80' must be located somewhere on
that circle, and nowhere else.
Similarly, from any point in latitude 30°, when the observer is 60'
from the Pole, the altitude is 30' and the 30th parallel is another circle
of position; and so on until, a t the Equator, when the observer is 90°
from the Pole, the altitude of the star is Oo, and the Equator becomes the
farthest circle from which the star is visible.
From the foregoing we see that:
1. The point directly beneath the star is the center of a system of concentric
circles of position.
2. From every point on any given circle the altitude of the star is the same.
3. As we move away from the point directly beneath the star there is a decrease
in the altitiide of the star proportional to the distance moved; if we move away a
distance equal to 1' of latitude the altitude decreases 1'; if we move away 10'
further, the altitude decreases another lo', and so on.
4. In each instance the radius of the circle of position (that is, the distance of
the observer from the point beneath the star), is equal to 90' minus the observed
altitude.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 73
These principles hold true not only for a star directly over the pole,
but for all stars, and the relation between the observed altitude and
the corresponding circle of position is illustrated in figure 55. Evi-
dently, the smaller the altitude observed the greater the distance from
the point on the earth directly beneath the star.
Through lon familiarity with latitude we are accustomed to measur-
7
ing distances a ong a meridian, north and south, in terms of degrees
and minutes. We do not usually think of distances in other directions
in these terms, yet great-circle distances in any direction are always
computed in degrees and minutes, and then converted into nautical
miles, statute miles, meters, etc.
A chart may have a scale of distances in terms of degrees and
minutes of a great circle, just as it has B scale of distances in terms of
statute or nautical miles. If a small-scale chart (the scale of No.

I I

beneath star

PIQIJRE
55.--Relation between observed altitudes of a star and circles of position.

30608, or smaller) were provided with such a scale, it would be ossible

to plot on the chart, from the Nautica.1Almanac, the position {eneath
any star a t the instant of.observation; and with that point as a center
to draw the circle of position graphically, with a radius equal to 90'
minus the observed altitude, with no computations whatever. This
principle may rove of very practical value on special charts of the
8
route to the rient, the transatlantic routes, or even some of the
transcontinental routes.
We have seen that the observed altitude of a star definite1 deter-
mines a circle of position at a known distance from the point eneath
the star. If at the same time and place the altitude of a second star 1s
B
observed, a second circle of position is determined; since the observer
is on both circles, he must be a t a point where the two intersect. This
is illustrated in figure 56, which is a greatly reduced representation
88675--88--6
74 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

of chart No. 3060a. The positions of the stars observed (Vega and
Alphecca) at the moment of observation were plotted on the chart
from data in the Nautical Almanac; then with radius equal to 90'
minus the observed altitude in each case, the two circles of position
were drawn, determining the fix as shown. Note that the distance
between the top and bottom parallals of the chnrt is 2 5 O , the lengths
of the radii being laid off proportionately a t the same scale.
From the figure it may be seen that the two circles of position would
also intersect just outside the southern border of the chart. For
every pair of intersecting circles there must be two points of intersec-
tion; this is not confusing, however, since the two points are usually
far enough apart that one of them may be dismiseed as impossible.
In the problem illustrated, the poorest navigator, somewhere in
Nevada, should be able to know a t once that he was not in Mexico,
1,500 miles nway. When using larger scale charts for this purpose, the

FIQURE66.-Two circles of position establish location.

radius of the circle of position is often too long for the limits of the
chart and the circle of position cannot be drawn as just described; the
procedure must therefore be slightly modified.
To determine a circle of position on the larger scale charts, the
navigator starts with an assumed position, A, figure 57, which may be
either his dead reckoning position or a nearby projection intersection.
From the line of position table (pp. 167 to 181)he computes the azimuth
and the altitude of the star as it would have been observed from the
assumed position a t the instant of observation. Let us suppose that
the computed azimuth of the star is 250' and the computed altitude
36'49': the line A2 is plotted from A, and represents the azimuth of
the observed body; in reality it is the end section of a radius of the
circle of position on which the point. A was located a t the instant of
observation, and the line LP, a t right angles thereto, is a short section
of that circle. Now suppose that the altitude actually observed was
37': this is 11' greater than the altitude computed for the assumed
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 75
position and we know, therefore, from page 73, that the observation
must have been taken a t some point on a circle of position 11’ closer
to the star than the circle of which LP is a part. Therefore, a distance
equal to 11’ of lntitude is laid off along AZ, toward the star, and the
line L’P’ (at right angles to A 2 and parallel to LP) is a short section
of the circle of position on which the navigator was located when the
observation was made. I n such cases the radius of the circle of
position is so long that the short sections of circumference may be
drawn as straight lines without appreciable error. Such a short
section is commonly called a line of position.
I n practice, of course, it is not necessary to draw the line LP; the
altitude difference (see p. 83) is simply laid off from the assumed or
dead reckoning position along the plotted azimuth, and a line a t right
angles thereto through the point so obtained is the desired line of
position.
As in the case of a radio line of position (p. SS), a line of position
from a single star does not definitely determine position; it determines
only a line a t some point
on which the observer
was located a t the in-
stant of o b s e r v a t i o n .
I n order to obtain a fix,
lines of position from
two or more stars must
be obtained; since the
observer is somewhere
on each line of position,
he must be located a t
their common point of
i n t e r s e c t i o n . When Lp = Line of position through assumed position
three lines of position 36’ 4 9 = Altitude computed for assumed position
are plotted they seldom 37” 00’ Altitude observed
meet in a point, because 11’ = Difference between observed and computed altitudes
of inaccuracies of o b
s e r v a t i o n : instead, a
-
L’P‘ = Line of position through true Dosition
FIGURE 57.-The line of position on large scale charts.
triangle is iormed, and
the position may‘ be regarded as anywhere within the triangle.’
Although one line of position does not provide a fix, it may still
prove of real value. For example, if the line is approximately parallel
to the path of the plane, it informs the pilot as to whether or not he is
on course; if the line of position is approximately a t right nnglos to the
track it furnishes a definite check on the distance mnde good, and also
on the ground speed. A single line of position from celestial observa-
tions inny also be combined with a radio line of position in order to
obtain a fix.
In celestial navigation, ns in other methods, the projection of the
chart is of no little importance. When the difference between the
observed nnd computed nltitudes is comparatively large, as is fre-
quently the case in the nir, additional error is introduced by the use
of unsuitable projections. Due to the accuracy of the Lambert
1 The most prohahle position of the observer is often outside the triangle formed by the three lines of
position. I n air navigntion, however, the exact solution of this “triangle of error” is an unnecessary reflne-
ment, and for practiral purposes the position may he regarded BS anywhere within the triangle.
76 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

projection in representing azimuths, and the fact that a straight line

thereon very closely approximates the track of a great circle, error
from this source is almost entirely absent. The roperties of the
P
Lambert projection also make it particularly suitab e for the graphic
method of position finding from celestial observations, as suggested
above for small scale charts.
CELESTIAL COORDINATES
As we look at the night sky, it is as though a great bowl were
inverted over the earth, and the stars and other heavenly bodies were
fixed to its inner surface. This inverted bowl is referred to as the
celestial sphere; it has a sys-
tem of coordinates which cor-
respond closely with those of
the terrestrial sphere, although
the names are different. The
easiest way to become thor-
oughly familiar with the celes-
tial coordinates is to compare
them with the familiar terres-
trial terms.
The earth rotates on its
axis, the extremities of the
axis being known as the North
and South Poles, respe,ctively.
Halfway between the poles,
an imaginary plane porpen-
dicular to the axis cuts the
surface of the earth in a line
-
P,P' the celestial poles.
known as the equator. The
terrestrial axis and equator
V - the vernal equinox, or "celestial Greenwich. are considered as extended to
meet the celestial sphere, their
Declination i s measured:
North of the equator (+), or intersections therewith being
South of the equator (-). known as the north and south
Right Ascension is measured from V toward the east,
celestial Doles and the celestial
A

t r o m Oh up to 24h. equator. As the earth rotates

FIGURE 68.-The celestial sphere.
daily from west to east on its
axis. there results an apparent
rotation of the celestial sphere from east to west, on the axis passing
through the celestial poles.
On the earth, latitude is reckoned from 0' at the Equator to 90°
north latitude at the North Pole and 90° south latitude a t the South
Pole; on the celestial sphere latitude is known as declination. The
distance north or south of the celestial equator is known-as north or
south declination; as with terrestrial latitude, declination 1s expressed
in degrees, minutes, and seconds. North declination is pften desig-
nated as plus (+),while south declination is known as mlnus (-).
The longitude of a point on the earth is usual1 referred to the
9
meridian of Greenwich as a zero point; on the ce estial. sphere the
zero point if known as the veFal equinox, or the first point of Aries.
For convemence, this point IS often designated by the symbol T ,
 Terrestrial sphere Celestial sphere

North Pole
South Pole
Equator
______________ ________
______________
____________
.__

_________
~
__

_____
_____
~
__ __ _
~ North
South
_ _ _ _Equator.
I
- - - Pole.
--
__--__.
-__.
Pole.
---.---

___ ______ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
~

Latitude. . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.--- _- __. .Declination; north declination (+)

0 to 90" north of Equator .-...-.
' --------- (Dee.) '0 to 90° north of celes'tial equator.
south declination (-),
'0 to 90' south of Equator. _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - 0"-to-
Silo
.- south of celestial equator.
Longitude; reckoned from Greenwich (a)..-.Right Ascension; reckoned from vernal equinox, or flrst
(RA) point of Aries ('7').
O O t o 180" east or west of a..... _----_-.--. Oh to 24h east of T.
O h to 12h east or west of f3.
UrfA. Greenwich Hour Angle; difference of longitude be-
tween the point directly beneath the celestial body
and the meridian of Greenwich.
L I I A . Local Hour Angle. difference of lonnltude hetween
the point directl; beneath the bcdy and the ob-
server's meridian.

THE ASTRONOMICAL TRIANGLE

It is not essential that pilots understand, or even read, this section
on the astronomical triangle. It is presented here for the benefit of
those who wish to knqw the mathematical principles involved in com-
puting the line of position, but the explanation presented elsewhere in
this text is sufficient for practlcal purposes.
In spherical trigonometry, if any three parts of a triangle are
known (whether sides .or an les), the remaining three arts may be
i;
computed. The position o the star on the celestia sphere, the
latitude and longitude of the assumed or dead reckoning position, and
P
the time of the observation, provide us with the data needed-to
compute the astronomical triangle and to obtain the data for the h e
I The ecliptic isthe intersection of the plane of the earth's orbit m ith the celestial sphere (see fig. 58).
78 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURmY

of position. This is illustrated in figure 59, which shows the celestial

poles, P and P’, the Equator, and the horizon. The earth is a tiny
dot a t the center of the celestial sphere, and 2 is the zenith, or the
point directly above the assumed or dead reckoning position of the
observer.
The circumference PZP’ represents the meridian passing through
the assumed position of the observer, and the arc PS IS a portion of
the meridian passing through the observed star S. The angle be-
tween these two meridians ZPS is the local hour angle, and the angle
PZS is the azimuth of the star from the assumed position. Some
students can visualize the triangle more readily if they think of it as
projected down upon the earth; in this case P becomes the terrestrial
pole, Z the assumed or dead reckoning position of the observer, and S
the point directly beneath the star.
The arc from the Equator to the star is the declination of the star,
and is known from the Nautica.1 Almanac. It is also known that

69.-The astronomical triangle.

FIQUBE

the arc from the Equator to the pole is 90°. Therefore, the side
SP =90O -declination
Since 2 is the point directly above the assumed or dead reckoning
position of the observer, the declination of the point Z is the same as
the assumed latitude, and the side ZP=9O0-1atitude.
The locd hour angle of tbe star may be known by combining the
Greenwich hour angle of the star a t the instant of observation (found
in the Nautical Almanac), and the assumed or dead reckonmg
longitude of the observer.
From these three known parts, two of the remaining parts of the
triangle are computed: the azimuth of the star, PZS,. from the as-
sumed position of the observer; and the side SZ, wlmh 1s the dlstance
from the star to the assumed position, or the radius of the circle of
position through the assumed position. I n figure 59, it 1s seen that
the arc from the horizon to the zenith 2 is 90°, and the computed
altitude (H,) of the star is therefore equal to 90°-SZ.
a If the star were south of the Equator (in south declination), the side 9P-W0+dec1ination.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 79
In order to save as much time as possible, the line of position table
(pp. 167 to 181) is so arranged that it may be entered directly with
the declination of the star and the latitude of the assumed position
(instead of 90' minus these quantities, as might be supposed,from the
above explanation) ; also, the computed altitude is obtained directly
instead of the side SZ.
Unless the navigator happened to be exactly on the circle of position
passing through the assumed or dead reckoning position when the
sextant observation was made, the computed altitude will differ from
the altitude observed. The altitude difference and the computed
azimuth provide all the data needed for plotting the line of position,
as illustrated in figure 57. If the observed altitude is greater than the
computed altitude, the plane was toward the star from the assumed
position, and the altitude difference is therefore laid off toward the
star; if the observed altitude was less, the plane was further away
than the assumed position. (See fig. 5 5 . )
THE SEXTANT OBSERVATION
Before actually making the sextant observation the navigator should
be able to identify the star observed. It is as impossible to compute
and plot on the chart a line of position from an unknown star, as to
plot a radio bearing from an unknown radio station. The identifica-
tion of the stars and planets is not difficult, and is treated a t the end
of this chapter (pp. 96 to 98).
I t is also important to select for observation stars that are favorably
situated for the problem under consideration. The value of a line of
position from a star directly along the line of flight, or from n star
directly to the right or left of the aircraft, has already been pointed
out (p. 75). The more nearly two position lines are a t right anqles to
each other, the more accurate 1s the fix obtained. An intersectlon a t
an angle of less than 30' is not desirable, although even this may prove
of value in an emergency. Whenever possible, then, stars (or other
bodies) should be observed which differ in azimuth by approximately
90'; if a t dl possible, they should dlffer in azimuth by not less than 30'.
Because of the varying effect of refraction (p. 80) on the observation
of a star near the horizon, the bodies selected should also be a t least
15' above the horizon, if possible.
For celestial navigation by day there is, of course, little choice
among the heavenly bodies. The sun is available, and, at times, the
moon. A t night, however, we have our choice of the stars, usiially
of one or more of the planets, and, about half the time, of the moon.
The moon, and the planets Venus and Jupiter, are so much brighter
than the stars and are so easily identified that-they tempt the beginner.
With the present arrangement of tho Nautical Almanac the computa-
tion of a line of position from one of these bodios is only slightly more
difficult than for the stars, and requires very litstle more timo; all
should be used from t k e to time as a matter of practice, in order to
be able to use them quickly and with confidence if the need should
arise.
The soxtant observation is probably the most difficult step in the
ractice of celestial navigation. Certainly, it is the most important.
g o matter how accurate the computations, B line of position based on
an inaccurate observation is still inaccurate.
80 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

Sextants are of various types, some making use of the natural (sea)
horizon, others making use of an artificial horizon formed by a bubble
level. Most bubble sextants can also be used with the natural hori-
zon, if desired. In some sextants the eyepiece is to be pointed directly
at the celestial body, while in others the eyepiece is always horizontal,
and the body observed is reflected through an arrangement of mirrors.
In any case, good sextant observations are largely a matter of practice
and of thorough familiarity with the instrument.
The bubble sextant is generally used in air navigation, since the
natural sea horizon is often not available because the plane is over
land, or above clouds or haze, or because the horizon is obscured by
darkness.
After the observations are made and recorded, several corrections
must be applied. One of these is for the index error of the instrummt
itself. Obviously, .if the instrument does not indicate zero properly,
a correction for this error must be applied t o all observations. It is
often possible to adjust the sextant so that it does correctly indicate
zero, and this correction becomes unnecessary. The method of ad-
justment will not be discussed here, since it is assumed that any one

-@j::
who purchases an instrument will receive with
pS’ it complete instructions on its care and adjust-
’ *s ment. In the absence of detailed instructions
..... ..:: for the adjustment of a particular sextant, gen-
” ., .;
: ‘.,’:; . .. .
.. ::. :. ,at
‘
;.~,::::~~~.
.~..:.:....:...:.;.‘...i
.
’,
era1 instructions of a very practi.ca1 nature are
..: . . o ~ H contained in The American Practical Navigator
..::.o.. (Rowditc,h), published by the United States
Hydrographic Office. The correction for index
error, if any, is usually abbreviated as I. C.
If the natural horizon is used in taking the
sextant observation (instead of the artificial
. FIGURE BO.-Refrsotion.
bubble horizon), a correction must be applied
for dip, or the height of eye of the observer.
(See p. 99.) This is made necessary because the aviator sees a horizon
further away, “over the rim” of the round earth, and hence lower than
the horizon he would see if his eye were at the surface.
When the natural horizon is used for an observation on the sun or
moon, the altitude is taken when the reflection of the upper or lower
edge (the “upper limb” or the “lower limb”) of the body, is brought
into contact with the horizon. Since the altitude of the center of the
body is re uired, it is clear that a correction for the semidiameter
1
(half the iameter) of the body must be applied. Consequently,
the semidiameter of the sun and of the moon for various dates appears
on each page of the Nautical Almanac devoted to these bodies. If
the lower limb is observed, the semidiameter must be added in order
to find the altitude of the center; if the upper limb is observed, the
semidiameter must be subtracted. Ordinarily the sun’s lower limb
is observed, and the corrections for semidiameter, refraction, and
parallax are combined into one table (table A, p. 99).
Additional corrections must be made for refraction and, in the case
of the moon, for parallax. I n one sense, it is immaterial whether the
student understands the the0 of these corrections or not; a table is
7
always given in the Nautica Almanac and in many navigational
tables (p. loo), in which these items are combined into one correction
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 81
for any observed altitude. Z t s application is very simple. For the
benefit of those who wish to understand the principles mvolved, the
following brief explanation of these two corrections is given in small
type; it may be passed over without reading, if desired.
I n figure 60, the earth is represented, P and P‘ being the poles; HH is the
horizon of an observer at 0, S the star observed. A ray of light from the star to
the observer is bent by the effect of the earth’s atmosphere, much the same as a
stick partly submerged in water appears to bend where it enters the water. As
a result of refraction, a star always appears to the observer to be slightly higher
than it really is, at S’ rather than at S, and the angle of elevation measured is
always too large. As the star approaches the horizon its light must pass through
a thicker section of the earth’s atmosphere ( O H ) , at a more oblique angle than
when i t is near the zenith ( O Z ) ; consequently, the correction for refraction is
greatest for bodies near the horizon and decreases with the altitude of the observed
body above the horizon.
The correction for parallax is illustrated in figure 61, in which the circle repre-
sents the earth, P, P‘ the poles of $he earth, and M the moon. For an observer
at 0 the altitude of the moon is represented by the angle h; but to be used for
position determination all altitudes must be reduced to the horizontal plane
through the center of the earth, where the altitude is h’. The difference between
the two angles, h’-h, is the parallax.* By geometry it can be shown that the
angle at M=h’-h, and therefore represents the parallax; it is the angle formed
at the observed body by
lines to the observer’s posi- 1
tion and to the center of M
the earth. From the figure
it is evident that as the dis-
tance of the celestial body
from the earth increases, the
angle at M (parallax) be-
comes smaller. Parallax is
of navigational importance
only in the case of the moon,
which is commrativelv

F7
near the earth;* the suh
and planets are, far enough Earth
from the earth that paral-
lax is negligible, while the
stars are at such infinite -
distances that it disappears FIGPRE 61.-Parallax.
altogether.
From figure 61 it may also be seen that the angle a t M is reatest
when the body is near the horizon and decreases to zero w en the
body is overhead. The parallax when the body is a t the horizon is
a
referred to as the horizontal parallax. I n the Nautical Almanac, at
the bottom of each page devoted to the moon there is tabulated the
moon’s horizontal parallax for each day. When using the table of
bubble sextant corrections for the moon (p. 101),the combined correc-
tion for refraction and parallax is found in the column under the hori-
zontal parallax for that date, and opposite the observed altitude.
While considerable time has been used in explaining these correc-
tions, with a little practice they can be taken from the tables and
applied in a very few moments with little possibility of error.
FORMS FOR COMPUTATION
A standard form for computing the line of position is not abso-
lutely necessary; however, for convenience, speed, aiid accuracy, a
blank form is very desirable. One of the chief advantages of using
4 -4s used In celestial nevigatlon.
82 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

a form is that it reduces the entire operation to a routine procedure

which may be followed through correctly, even though the navigator
has forgotten all the reasons why. The successive steps are presented
in order, and the processes of addition or subtraction are clearly
indica ted.
Figure 62 shows one such form, especially designed for use with the

z d
c

-
m

line of position table appearing in pages 167 to 181. For other tables,
of course, other forms are more suitable.
I n the upper left corner of the form two rules are included, as a con-
venient reminder; their application will be discussed later. The only
other rules required are the two which appear a t the top of the pages
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 83
of the table itself. Below the rules on the form, spaces are provided
for recording the date, the time, and the star or other body observed.
I n the upper right corner, space is provided for recording a series
of as many as 10 sextant observations. The abbreviation GCT stands
for Greenwich civil time, while H8 is the altitude (Height) actually
measured with the sextant. The other quantities and abbreviations
on the form are briefly defined in the tabulation below.
They wil be explained more fully in the succeeding section, "Com-
appear
puting the line of position."
GHA, Oh=The Greenwich hour angle of the observed body at O h (midnight)
GCT; taken from the Nautical Almanac.
Corr.=Corrections from the Nautical Almanac, t o be added t o the GHA for
O h in order to find the GHA for the exact time of observation.
Long.=The longitude of the assumed or dead reckoning position.
LHA=The local hour angle; obtained by combining the GHA and the longi-
tude assumed.
Dec.=The declination of the observed body; taken from the Nautical
Almanac.
K = An auxiliary part introduced to facilitate solution of the astronomical
triangle, but of no importance in itself.
L=The latitude of the assumed or dead reckoning position.
KNL=Obtained by combining K and latitude in accordance with the rules at
tho top of the form.
H,=The computed altitude of the observed body; thiR is the exact altitude
of the body for the assumed position a t the instant of observation.
H,=The altitude observed at the actual position of the observer; the sex-
tant altitude corrected for index error, refraction, etc.
a = The difference between the observed and computed altitudes; often
called the intercept, or altitude difference.
Z=The azimuth of the observed body, reckoned from true north up t o
180' toward the east or west (in the Northern Hemisphere) .6
Z,=Thc azimuth of the observed body reckoned in the conventional way;
clockwise from true north, from Oo up to 360'.
COMPUTING THE LINE OF POSITION
Figure 62 records all the data actually obtained b observation,
for a series of 10 bubble sextant altitudes of the star A tair; figure 63
shows the complete solution for a line of position from the recorded
fi
data. At first glance it may look somewhat complicated, but with
a little practice the complete solution should require no more than
3 to 5 minutes.
Opposite each observed altitude of the series, the Greenwich civil
time (see p. 84) of the observation is recorded; since the average
altitude and the average time of the series are used in computing
the line of position, these quantities are averaged by adding each
column and then dividing the totals by the numbor of observations.
The average sextant alt,itude is next corrected for any index error,
and a combined correction for refraction and parallax (if any) is
applied from the table on page 100 (p. 101, if the moon is observed),
when using a bubble sextant. When using the natural horizon, the
correction for height of eye must be applied, and a combined correc-
tion for refraction, parallax, and semidiameter is applied from the
tables on pages 99 and 102. The corrected sextant altitude is con-
sidered as the observed altitude H,,, and is used to determine the
altitude difference a, at the bottom of the form.
The navigator's watch should be set to keep Greenwich civil time,
and should be reset or checked at least once every day by radio time
1 If the navigator were south of tho Equator, 2 as taken from the tsbls would he reckoned from the south,
from '0 to 180" toward the east or west.
84 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

signals. Greenwich civil time as used in navigation is simply the

standard time at Greenwich, the only difference being that it is
reckoned from 0 (at midnight) to 24 hours each day, instead of 0 to
12 and then repeating. Thus, 2:40 . m. would be written as 14h40m.
%
For some purposes, as in coded weat er reports, this would be written
as 1440; 8:20 a. m. would be written as 0820.

Y
E
P

It should be noted that the form is dated June 10, but the GCT
recorded is for June 11. The civil time where the observations were
made (about longitude 83'30') was about 10:26 p. m. (=22h26m),
eastern standard time, but the time a t Greenwich was approximately
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 85
5 hours later, nearly 3% hours past midnight and hence June 11.
When this situation exists it should be noted on the form, to avoid
any possibility of taking the values from the Nautical Almanac for
the wrong day.
After recording and correcting the sextant observations, the next
step is to determine the Greenwich hour angle (GHA) of the body at
the instant of observation. This is to be taken from the Nautical
Almanac, and the method of obtaining it under all circumstances
may best be illustrated by workin out the GHA for a star, the sun
the moon, and a planet, from tfle sample pa es of the Nauticai
8
Almanac, pages 99 to 112. I n each case, the G T of the problem of
figure 63 will be used, namely 3h26m22nGCT, June 11, 1938. Once
the GHA is obtained, the computation is identical, whether the
observed body be sun, moon, star, or planet.
Example 1.-GHA of Altair. From the table on page 103 we find the GHA for
Oh GCT on June 11. From the table on page 104 we find the corrections to be
added to the GHA of a star for 3h26m,and for 22*;adding these corrections we
find the GHA for the day and hour required.
GHA, Oh 321' 4314
Corr. 3h 26" 51 38.5
Corr. 22# 5.5
373" 2714
-360
GHA, 3' 26" 22' 13' 2714
Example 2.-GHA of the sun. From the table on page 105 we find the GHA for
2hGCT on Saturday, June 11. From the table on pa e 106 we find the corrections
for lh26m,and for 22.. Adding these, the required 8 H A is obtained.
GHA, 2; 00" 210' 1110
Corr. 1 26" 21 30.0
Corr. 22' 5.5
GHA, 3h 26" 22' 231' 4615
Example 3.-GHA of the moon. From the table on page 107 we find the GHA
for 3h GCT on June 11. From the table of Multiples of Variation per Minute,
in small type just to the right on the same page, we obtain the corrections to be
added for 20m, and for 6"; the correction for 220 is a little more than one third
(22/60)of the correction for 1". Adding these corrections, the required GHA is
obtained.
GHA, 3h 00" 66' 57I2
Corr. 20" 290.2
Corr. 6" 87.1
Corr. 22' 5.3
66'439I8, or
GHA, 3h 26" 22' 73' 1918
The corrections just applied are considered only approximate, and special
tables are also provided in the Nautical Almanac for finding the GHA of the
moon with greater precision; however, the method just iven is sufficiently ac-
curate for air navigation and in this way the GHA of &e moon can be found
complete on one page. !For this problem the more precise method differs from
the approximate results b only 0.06.
Example 4.-GHA of Lpiter. From the table on page 108 we find the GHA
for O h GCT on June 11, and note also that the "variation per minute" is 1510397,
The corrections to be added to the GHA of a planet are tabulated under the
variation per minute, the corrections for hours on Page 109, and the corrections
for minutes and seconds on page 110. The correction for a variation of 15I0897
niea 0.7 of the way between the corrections tabulated for 151039 and 151040.
For a h this correction is determined an 45'7I1. For 26m, the desired correction
86 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

lies q.97 of t h e way between the values for 15103 and 15104, and is determined as
6'31. T h e correction for 220 is found in the column at t h e right of t h e same
page. Adding these corrections we find the GHA for the day a n d hour required.
GHA, Oh 284' 16I2
Corr. 3h 45 7.1
Corr. 26" 6 31.0
Corr. 22' 5.5
GHA, 3h 26" 22' 335' 5918
Having found the GHA from the Nautical Almanac, the local hour
angle (LHA) is found by combining the GHA and the longitude of
the dead reckoning or assumed position. Since both are referred to
Greenwich as the zero meridian this should present no difficulty;
however, as an aid to clear understanding of the problem, the circle
(time diagram) on the work sheet is usually filled in. The blank

a. Star west of the observer and

west of the meridian of Greenwich
LHA = GHA - longitude

b. Star east of the observer and

west of the meridian of Greenwich
LHA = longitude - GHA

C. Star east of the observer and

east of the meridian of Greenwich
LHA = 360'- GHA + longitude

M
FIQUBE
M.-Deterrninlng the local hour angle (LHA).

form shows only the circle, and the radius PM (see fig. 62). The
circle represents the earth as i t would appear looking straight down
upon it from a point over the pole. P is the pole and the circum-
ference represents the equator; PM is the meridian passing through
the position of the observer. For the problem illustrated in figure
63, the longitude of the assumed position is 83'30' west; the meridian
of Greenwch PQ can therefore be drawn in, about 83' east of M .
The GHA of the star was about 1 4 O , and the meridian passing through
the star PS can therefore be drawn, the angle GPS being approxi-
mately 14'. The GHA is always measured from the meridian of
Greenwich in the direction indicated by the arrow. The angle MPS
is the LHA.
The LHA is measured from 0' to 180' east or west from the
observer's meridian. It is desirable t o note on the work sheet whether
the LHA is east or west of the observer, to avoid error in la ing off
the altitude difference a toward or away from the star. $or the
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 87
same reason, it is desirable to estimate the azimuth of the body upon
completing the sextant observations.
For an observer in the United States (that is, in west longitude)
three conditions for obtaining the LHA are possible; these are illus-
trated in figure 64, with the operation required for obtaining the LHA
in each case. The problem illustrated in figure 63 is similar to case
b in the figure.
The declination of the star, or other body, is taken from the Nautical
Almanac. For a star, the change in declination is so slight that it is
given only for each month (see p. 103). For a planet the declination
is tabulated for Oh of each day, with the difference between successive
days indicated (see p. 108) ; if the change is great enough to warrant, a
correction can be applied for the time elapsed since Oh, just as with
the GHA, and special tables are provided in the Nautical Almanac
for this purpose. For the sun, declination is tabulated a t intervals of
2h for each day (see pp. 105,106); the maximum change in declination
for the 2-hour period 1s only about 2’, and it is easy to interpolate for
any intervening period. The declination of the moon is given for
every hour, and in smaller >ype to the right is given the variation
per minute, so that correction for any period is quickly made (see
p. 107).
Along with the degrees and minutes of declination, it should be
noted whether the body is north ( N ) or south ( S ) of the equator,
and when “K” is found it should be named N or S, according as the
declination is N or S. See rule a t top of form: “Give K same name
as declination.’’ K is an auxiliary part of the triangle needed for the
solution, but of no importance in itself.
The corrections to the sextant altitude, and the data obtained from
the Nautical Almanac (LHA, declination, etc.), are preliminary steps.
They supply the data needed for the actual computation, which is the
simplest part of the whole problem; it may be performed by means
of the Line of Position Table (pp. 167 to 181).
The Line of Position Table is an abridged form of the “Dead
Reckoning Altitude and Azimuth Table,” prepared by Lieut. Arthur
A. Ageton, United States Navy, and published by the United States
Hydrographic Office as H. 0. No. 211. It is reproduced here by the
courtesy of that Bureau. Those desiring further information as to
the derivation and other uses of the table are referred to the original
publication.
One should not be misled by the phrase “dead reckoning” which
appears in the name of the table,.since it has no application to navign-
tion by that method; rather, it signifies that the computation may be
made from the dead reckoning position as readily as from any other
position. This feature is more important than is at first apparent.
Although there are other tables which yield a solution with a slight
saving in time and figures, with those tables a position must be
arbitrarily assumed such that the table may be entered with a whole
degree. The data for the line of position may be obtained in a trifle
less time, but before it can be drawn on the chart the additional
position assumed for convenient use of the tables must be plotted,
consuming whatever time may have been saved in computing. With
the table beginning o? page 167, the dead reckoning positmionor any
convenient projection intersection may be used for the computation;
since both of these appear on the chart the line of position oan be
plotted m o d quickly.
 88 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

The table itself is very short and no interpolation is necessary; the

few rules required are ever before the p i l o t e i t h e r on the pages of the
table itself or on the work form-and the procedure is pract'ically
uniform under all conditions. Many of the other "short methods"
are very good, and have certain advantages; however, for the reasons
given it is believed that this method is entirely satisfactory for the
most experienced navigator, and the best yet available for the student.
It has already been remarked that the use of the table for com-
puting the altitude (H,) and azimuth (2)is the simplest part of the
whole problem. For each degree and minute up to 180' there are
listed in separate columns an A value and a B value. The values
given are sufficiently accurate without interpolation. The work con-
sists only in copying down these values and adding or subtracting as
indicated on the standard form. To illustrate, we will follow through
the roblem of figure 63.
Tge LHA is determined as 70'3', and the A value for that angle is
copied from the table in the space indicated on the form.
Next the B value for 8'42' (declination to the nearest whole min-
ute) is copied in the space indicated, and the corresponding A value
is written in the next column.
As indicated on the form, the first column is added, and totals
3191 ; this is shown on the form as an A value. We run through the
tables until 3192 (the number nearest 3191) is found in the A column
and take out the corresponding B value, which is written in columna
2 and 3, the A value being repeated in column 4.
Now the subtraction required in column 2 is performed, obtain-
ing 38817; the value nearest this number is found in the A columns
of the table, and the degrees and minutes under which it is found
are entered a t the left of the form as the value of K. The value of K
is found a t the to of the column or at the bottom of the column in
K
. accordance with t e rule at the top of the ages of the table.
P
K is then combined with L, and the B va ue corresponding to K- L
is entered in column 3 and the required addition performed. The
number nearest this result is found in the A columns of the table,
a
and the correspondin B value entered in column 4; a t the top of
the same column in t e table there is read the number of degrees,
and at the left the minutes, of the computed altitude, which is now
,entered in the form as H,.
The difference between H, and H, is recorded a t a, and the word
toward or away is entered on the form, according as the actual
position is toward the star from the assumed position, or away from
it. (See p. 73.)
Finally, the subtraction indicated in the fourth column is per-
formed and the d value corresponding to the azimuth 2 is found.
The value of 2 is taken from the tables in accordance with the rule
at the top of the pages of the table-and the data for the line of
position have been computed.
The azimuth obtained in the problem of figure 63 is N. 96'22' E,
which means that the body is 96'22' toward the east from true
north. An azimuth of N. 96'22' W means that the body is 96'22'
toward the west from true north.
Below Z there is a space for Z,, the azimuth from the north reckoned
in the conventional wa , from 0' to 360' (see p. 29). An azimuth
of N. 96'22' W. c o u d b e entered in this space 8s 263'38'. This
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 89
conversion is optional with the navigator, snd need not be made
unless the first form is confusing.
The process of computing a line of position is not nearly as difficult
nor as time consumin8 as it sounds when put into words. Students
may prove this to their own satisfaction by working out a few prac-
tical examples.
There are several short-cut methods for obtaining the data for a
line of pogition. For example, there are mechanical computers,
on which the observed data and the information from the Nautical
Almanac can be set up, and the answer can then be read directly
from the instrument. B their use, some slight saving in time is
effected, and any possibilt of error in arithmetic is removed; but
I
it is as possible to set up t e data erroneously, on the computer, as
to make a mistake in arithmetic, and in either case the results are
worthless.
Another short cFt is found in the use of precomputed altitudes.
By this method, usmg the best data available, the probable positions
of the plane along a rojected route are determined b dead reckoning,
P
for a series of regu ar time intervals. The altituLs and azimuths
of the bodies selected for observation on the flight are then computed
for the dead-reckoning positions and the corresponding tiines. These
altitudes are then lotted in the form of a graph, against the proper
B
time intervals, an a smooth curve is drawn through the points so
obtained. The computed azimuths aro each plotted on the chart
of the route, from the dead reckoning positions to which they apply.
(See pp. 141 to 144.)
This method affords no saving in labor; its one advanta e is that
7
the labor is performed on the ground, before taking off, eaving a
minimum of work to be performed in the air. The procedure while
in flight ma be outlined as follows:
Having ottained the corrected.sestant altitude and noted the time
of observation, as already described, read from the graph the pre-
computed altitude for the same time. The difference between the
precomputed altitude and the observed altitude is the altitude differ-
ence (intercept) required for plottkg the line of position.
If the time of observation coincides with one of the dead reckoning
positions chosen for computing the curve, the azimuth is already
plotted on the chart, and it is only necessary to lay off the altitude
difference, from the dead reckoning position toward or away from the
body according as the observed altitude is greater or less than the
recomputed altitude. If the time of observation happens to fall
getween two of the dead reckoning positions used for the com utations,
P
a new dead reckoning position corresponding to the time o observa-
tion is plotted on the chart, and the azimuth is laid off by eye, in a
direction roughly parallel to or intermediate between the azimuths
lotted from the nearby. positions; the altitude difference is then
raid off as before, to obtam the line of osition. If curves are pre-
P
computed and plotted for two or more ce estial bodies, lines of position
from each can be most quickly plotted, as already described, and
t,heir intersection fixes the position of the plane.
Any difference between the actual position of the plane and the
dead reckoning position does not affect the accurac of the line of
B
position, provided only that the azimuth and altitu e difference are
83573-38-7
90 7-. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

laid off from the dead reckoning position on the plotted route as
determined from the original data used in precomputing the altitude
curve.
If desired, the corrections for index error, refraction, etc., can
be applied to the precomputed altitudes, with reversed signs, when
plotting the curve. In this way, sextant altitudes can be used
directly as read from the instrument, still further reducing the work
required while in the air.
Perhaps the simplest method of all is provided by the “star altitude
curves.” In this method, intersecting circles of position from two
or more stars are printed on the same graph; the altitudes of the
stars for which the curves have been drawn are observed in quick
succession, and the Greenwich sidereal time of the observations
recorded. It is then necessary only to note the point of intersection
of the curves corres onding to the two altitudes observed, and read
P
from the margins o the graph the latitude of the observer’s position
and the local sidereal time at that place. Combined with the Green-
wich sidereal time by ordinary arithmetic, the local sidereal time
affords the longitude in terms of time; this may be converted to arc
by means of a special table in the Nautical Almanac, and the position
has been fixed with a minimum of time and almost no arithmetic.
This method is subject to the disadvantage that it cannot be used
by day and is available for only a few stars at night. For satisfactory
results, not more than a minute should elapse between the two altitude
observations; if more time does ela se, a method is provided for
carrying forward the curve oorrespon&ng to the first observation.
A LINE OF POSITION FROM POLARIS
I n the case of Polaris, a line of position may be obtained with very
little computation, the line of position being the parallel of latitude
on which the observer is located.
As suggested on page 72, the altitude of the celestial pole is equal
to the latitude of the place from which it is observed; however,
Polaris is not exactly at the pole, but moves about it in a small circle
with a radius of about 1’2I5. (See fig. 65.) Now if the altitude of
the pole is equal to the latitude, it is apparent that when Polaris is
directly above the pole the radius of 1’215 must be subtracted from
the altitude of the star in order to find the altitude of the ole-and
hence the latitude of the place. If the star is directly elow the
pole, the radius of 1’2I5 must be added to the altitude of the star
E
in order to obtain the altitude of the pole; if the star is directly to the
right or to the left of the pole, the altitude of the star is the same as
the altitude of the pole.
In the Nautical Almanac there is a special table (seep. 111) giving
the GHA of Polaris for Oh GCT for each day of the year. Just as
with any other star, a correction may be applied from the tables
illustrated on page 104 to obtain the GHA for the GCT of observation.
The LHA is then found, as before, by combining the GHA and the
longitude of the assumed position.
Having obtained the LHA, either east or west, the table on page 112,
from the Nautical Almanac, is entered and a correction obtained
which is to be added to or subtracted from the corrected sextant
6 Fur a discussion of ddereal time, see “Addltlonal Stars,” p. 94.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 91
altitude H,, as indicated. The result is the latitude of the observer,
which is most easily plotted on the chart as a line of position.
A line of position from Polaris (latitude) requires a minimum of
time; therefore, whenever this star is visible it might well be one
of the stars selected. When Polaris is chosen, the other star should
be as nearly due east or due west as possible. Another good practice
is to select a star directly before or behind the plane, and another
to one side; the first line of position in this case checks the progress
along the route, whilo the line from the second determines whether
or not the plane is tracking the intended route.
The process of taking and recording 5 to 10 sextant observations,
computing the data, and plotting the line of position on the chart
will probably require not less than 10 minutes. That is, after obtain-
ing one line of position about 10 minutes may elapse before a second
can be plotted on the chart. During this period a fast plane can
cover 30 to 35 miles, and the first line of position must be carried
Celestial pole
3
/
Polaris

0
0
/
0
0
/
/
/
0
0

~ ,,<Altitude of celestial pole

= Latitude of observer
Observer’s horizon

Earth
85.-Latitude from P o l ~ i s .
FIGURE

forward the course and distance made good by dead reckoning be-
tween the two observations, just as described in connection with
radio bearings, on page 64. Similarly, the resulting fis must be
carried forward the distance and direction made good aftor the
second observation, in order to obtain the current position of the
If Polaris is selected as the second star, the distance that the
[%%ne of position or the fix must be carried forward is reduced to a
minimum because of the shorter time required for computing and
plotting a line of position (latitude) from Polaris.
A LINE OF POSITION FROM AN UNIDENTIFIED STAR
A few stars, such as Sirius and Vega, possess such distinctive
characteristics that they could probably be identified, even if no
ot,her stars were visible; for the most part, however, a star is identified
by its osition with reference to known star groups (such as the
Great 8ipper) more than from its individual appearance
Assume that a transatlantic flight is in progress, and’that the
lane has been enveloped in clouds for several hours; the radio has
failed, and a position from celestial observations is urgently required.
Finally a break appears in the clouds and a single star of about the
brightness of Polaris (second magnitude) is seen for only a few minutes.
92 U. 8. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

In this brief interval, four sextant altitudes of the star are obtained,
but since the identity of the star is unknown, the necessary data for
computing the line of position cannot be taken from the Nautical
Almanac. By some method, the star milst be identified before the
line of position can be computed.
There are available several star finders, from which, after the

approximately ltriowm datu arc set up, the star niay be identified.
Perhaps the most accurate of these is The Ilude Star Finder arid
Identifier, published by the United States Hydrographic OEce as
H. 0. No. 2102a. There are also special Star Identification Tables,
H. 0. No. 127, by means of which the star may be identified with
but little difficulty.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 93
The line of position table (pp. 167 to 181) may be used for star iden-
tification, if desired. The method is basically simple, but, like most
other methods, it requires enough time that it would not be used in
air navigation except under extreme conditions.
The method consists essentially in workin the ordinary problem
backward in order to find the declination and L! IA of the star observed;
with these values approximately found, we can identify the star in the
Nautical Almanac, and the problem is then worked in the usual
way (as in fig. 63) to obtain the line of position. A convenient form
for the first part of the problem (the identification of the star) is
shown in figure 66, on which the problem just presented is worked
out.
As shown on the form, the mean time for the series of observations
was 23h42m GCT, September 9, 1938; the corrected sextant altitude
H,, was 25'33'; and the azimuth of the star was estimated as approxi-
mately 85' east of true north. The A value of the azimuth is added
to the B value of the corrected altitude, and the result A 4634.6 is
obtained (column 1). This total is repeated in column 4, and the
R value corresponding to this number is written in columns 2 and 3
as indicated. The subtraction re uired in column 2 is now per-
formed to obtain the A value of ;%.
K and L are combined (as in
fig. 63) and the B value of K - L added as indicated in column 3,
the result being the A value of the declination of the star observed;
the corresponding B value is then subtracted as required in column 4,
to obtain the A value of the LHA, which is marked east, from the
known direction of the star. The declination is marked north or
south in accordclnco with the rule appearing on the form.
On the circle (time diagram) which appears on the form, the
meridian of Greenwich is now drawn in, 30' east of 4.l (the observer's
meridian), and also the meridian of the star, a proximately 76' east
of M . From the relationshi ictured, the G 8 A is 360' minus the
an le GPS, and the angle GFE?is equal to the LHA minus the angle
G%M (longitude); hence the GHA is 313' 35'.
76" 25' LHA 360" 00'
-30 0 long. -46 25 angle GPS
46" 25' angle GPS 313" 35' GHA
The GHA just obtained is for 23h42m GCT, and in the Nautical
Almanac the GHA is tabulated for Oh. In order to obtain the GE-IA
for Oh, the correction that would normally be added for 23h42mmust
be subtracted from the above:
GHA for 23b42m GCT, 9-9-38 313" 35' $360°=673" 3.5'
Corr. for 23h42m -356 28.4 -356 28.4
GHA for Oh, 9-9-38 317" 6!6
Since the correction is greater than the GHA, 360' must be added
to the latter before the subtraction can be performed. We now have
the GHA as about 317' and the declination as 22'23': in the Nautical
-4lmanac, under "Stars, So tember 1938," for September 9 we find
fI
the second magnitude star amal (a! Arietis) with a GHA of 316'26I9
and a declination of 23'1014. No other star even a proaches
these values, and it is therefore safe to assume that Hnma wns the I;
94 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

star observed. Its GHA and declination are entered on the form
shown in figure 63, and the line of position computed as illustrated
therein.
ADDITIONAL STARS
As already described, the Nautical Almanac in its present form
provides an easy method for finding the GHA of 55 stars. These
stars are so well distributed over the celestial spkiere that there is
seldom a time when there are not two or more available for observa-
tion, if conditions are at all favorable.
For those occasions when clouds may shut out the stars ordinarily
used, but still leave a fairly bright star visible here and there, the
Nautical Almanac gives the celestial coordinates (but not the GHA)
of 110 additional stars. In order to find the GHA of these stars we
must resort to sidereal time; this is usually confusing to the beginner,
and it is hoped that some day the GHA of these additional stars will
also be tabulated in the Nautical Almanac, making all reference to

67.-The dvil day and sidereal time. Less time I s requlred for rotatlon of the earth with raspect
FIOUBE
to a star than to the sun.

sidereal time unnecessary in air navigation. In the meantime, the

rules given below may be followed easily, although a knowledge of
sidereal time is helpful.
Ordinary civil time is based on the rotation of the earth with respect
to the sun,' the civil day being the period of time required for one
complete rotation. Sidereal time is also based on the rotation of the
earth, but a sidereal day is the period required for one complete rota-
tion with respect to the stars.
As illustrated in figure 67, a t the same time that the earth rotates
on its axis it is also traveling along its orbit around the sun, at the
rate of almost a degree a day (360O in approximately 365 days).
Since the nearest star is so much farther away than the sun, there
is no appreciable difference in the direction of a star throughout the
year, while the direction of the sun changes from day to day. Thus,
the solid earth and the sun (fi . 67) are in direct line with a distant
7
star, which we will suppose is ocated exactly at the verna! equinox,
or first point of Aries. As the point on the earth whwh is directly
toward the sun and star begins to rotate, the civil day and the side-
real day for that point begin simultaneously. The dotted earth
marks its position near the end of the civil day, about '1 further
along in its orbit. I t has already completed one rotation with re-
spect to the distant star, but must turn almost another degree to
7 Strictly speaking, with raqpect to the mean sun.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 95
complete one rotation with respect to the sun. It is evident, then,
that the civil day is longer than the sidereal day, the difference
amounting to about 396’.
An important distinction to remember is that a sidereal time inter-
val is always less than a civil time interval, but when used for angular
measure (GHA or LHA) the two are e ual. I n both cases a com-
plete circumference of 360° is equal to 24 . s,
If the additional stars referred to are to be used, the simplest
method is to carry an additional chronometer rated to sidereal time
for the meridian of Greenwich. I n this case, the Greenwich
sidereal time (GST) of the observation is recorded, instead of the
GCT, and the GHA is found from the equation GHA=GST-RA
(right ascension of the star). This relationship is apparent in the
time diagram of figure 68.
The GHA so obtained is in terms of time, and must still be con-
verted into arc; a special table is provided for this purpose, near the
back of the Nautical Almanac.
If the chronometer rated to sidereal time is not available, the
process is a little more complicated. The first table in the Nautical
M = meridian of the observer
= 110’ west longitude
G = mciidian of Greenwich
T = vernal equinox
S - star
arc G M T - GST (Greenwich Sidereal Time)
arc T M S = RA of the star
arc GS = GHA of the star

M GST - R A = GHA
88.-The Greenwich hour angle and sidereal time.
FIOURE

Almanac is labeled, “Sun, 1938” (or for the current year). This table
gives the sidereal time of Oh GCT for each day in the year. At the
bottom of the same page there is a second table called, Correction for
longitude from Greenwich; it might just as appropriately have been
called, “Correction for converting civil time to sidereal time.” From
this second table, a correction is added to the civil hours, minutes,
and seconds past midnight, thus converting them t o sidereal time.
This total (sidereal time past midnight) is then added to the sidereal
time of Oh (midnigbt) in order to obtain the GST of the observation;
then, as before, GHA=GST-RA.
To illustrate, suppose that the GHA of eCygni is desired, for
22h45m08GCT, October 15, 1937:
GST of O h , 10-15-37 l h 32“ 2596
(From 1st table of Nautical Almanac.)
GCT of observation 22 45 0.0
Corr. for 22h45“ +3 44.2
(From bottom of same page in Almanac.)
GST of 22h45708 GCT 24h 21” 9~8
RA of e Cygni -20 43 39.6
(From Nautical Almanac, “addl. stars.”)
GHA of e Cygni (in terms of time). 3h 37* 30r2
96 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

The GHA is now converted from time to arc, by means of the

table near the back of the Nautical Almanac:
3h36m =54’
lm28* = 22’
2*2= 33”
3h37”0*2=54’22’33‘‘, GHA in terms of arc.
IDENTIFICATION OF STARS
It has already been pointed out that it is useless to observe the
altitude of a star unless the identity of the star is known. The be-
ginner is apt to be confused by the number of stars, and to suppose
that it is difficult to distinguish one star from another. On the con-
trary, stars differ from one another considerably, in relative bright-
ness, in color, and in their peculiar groupings. The Nautical Almanac
for 1938 lists 55 principal navigational stars, and 110 additional stars,
all of which are shown on the navigational star chart in the back of
the Almanac.
Any flat map has its difficulties. This is painfully apparent in the
star chart of the Almanac, in which the poles are stretched out into
lines extending all the way across the map. Globes are not so con-
venient to carry about, but the serious student will be well repaid for
the purchase of a good celestial globe, some of which may now be had
quite reasonably. With a globe, the astronomical triangle and celes-
tial coordinates can be clearly seen; the relation between civil and
sidereal time can be demonstrated, and the approximate solutions of
navigational problems can be obtained graphlcally. With any good
star chart, however, and a little patience, it is not difficult to identify
any or all of the principal stars, if we start from s?me familiar group.
For example, every one is familiar with the “Blg Dipper” which is
part of the constellation (star group) known as Ursa Major. Most
people are also aware that the two “pointer stars” in the bowl of the
dipper point to Polaris, the North Star. The two pointer stars are
named Dubhe and Merak. Now, if we follow the curving handle of
the dip er, extending the curve beyond the dipper about the length
cf
of the ipper itself, we come to the bright yellow star Arcturus, in the
constellation Bootes. Continuing the same curve about an equal dis-
tance again we find the star Spica, in Virgo, a little fainter than
Arcturus and blue-white in color.
On the opposite side of Polaris from the Big Dipper, and about the
same distance from it, is an easily recognized W (or M , depending on
the position), which is tho distinguishing feature of Cassiopeia. Throe
of the stars in the Whave special names: Caph, Ruchbah, and Schedir.
Toward the south from the W and about as far from it as the W is
from the pole, is “the great square in Pegasus,” the four stars of the
square being known as Alpheratz, Algenib, Markrtb, and Scheat. In
the same way, a few at a time, all the navigational stars may be
learned.
STAR NAMES
For centuries, the bri hter stars have been known by special names,
as Sirius and Vega. ?hey also have another name, consisting of a
letter of the Greek alphabet and the possessive form of the constella-
tion name. Thus, Alpheratz is also known as a Andromedae. In
 Letter I Name 1 Letter I Name 1 Letter Name
I II I II I

BRIGHTNESS OF STARS
Stars are classified as first magnitude, second magnitude, etc., ac-
cording to their apparent brightness. A first magnitude star is 2Jh
times as bright as a second magnitude star, and so on; conversely, a
second magnitude star is 35 as bright as a first. Antares and Spica
are first magnitude stars; Polaris is second magnitude.
A few stars are brighter than first magnitude, and are classified in
order of increasing brightness as 0, -1, or -2 magnitude. Sirius,
the brightest star, is -2 magnitude; Arcturus is 0 magnitude, which
is one magnitude brighter than first.
In the preceding paragraphs the nearest whole magnitudes are given,
as is usually done in speaking of them. Astronomers determine mag-
nitudes to the nearest hundredth, and each whole ma nitude includes
approximatel half a magnitude on either side of it. P! bus, first mag-
nitude extendys from 0.51 to 1.50, second from 1.51 to 2.50, and so on.
In the Nautical Almanac magnitudes are tabulated to the nearest
tenth, Sirius being listed as -1.6 (nearest whole magnitude -2).
THE PLANETS
The stars are self-luminous like the sun, which is our nearest star;
the planets (of which the Earth is one) shine only by light reflected
from the sun, just as the moon does. Of the famil of planets, only
B
four are of interest to the navigator: Venus, Jupiter, aturn, and Mars.
They can usually be distingulshed by their steady light, which does
not twinkle like the light from a star.
Venus is easy to recognize, since it is brighter than any star; it
is golden yellow in color and is often called “the evening star”, or “the
morning star,” since it is never seen more than 3 hours after sunset or
3 hours before sunrise.
Jupiter is a little fainter than Venus, but brighter than Sirius, the
brightest star. It is, therefore, also very easy to identify.
Saturn is about as bright as a first magnitude star and is pale
yellow in color.
Mars is decidedly red in color, and varies in brightness from second
magnitude (as bright as Polaris) to minus 3 magnitude, which is
between Jupiter and Venus in brightness.
98 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

The sun and its planets all appear to move along approximately
the same path or plane in the sky, known as the ecliptic; fre uently
1
there are one or more planets ta be men at night, and it is not ifficult
to visualize the approximate position of the ecliptic, along the line
connecting them. If at any time a bright star is seen near the eclip-
tic where none is shown on the star maps, it is fairly certain to be one
of the four planets mentioned above.
MOTION OF THE STARS AND PLANETS
All are familiar with the way in which the sun rises in the east,
climbs up the sky on an inclined path till noon, when it is toward
the south: and clrcles downward to set in the west. I n exactly the
same way the stars and planets pass across the ni ht sky from east
f
to west. Stars close to Polaris, the North Star, o not set. They
describe small circles around it and never pass below the horizon,8
passing from view in the daytime only because of the greater bright-
ness of the sun. As the distance from Polaris increases, the radii of
the circles increase until, near the southern horizon, stars describe
only flattened arcs not very high above the horizon.
Aside from this nightly passage of the stars across the sky, their
apparent motion in space with respect to each other is so slight that
they are spoken of as “fixed,” and the star patterns or constellations
remain unchanged for millenniums. By way of contrast,there is
an appreciable motion of the sun and planets against the background
of the stars, even from day to day. It is for this reason that the process
of determining positions from the sun, moon, or planets, is slightly
more complicated than in the case of the fixed stars; however, with
the present arrangement of the Nautical Almanac it is very little
more difficult. This is all the more important since they are the
brighter and more easily observed bodies.
Some of the subjects discussed in this final section, such as the
motion of the stars and planets, may be considered in the light of
general astronomy. They are not essential to the practice of celestial
navigation. If these elements are known, however, the various prob-
lems are more clearly understood, and may be solved more intelli-
gently and quickly. Those who desire to study the subject further
are referred to some of the standard texts listed in the bibliography
@. 182).
THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC
The pages next following are from the Nautical Almanac for 1938.
They are included here to illustrate the use of the Almanac in the
solution of the typical examples presented herein.
8 For an observer in the United States.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 99

CORRECTIONS TO BE APPLIED TO THE OBSERVED ALTITUDE OF A 281

STAR OR OF THE SUN'S LOWER LIMB, TO FIND THE TRUE ALTITUDE
TABLE A
- TABLE B TABLE C

*
tar'8Car
cam. Rslghto
Eye (leet

6
6
30
40
+ 88 42 -7 9
77
Jan. 1 +O 3 0
1
0.0
-1.0
100
150
- 9.8
12.0
6 60 86 76
74
16 +o 3 2 1.4 200 13.9
7 0 87 3 1.7 250 15.5
7 10 89 72 Feb. 1 +o 3 4 2.0 300 17.0
7
7
20
30
+ 98 02 -7
7
1
0
16 +0.2 6 -2.2 350 -18.3
6 2.4 400 19.6
7 40 93
95
6
0
8
7
Mar. 1 +o 2 7 2.6 460 20.8
7 50 8 2.8 500 21.9
8 0 96 6 6 16 +o 1 9 2.9 550 23.0
8
8 20
10 + 99 78 -6
6
4
3
Apr. 1 00 10 -3.1 600 -24.0
11 3.2 660 26.0
8 30 10 0 6 2 16 00 12 3.4 700 25.9
8 40 10 I 6 1 13 3.5 750 26.8
8 50 10 2 6 0 May I -0 1 14 3.7 800 27.7
9 0 +in 3 -5 9 15 -0 1 15 -3.8 8Ml -28.6
9 20 10 5 57 16 3.9 900 29.4
9 40 10 6 55 June 1 -0 2 17 4.0 960 30.2
10 0 10 8 53 18 4.1 lo00 31.0
10 20 11 0 62 16 -0 2 19 4.3 1050 31.8
10 40 +I1 2 -5 0 July 1 -0 2 20 -4.4 1100 -32.6
11 0 I1 3 49 21 4.5 1160 33.2
11 30 11 6 47 16 -0 2 22 4.0 1200 34.0
12 0 11 7 45 23 4.7 1250 34.6
12 30 11 9 43 Aug. 1 -0 2 24 4.8 1300 35.3
13 0 +I2 0 -4 1 16 -0 2 25 -4.9 1350 -36.0
13 30 12 2 40 20 5.0 1400 36.7
14 0 12 3 38 Sept. 1 -0 1 27 51 1450 37 3
15 0 I2 6 36 28 6.2 1500 38.0
I6 0 12 8 34 16 -0 1 29 6.3 1660 38.6
17 0 Oct. 1 00
18
19
0
0
9:;
13 3
-3 2
30
28 16 +o 1
30
31
32
-6.4
54
6.5
1600
1650
1700
-39.2
39.8
40.5
20 0 13 5 26 35 6.6 isno 41.6
22 0 13 7 24 Nov. 1 +o 2 34 6.7 1900 42.7
24 0 +14 0 -2 2 16 +o 2 35 -5.8 2000 -43 8
26 0 14 1 20 37 6.0 2100 44 9
28 0 14 3 18 Dee. 1 +o 3 39 6.1 2200 46 0
30 0 14 4 17 41 6.3 2300 47.0
32 0 14 6 16 16 +o 3 43 6.4 2400 47.9
34 0
36 0
38 0
40 0
+I4 7
14 8
14 9
15 0
-1 4
13
13
12
31
-
+O 8 45
47
49
51
-6.6
6.7
69
70
2600
2600
2iOO
2800
-49 0
W.0
50.9
51.9
46 0 15 1 10 53 7.1 2900 52.8
boo +I5 3 -0 8 65 -7 3 3000 -53.7
65 0 15 4 07 60 76 3100 54.6
60 0 15 5 06 65 79 3200 65.4
65 0 15 6 05 70 8.2 3300 56.3
70 0 15 7 04 76 8.5 3400 67.1
75 0 +I5 8 -0 3 80 -8.8 3500 -58.0
80 0 15 8 0 2 85 90 3600 58.8
85 0 15 9 -0 1 80 93 3700 69.6

I
90 0
--
+I6 0 0 0 95

--- -
100
96
-9 8
3800
4000
60.4
-62.0
100
2&1 TABLE E
BUBBLE SEXTANT CORRECTION TO OBSERVED ALTITUDE OF
SUN OR STAR
FOR REFRACTION AND PARALLAX
Obrned 8W’l 8Un’l
Alutud. :arai10.
-
:mrt10n

..
.,
680 -7.8 -7.9 10 0 -1.2
‘
-6.3
I
24 0 -2.0 -2.2
640 7.6 7.7 10 20 6.0 6.2 20 0 1.9 2.0
660 7.4 7.6 10 40 4.9 8.0 28 0 1.7 1.8
7 0 7.8 7.4 11 0 4.7 4.9 30 0 1.6 1.7
7 10 7.1 7.2 11 30 4,s 4.7 32 0 1.4 1.6
720 -7.0 -7.1 12 0 -43 -4.11 34 0 -1.3 -1.4
7ao 6% 7.0 12 ao 4.1 4.3 38 0 1.2 1.3
740 0.7 0.8 13 0 4.0 4.1 38 0 1.1 1.2
6.b 6.7 13 a0 3.8 4.0 400 1.o 1.2
760 4b 0 0.9 1.o
8 0 6.4 6.6 14 0 3.7 a.8
8 10 -6.a -0.4 16 0 -8.4 -8.6 b0 0 -0.7 -0.8
am 6.2 0.3 16 0 a.2 a.3 66 0 0.6 0.7
6.1 0.2 17 0 8.0 3.1 800 0.6 0.6
880 0.4 0.6
840 ‘b.9 0.1 18 0 2.8 8.0 0.5 0
8bO 6.8 0.0 19 0 2.7 2.8 70 0 0.3 0.4

9 0 -6.7 -6.9 m o -2.6 -2.6

2.b
7b 0
8 0 0
-0.2
0.1
-0.a
0.1
ern b.b b.7
b.b
21 0
no
2.4
2.a 2.4 ab0 -0.1 -0.1
940 b.3 0.0
10 0 -6.2 -6.3 24 0 -2.0 -2.2 900 0.0
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 101

TABLE P 285
BUBBLE SEXTANT CORRECTION TO OBSERVED ALTITUDE OF MOON
FOR REFRACTION AND PARALLAX
- -
obr Ob.
Nt& AM.
ud. 54' 65'
54' 55' 56' 57' 58' 59' 80' 61' tude 56' 57' 58' 59' 60' 81'
- -------- - ---.?-------
, , , , e , , , , , . , . I . I

SA ,44.8 +45.8+48 8 +47.6+48.8 +49.6+W.8 t 5 1 6 46 36 6+37 3+380+38.7+39.4+40.1+40.,8+41.5

6.a 45.2 46.2 47.2 48.2 49 2 50.2 51.2 52 2 47 35.9 36.6 37.3 38.0 38.7 39.4 40.0 40.7
6.n 45.8 48.8 47.8 48.8 49.7 50.7 51.7 52.7 48 35 3 35 9 36% 37:3 37.9 38.6 39.3 40 0
7.6 48.3 47.2 48.2 49.2 60.2 51 2 52.2 53 2 49 34.6 35.2 35.9 36.6 37.2 37.9 38.5 39.2
7.1 46.6 47.8 48.8 49.8 50.8 51 6 52.8 5 3 6 50 33.9 34.5 35.2 35.8 3 6 5 37.1 37.8 38.4
8.C .46.9+47.9 +48.9+49.9+50.9 +51 9+52.9 +53 9 51 33 2 133 8+34.5+35 1 +35.7+36.4+37.0+37.6
8.: 47 2 48.2 49.2 60.2 51.2 52.2 53.2 54.2 52 32.5 33.1 33 7 34.3 35 0 35.6 36.2 36.8
SE 47'5 48.5 49.4 50 4 51 4 52 4 53.4 54 4 53 31 8 32.4 33.0 33 6 34 2 34.8 35.4 36.0
9. t 47.7 48.7 49.7 50 6 51 6 52 6 53.8 54 6 54 31 1 31 6 32 2 32 8 33 4 34.0 34.6 35.2
10 c 47 9 48 9 49 9 50 8 51.8 52 8 53.8 54 8 55 30 3 30 9 31 5 3 2 0 32 6 33.2 33.8 34.3
11 .48 2 t49 2 +50 1 +51 1 +52 I +53.I +M 1 +55 1 56 296+30.1 e307131 ?+31.8+32'.4+32.9+33.5
12 484 494 5 0 3 5 1 3 5 2 3 5 3 3 5 4 2 5 5 2 57 28 8 29.3 29 9 30 4 31 n 31.5 32.1 32.6
13 485 495 504 514 524 534 544 553 58 2 8 0 28 5 29 1 29 ti 30 2 30.7 31.2 31.7
14 4 8 6 49 8 50 5 51 5 52 5 53 4 54 4 55 4 59 27 2 27 7 28 3 28.8 29 3 29.8 30.3 30.8
15 48 6 49 6 50 5 51.5 52 5 53 4 54 4 55.4 60 26 4 26 9 27 5 28 0 2 . 5 29 0 29 5 29.9
16 48 8 +49 5 +50 5 +SI 5 4 2 4 t53 4 +54 3 +55.3 61 2 5 6 + 2 6 1 + 2 6 6 + 2 7 . 1$ 2 7 . 6 + 2 8 . 1 + 2 8 6 + 2 9 0
17 48 5 49 5 50 4 51 4 52 3 53 3 54 3 55 2 62 24 8 25 3 25 8 26.3 26.7 27.2 27.7 28.1
18 48 4 49 4 50 3 51 3 52 2 53.2 54 1 55.1 63 24 0 24.5 24 9 25 4 25 9 26.3 26.8 27 2
19 48 3 49 2 50 2 51 1 52 1 53 0 54 0 54 9 64 23 2 23 7 24.1 24 5 25 (1 25.4 25.8* 26.3
20 48 1 4 9 0 500 50 9 51 9 52 8 53.8 54 7 65 22.4 2 2 8 23.2 23.7 24.1 24.5 24.9 25.4
21 47.9t48 8+49.8+50 7 t 5 1 7+52 6+53 5 ~ 5 45 66 21 5 t22.0t22 4 122.8 ~ 2 32 t23 6+24.0 +24 4
22 47 7 48 8 49 6 50.5 51 4 5 2 3 53.3 54.2 67 20.7 21 1 21.5 21.9 22 3 22.7 23.0 23.4
23 4 7 5 4 8 4 4 9 3 M.2 51 1 5 2 0 5 3 0 6 3 9 68 19 8 20 2 20.6 21.0 21.4 21.7 22.1 22.5
24 47 2 48.1 49 0 119 9 ,50 8 51 7 52 7 53.0 69 1 9 0 19 4 19.7 20.1 20.4 20.8 21.1 21.5
25 46 9 47 8 48 7 49 6 50 5 51 4 52 3 53 2 70 18.1 18 5 18.8 19.2 19 5 19.8 20.2 M . 5
28 48 8 + 4 7 5 + 4 8 4+493+50.2+51.1+520+52.9 71 .17.3+17.6+179+18 2t18 6+18.9+19.2+19.5
27 46 2 47 1 48 0 48.9 49.8 50 7 51 6 52 5 72 18.4 16.7 17.0 17.3 17.6 17.9 18.2 18.5
28 45 9 46.8 47 6 48.5 49 4 50 3 51 2 52.1 73 15.5 15.8 16.1 18.4 16.7 17.0 17.3 17.5
29 4 5 5 4 6 4 4 7 2 48.1 49.0 49.9 50 8 51 6 74 14.6 14.9 15.2 15.4 15.7 16.0 16.3 16.5
30 45 1 4 8 0 4 8 8 4 7 7 4 8 6 49.4 50.3 51.2 75 '13.7 14.0 14.2 14.5 14.8 15.0 15.3 15.5
31 44 7 t 4 5 6+46 4+47.3+48.1+49.0t49.8+&i0.7 78 12 8 +13.1 t13.3 +13.5 t13.8 +14.0+14.3+14.5
32 4 4 3 45.1 48.0 48.8 47.7 48.5 49.4 50.2 77 11.9 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13.1 13.3 13.5
33 43.8 44.7 45.5 46 3 47.2 48.0 48.8 49.7 78 11.0 11.2 11.4 11.6' 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.5
34 43.4 44.2 45.0 45.8 48.7 47 5 48.3 49.2 79 10.1 10.3 10.5 10.7 10.9 11.1 11.3 11.6
a5 42.9 43.7 44.5 45.3 48.2 47.0 47.8 48.8 80 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.7 9.9 10.1 10.2 10.4
38 42.4 +43.2+44.0 t44.8 +45.6 +46.4 t47.2 +48.0 81 8.3+ 8.5+ 9.1+ 9.2+ 9.4
8.6t 8 . 8 e 8 . 9 ~
37 41.9 42.7 43.5 44.3 45.1 45.9 46.8 4 7 4 82 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.4
38 41 3 42.1 42.9 43.7 44.5 45 3 48.0 46.8 83 8.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3
39 40.8 41.6 42.3 43.1 43.9 44.7 45.4 46.2 84 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 8.3
40 40.2 41.0 41.8 42.5 43.3 44.1 44.8 45.8 85 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.2
41 39.7 +40.4 +41.2 t41 9 +42.7+43 4 t44.2 +44.9 88 8.7+ 3.8. 3 . 8 + 3.9+ 4.0+ 4.0+ 4 . 1 t 4.2
42 39.1 39 8 408 41.3 4 2 0 42.8 43.5 44.3 87 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1
43 38.5 39.2 39.9 40.7 41 4 42.1 42.9 43.8 88 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1
44 37.9 38.8 39.3 40.0 40.7 41.5 42.2 42.9 89 0.9+ 0 . 9 + 1.0+ 1.0+ 1.0, 1.0+ 1.0+ 1.0
45 37.2 +37.9+38.6+39.4 +40.1+40.8+41.5+42.2 90 0.0 0.0 0 . 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 . 0
102 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

282 TABLE D
CORRECTION TO THE OBSERVED ALTITUDE OF T H E hlOON
FOR REFRACTION. PARALLAX, AND SEMIDIAMETER
u,r.n LlHl

OM.
Borlroolal Parsllar
All.
Lorrr
Llmb

69o8’+W
5.5 B d614 9 8 r2 711~63 0 6 6 73 6 r8 O
6 4 4li64 5 6 r7 38 8 r9 151 6.6 29 4+30 2+30 9+31 Ut32 3 t 3 3 0133 7 134 4
6.0 6.0
86 Bo 71 61 9 63 2’ 64 5 85 8 67 0 88 3 89 6 6.5 30 7 31 4 32 I 32 8 33 5 34 3 35 0 35 7
7.0 6 1 1 6 2 4 636 6 4 9 862 8 7 4 8 8 7 7 0 0 7.0 31 2 31 9 32 8 33 3 34 0 34 8 35 5 36 2
7.6 61 51 62 7 84 0 65 3 86 6 87 8 69 1 70 4 7.6
8.0 61 8+63 1 t64 3+65 6+86 9+88 1 +89 4 ~ 7 0 . 7 8.0
8.5 62 1 83 3 84 6 8 5 9 67 1 88 4 89 7 70 9 85
9.0 6 2 8 6 3 6 6 4 8 8 6 1 6 7 4 8 8 6 6 9 9 71 1 9.0
9.5 626 638 650 6 8 3 6 7 8 688 701 7 1 3 9.5
10 0 627 8 4 0 8 5 2 8 8 5 6 7 7 8 9 0 7 0 3 7 1 5 10.0
I1 63 Ot84 2+85 5 t66 7+88 0+89 3 +70 5+71 8 11 -23.3r34 0 t34.7 ~ 3 5
4 t 3 6 2 + 3 6 . 9 + 3 7 . 6+38.3
12 6 3 2 64 4 65 7 66 9 6 8 2 89 5 70 7 72 0 12 33.6 34 3 35.0 35.7 36 4 37 1 37.8 38 5
13 83 3 64 6 65 8 67 0 68 3 89 6 70 8 72 1 13 33.7 34.4 35.1 35.8 38 5 37 2 37.9 38 6
14 8.3 4 64 8 65 9 87 1 68 4 69 8 70 9 72 1 14 33.8 34.5 35.2 35 9 3 6 6 3 , . 3 3 8 0 38.7
I5 6 3 4 8 4 8 6 5 9 8 7 1 6 8 4 8 9 6 7 0 9 721 16 33.8 34.5 35.2 35 9 36 6 37.3 38.0 38 7
18 -63.4t64 6+65.8~+67.1+68.3+69.6+70.8+72.0 18 -33.8+34.5+36.2t35.9t36.6137.3+38.0 e38.6
17 63.3 64 5 65.8 67.0 68.2 69 5 70.7 71.9 17 33.8 34 5 35 1 35 8 36.5 3T.2 37.!1 38 6
18 63.2 64 4 65.6 68.9 68.1 69.3 70.8 71.8 IS 33.7 34.3 35.0 35 7 36.4 37 1 3 i 7 38 4
19 83.1 64 3 65.5 6 8 . i 87 9 89 2 70.4 71.6 19 33.5 34.2 34 9 35 6 36 2 36 9 37 6 38 2
20 82.9 64.1 65.3 68.5 67.8 69.0 70.2 71.4 20 33.4 34 0 34.7 35.4 36.0 36 i 37 4 38.1
21 82.7 +63.9+65.1+66.3+87.5+68.7+70.0+71.2 21 -33.2 +33.9+345 t35.2 +35 8
22 62.5 63 7 64.9 66 1 67.3 68.5 69.7 70.9 22 33.0 33.6 34.3 34 9 35 0
23 62 2 63.4 64 6 65.9 67.0 68.2 69.4 70.6 23 32.7 33.4 34 0 34.7 35.3
24 62.0 83.1 64.3 6 5 5 68.7 67.9 69.1 70.3 24 32 5 3%l 33 7 34.4 35.!
25 61.7 62.9 64.0 65.2 66.4 67.6 68.8 6 9 . 9 ’ 25 32.2 32 8 33.4 34.1 34 ,
26 61.3 +62.5+83.7t64.9 +86.0t67.2 t68.4 t69.6 26 -31 9+32.5+33.1+33.7134 413501356136.2
27 61.0 6 2 2 63.3 64 5 65.7 66.8 68.0 89.2 27 31.5 3” I 32.8 33.4 34.0 34 6 35 2 35 9
28 00.7 61.8 63.0 64.1 65.3 66.4 67.6 68.8 28 31.2 31.8 32 4 33 0 33.6 34.2 34 9 35 5
29 60.3 61 4 62.6 63.7 64.9 66.0 67.2 68.4 29 30.8 31.4 32.0 32 6 33 2 :33 X 34 4 35.0
30 59.9 81.0 82.2 63.3 84.4 65.6 66.7 67.9 30 30.4 31.0 31.6 32 2 32 8 33.4 34 0 34 6

59 5+60.6+81.7+62.9t64.0+85.1+68.3+67.~31 -30.0+30.6e31 2 t31.8 +32.3?32 !I + 3 3 5 +31.1

’ 7_I1 , ?/, d,
31
32 59.0 60.2 61.3 62.4 63.5 64 7 65.8 66.9 32 29.6 30.1 30.7 31.3 31.9 32 5 33 0 33 6
33 68.6 59 7 60.8 61 9 63.1 64.2 65 3 88.4 33 29.1 29.7 30.3 30 8 31.4 32 0 32 5 33 I
34 58.1 59.2 60.3 61.4 62.5 63.6 64.8 85.9 34 28.7 29.2 29.8 30.3 30 9 31 5 32.0 32 8
35 57.7 58.7 59.8 60.9 82.0 63.1 64.2 85.3 35 28.2 28.7 29.3 29.8 30.4 30.9 31 5 32.0

36
37
38
39
57.2 t58.2 t59.3 e60.4 +61.5t62.8 t63.7 t64.7
58.7 57.7 58.8 59.8 60.9 62.0 63.1 8 4 2
56 1 57.2 5 8 2 59.3 80.4 61.4 62.6 63.6
5 5 6 56.6 57.7 58.7 59.8 60.8 61.9 82.9
36
37
38
39
1.27 7+28 2+28 8+29.3+29 R+30.4 +30 +315
27 2 27 7 2 8 2 28 8 29 3 29 8 30 3 30 9
i 6 71 2; -27 i’ 28 2 8 29 29 30 R
26 1 2 6 6 27 1 57 6 1 2 8 6 29 11 ? 9 6
25 6 26 1 26 6 27 1 27 6 28 0 28 51 29 0
I:
40 55.0 58.1 57.1 68.1 59.2 60.2 61.3 62.3 40
41
42
43
44
46
54.4 4 5 5 t56.5 c67.5 +68.6+59.6+60.6t61.8
53.9 54 9 55.9 56.9 57.9 59.0 60.0 61.0
53.3 54.3 55.3 56.3 57.3 58.3 69.3 60.3
62.7 53.7 54.8 55.8 58.8 57.6 58.6 59.6
52.0 63.0 5 4 0 66.01 56.0 68.9 57.9 68.9
41
42
43
44
46
b25 0 t25
24 4 24
23 81 24
23.2 23
22 6 23
31 24 71 25 1/
9 25 4 25 8 26 3 26 8 27
25 61 ?A
8 24 1 24 8 25 0 25 4 25
0 23 4 23 91 24 3 24 71 25
4
5 +28 0 +28.4 +26 9 +27 4 r 2 i
26
q +28 4
2 27 7
f3 27 0
9 26 3
21 25 6

46 61.4~+62.4~+63.3~+54.3~+56,3~+56.2~+67.2~+68.2~
46
?aBclPhl of Eye Corratlon n e Tablo 0
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 103

STARS, J U N E 1935 T89

G R E E N W I C H CIVIL T I M E
-
Slry
Tri. Atis

Grcciiwicl
-
Mag I O

lour A n
Date
- 0 , 0 ,
- D , 0 , 0 ,

13 27 37 2 21 2 7 9 14 13 8 IO 5 5 3 55 6 358 16 7 35737 2 351 50 6 315 36 9

14 28 36 3 22 27 I 15 1 2 9 I I 4.6 4 54 7 359 15 9 35836 3 352 49 7 346 36 0
15 29 35 5 23 26 2 16 12 1 12 3 8 5 53 8 0 150 359355 353 48 347 35 2
16 30 34 6 24 25 3 17 11 2 13 2 9 6530 114 2 034.6 354 48 0 348 34 3
I7 31 33 7 25 24 5 18 I O 3 14 2.0 7 52.1 2 13.3 1337 355 47.1 3-19 33.4
I8 32 32 9 26 23 6 19 9 5 15 1.2 851.3 3124 2329 35F 4F 3 350 32 6
19 33 32 0 27 22 8 20 8 6 16 0 3 9504 411.6 3320 357 45.4 351 31.7
20 34 31 2 2821 9 21 7 7 16 59.4 10495 5 10.7 4 31 I 388 44 6 352 30 R
21 35 30 3 2921 0 22 6 9 17 58 6 I I 487 6 9.8 5303 359 43 7 353 30 0
22 36 '29.4 30 20 2 23 6 0 18 57.7 12 47.8 7 8.9 6 29 4 0 42.8 354 29 I
23 37 28 6 31 1 9 8 24 5 2 19 56 9 1346.9 8 8.1 728 6 142.0 335 28 2
24 3R 27 7 32 I 8 4 25 4 3 20 56.0 14 46 1 9 7.2 8277 2 41.1 356 27 3
25 39 26 9 33 1 7 6 26 3 4 21 55 1 1545 2 10 6.4 926.8 3 40.2 357 21; 5
26 40 26 0 34 16 7 27 2 6 22 54.3 16 44.4 11 5.5 1026.0 4 39.4 358 2.5 t i

1 I
27 4 1 25 1 35 15 0 28 1 7 23 53.4 1743.5 12 4.6 11 25.1 5 38.5 339 24 8
28 42 24 3 36 1 5 0 29 0 8 24 52 5
29 43 23 4
4 4 22 G
37 14 1
38 13 3
29 59 9
30 59 1
2.5 51 7 t:?:' 13 3 8
14 2 9
12242
13234
G 37 7
7 36 8
0 23 9
I23 0
__
30
__ _.~ -
-~ _ _-
~
'26 50 8
-
__
20409 15 2 1 14225 8 35 9 2 22 2
____
b1.U
L1 I.,,,,.
VW. I
Nunki
SI,YlllUrI1
7Anublae
01
z3 Pemck
L.I'I,",,OII
Fornalhabt
(1 1'11. ,\UT. 9
Msrkab
l~,'g,lsL
h1OK 0 I blue 2 1 hlng 0 8 Milg. 2.1 hlap. 1 3 Rlitg. 2 ti

June 1 h m s h rii I h m
R. A. 8 34 53
0 ,
8 5 1 29
0 9 0 ,
i: 21'62; 4; 10'82;
0 , D I
':*225' !2 54 15 '
0 , *
I

Dec. +38 43 -26 22 : +8 42 : +45 3 5 + 9 3 5 5 -47 1 5 : -29 56 '

h m h m h m h r n h m h m h 111
Transit I59 2 I6 3 12 4 3 5 5 528 6 18
-_ - I I

V O b Creenwicli Civil Time

Crceiiwicli Hour A I ~ K I for
--Dute - 0 , 0 , - 9 " ,
I 311 52 I 277 43 5 265 15 2 ?63 23 6
2 31251 2 278 42 6 206 1 4 4 264 22 7
3 313 50 3 279 41 8 267 13 5 263 2 I !I
4 314 49.5 280 40 9 268 12 6 266 2 I 0
5 315 48.6 281 40 0 2ti9 11.8 267 20.1
6 ?35 1 5 330 52 6 316 47.7 308 32.4 303 54.4 288 27.1 282 39 1 270 10.9 268 19 3
7 336 0 7 331 51 7 317 46 9 309 31.5 304 53 6 289 26.2 283 38 3 271 10.0 2G9 1 8 4
8 336 59 8 332 50 8 318 46.0 310 30.6 305 52.7 290 25.4 284 37 4 272 9.2 270 17 5
9 337 58 9 333 50 0 319 45 1 311 29.8 306 51 8 291 24.5 285 38 5 273 8.3 271 I6 7
IO 338 58 1 334 49 1 320 44 3 $12 28.9 307 51 0 292 23.6 286 35 7 274 7.4 272 15 8
II 139 67 2 335 48 2 321 43.4' 313 28.0 308 50.1 293 22.8 287 34 8 275 6.5 273 14 9
12 340 56 4 336 47 4 322 42 5 314 27.2 309 49.2 294 21.9 288 33 9 276 5.7 274 14 1
13 141 55 5 337 46 5 323 41 7 315 26.3 310 48.3 295 21.0 289 33 0 277 4.8 27.5 13 2
14 342 54 6 338 45 6 324 40 8 316 25.4 311 47.5 296 20.2 290 32 2 278 3.9 276 1 2 3
15 343 53 8 339 44 8 325 39 9 317 24.6 312 46.6 297 19.3 291 31 3 279 3.1 277 I I 4
.16 344 52.9 340 43 9 326 39 1 292 30 4 280 2.2 278 10 6
17 345 52 0 341 43 0 327 38.2 293 29 6 281 1.3 279 9 7
18 346 51 2 342 42.2 328 37.3 294 28 7 282 0.5 280 8 8
19 347 50 3 343 41.3 329 36.5 295 27 8 28259.6 281 8 0
20 348 49.4 I 344 40.4 330 35.6 296 26 9 283 58.7 282 7 1
21 331 34.7 297 26 1 284 57.9 283 6 2
22 332 33.9 298 25 2 28557.0 284 5 4
23 333 33.0 299 24 3 28656 1 285 4 5
24 334 32.1 300 23 5 287 55 2 286 3 6
25 335 31.3 301 22 0 28864.4 287 2 8
26 354 44.3 350 35.2 336 30.4 302 21 7 289 53.5 288 1 9
27 355 43.4 351 34.4 337 29.5 303 20 8 290 52 6 289 1 0
28 356 42 6 352 33.5 338 28.7 304 20 0 291 51.8 290 0 . 1
29 357 41.7 353 32.6 339 27.8 305 19 I 292 50 9 290 59 3
30 358 40.8 354 31.8 340 20.9 306 I 8 2 293 50 0 291 58.4
104 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

214 CORRECTION TO BE ADDED TO TABULATED GREENWICH

HOUR ANGLE OF STARS
- -
Ilounol Circsowich Civil Time
Mia. __ lee. :om.

* , 0 , e >
3’;y
-
0 . 0 , O .
I_

D
0

I 0
7’

,
- -
( 0 00 15 2 6 30 4 ( 45 7 4 GO 9 9 75 12 3 90 14 8 105 I7 2 0 0.0
I 0 150 15 17 5 30 1 9 ( 45 22 1 60 24 9 75 27 4 90 29 8 105 32 3 1 0.3
0 30 I I5 32 5 30 35 ( 45 37 E 60 39 9 75 42 4 90 44 9 105 47 3 2 0.5
045 I I5 47 6 30 50 I 45 52 60 55 0 75 57 4 Bo 59 9 106 2 4 3 0.8
4 1 02 16 2 6 31 5 I 46 7 e 61 1 0 0 76 I2 5 91 14 9 106 17 4 4 1.o
I
I152 16 I7 7 31 2 0 ) 46 22 E 61 25 I 76 27 5 91 30 0 106 32 5 5 1.3
; 1 30 2
I45 3
16 32 7
16 47 8
31 3 5 .
31 50 5
46
46
37 E
52 5
R I 40 1
01 55 I
76 42 6
76 57 6
91 4 5 0
02 0 1
106 47 5
107 2 5
6
7
1.5
1.8
2 03 I7 2 8 32 5 : 47 7i 82 I O 2 77 I2 6 92 I = 1 107 17 6 8 2.0
L 2 154 17 1 7 8 32 20 : 47 22 € 62 25 2 77 27 7 92 30 2 107 32 6 9 2.3
I( 2 30 4 17 32 9 32 3 5 : 47 37 I 62 40 3 77 42 7 92 45 2 107 47 7 IO 2.5
II
‘5
2
3
45 5
05
17 47 9
I8 3 0
32 50 4
33 5 ‘
47 52
48 7 .
E 62 55 3
6.3 I O J
77 57 n
78 12R
93 0 2
93 15 3
108 2 7
108 17 7
11
12
28
30
I2 3 155 18 1 8 0 33 20 : 48 22 5 63 25 4 7h 27 9 9.3 30 3 108 32 8 13 3 3
14 3 30 8 I8 33 0 33 35 : 48 38 C 63 40 4 78 42 9 93 45 4 108 47 n 14 3.5
1: 3 45 6 1848I 33 50 E 4 s 53 a 63 55 5 78 57 9 94 0 4 109 2 9 15 3.8
IE 4 07 19 3 1 34 5f 49 8 C 64 IO 5 79 I3 0 94 1 5 4 I09 17 9 16 4.0
I5 4 15 7 19 1 8 2 34 20 f 49 23 1 6 %2 5 6 79 28 0 94 2J 5 109 32 9 17 4.3
IE 4 30 7 19 33 2 34 35 5 49 38 1 64 40 6 79 43 1 94 45 5 I09 48 0 18 4.6
IS 4 45 8 1 9 48 2 34 50 5 49 53 2 64 55 6 79 58 1 95 0 6 110 3 0 I9 4.8
2c 5 08 20 3 3 35 5 5 50 8 2 65 IO 7 80 13 1 95 1 5 6 110 18 1 20 5.0
21 5 15 0 20 18 3 35 20 E 50 23 3 65 25 7 80 28 2 95 30 6 11033 1 21 15:3
22 5 30 9 20 33 4 35 35 E 50 38 3 65 40 8 ao 43 2 95 45 7 110 48 2 22 5.6
23 5 45 e 20 48 4 35 50 c 50 53 3 65 55 8 BO 5n 3 96 0 7 111 3 2 23 5 8
24 6 10 21 3 4 36 5 s 51 8 4 66 10 8 81 13 3 96 15 n 1 1 1 i n 2 24 6.0
25 ‘ 6 160 21 I85 36 21 C 51 23 4 6 6 25 9 81 28 3 96 30 8 I l l 333 25 6.3
28 831 1 21 3 3 5 36 36 C 51 38 5 66 40 9 R I 43 4 96 45 n 111 4n 3 26 6.6
27 646 1 21 4 8 6 36 51 C 51 53 5 66 56 0 81 5 8 4 97 0 9 112 3 4 27 6.8
28 7 1 1 22 3 6 37 G I 52 8 5 67 11 0 82 13 5 97 1 5 9 112 18 4 28 7.0
28 7162 22 1 8 7 37 21 I 52 23 8 67 26 0 82 28 5 9731 0 112334 29 7.3
3c 7 3 1 2 22 33 7 37 36 2 52 38 6 6741 I 82 43 6 97 46 0 112 48 5 30 7.6
31 7 46 3 22 48 7 3751 2 52 53 7 6750 1 82 58 6 98 1 I 113 3 5 31 7.8
32 8 1 3 23 3 8 38 6 1 53 8 7 68 11 2 83 1 3 6 98 16 1 113 18 6 32 8 .O
33 8 164 23 1 8 8 38 21 3 53 23 7 68 26 2 83 28 7 9831 1 113 33 6 33 8.3
34 8 31.4 2 3 33 9 38 36 3 53 38 8 6841 2 83 43 7 98 46 2 113 48 6 34 8:5
35 8 46 4 23 48 9 3851 4 53 53 8 68 56 3 83 58 8 99 1 2 114 3 7 35 8.8
36 9 15 24 3 9 39 6 4 54 8 8 69 11 3 84 13R 99 16 3 114 18 7 36 9.0
37 9 165 24 1 9 0 39 21 4 54 23 9 69 26 4 8.1 28 8 9931 3 114338 37 9.3
38 931 6 24 34 0 39 36 E 54 39 a 6941 4 84 43 9 99 46 3 114 48 8 38 9.6
38 9 46 6 24 49.1 3951 E 54 54 0 69 56 6 84 58 9 00 1 4 115 3 9 39 9.8
40 IO 1 6 25 4 I 40 6 8 55 9 0 70 11 5 85 14 0 00 16 4 115 18 9 40 10.0
41 IO 16 7 25 19 1 4021 0 55 24 I 70 26 5 85 29 0 0031 5 115339 41 10.3
42 10 31 7 25 34 2 40 36 7 55 39 I 70 41 6 85 44 0 00 46 5 115 49 0 42 10.6
43 IO 46 8 25 49 2 4051 7 55 54 2 70 56 6 85 59 1 01 1 5 116 4 0 43 10.8
44 11 18 26 4 3 41 6 7 56 9 2 71 11 7 86 14 1 01 16 6 116 19 1 44 11.0
45 11 168 26 1 9 3 41 21 8 56 24 2 71 26 7 86 29 2 01 31 6 116 34 1 45 11.3
46 11 31 9 26 34 4 41 36 8 56 39 3 71 41 7 86 44 2 01 4 6 7 116 49 1 46 11.5
47 I ? 46 9 26 49 4 41 51 9 56 64 3 71 56 8 86 59 2 02 1 7 117 4 2 47 11.8
48 12 2 0 27 4 4 42 6 9 57 9 4 72 I1 8 87 14 3 02 I6 8 117 19 2 48 12.0
49 12 17 0 27 19 5 42 21 9 57 24 4 72 26 9 87 29 3 02 31 8 117 34 3 49 12.3
50 1232 1 27 34 5 42 37 0 57 39 4 7241 9 87 44 4 02 46 8 117 49 3 50 12 6
51 1247 I 27 49 6 42 52 0 57 54 5 72 66 9 87 59 4 03 1 9 11s 4 3 51 12.8
52 13 2 1 28 4 6 43 7 1 58 9 5 73 120 88 14 5 03 16 9 118 19 4 52 13.0
53 13 17 2 28 1 9 6 43 22 I 58 24 G 73 27 0 88 29 5 03 32 0 I18 34 4 53 13.3
54 13 32 2 28 34 7 43 37 I 58 39 6 73 42 I 58 44 5 03 47.0 I18 49 5 54 13.5
55 13 47 3 28 48 7 43 52 2 58 64 6 73 57 1 88 59 6 04 2 0 119 4 1 65 13.8
68 14 2 3 29 4 8 44 72 59 9 7 74 1 2 2 89 15 6 04 17 1 119 I9 5 56 14.0
57 14 17 3 29 1 9 8 44 22 3 59 24 7 74 27 2 89 29 7 0 4 32 1 119 34 6 67 14.3
68 14 32 4 29 34 8 44 37 3 50 39 8 74 42 2 89 44 7 04 47 2 119 49 6 68 14.6
69 14 47 4 29 49 9 44 52 4 69 54 8 74 57 3 89 59 7 05 2 2 120 4 7 59 14.8
80 15 2 5 30 4 9 45 7 4 50 9 9 75 1 2 3 90 14 8 06 17 2 I20 I9 7 1s.a
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 105

SUN, JUNE 1938 19

--
-
0 . C. T

Wedneaday 1
m s * ' . #

82
+2
2
29.1 +21 66.0 180 37.3
28.4 21 66.7 210 37.1
2
4 27.6 21 67.4 240 36.9
6 2 26.9 21 68.1 270 36.7
8 2 26.1 21 68.8 300 36.6 1 47.7 22 29.2 300 26.9 1 4.2 22 63.3 300 16.1
10 2 25.4 21 59.5 330 36.4 1 46.9 22 29.7 330 28.7 1 3.2 22 53.7 330 16.8
12 2 24.7 22 0.2 0 36.2 1 46.0 22 30.3 0 26.5 1 2.3 22 54.1 0 16.6
14 2 23.9 22 0.9 30 36.0 1 46.1 22 30.9 30 26.3 1 1.3 22 54.6 30 15.3

I 1
16 2 23.2 22 1.6 Bo 35.8 1 44.3 22 31.4 Bo 26.1 1 0.4 22 56.0 Bo 15.1
18 2 22.4 22 2.2 90 35.6 1 43.4 22 32.0 90 25.8 0 69.4 22 55.4 90 14.9
20 2 21.7 22 2.9 120 35.4 1 42.5 22 32.6 120 26.6 0 58.4 22 65.8 120 14.6
20.9 22 3.6 160 35.2 1 41.7 0 67 5 22 56.3 150 14.4
22
H.D.
2
0.4 0.3 ...
.. . 0.4
22 33.1 150 26.4
0.3 ... ..
. 0:6 o.2 ... .. .
0 +2 20.1 +22 4.3 180 35.0 to 56 5 +22 56.7 180 14.1
2 2 19.4 22 5.0 210 34.9 0 55.6 22 57.1 210 13.9
4 2 18.6 22 5.6 240 34.7 0 54.6 22 57.5 240 13.6
6 2 17.8 22 6.3 270 34.5 0 53.6 22 57.9 270 13.4
8 2 17.1 22 7.0 300 34.3 1 37.3 22 35.8 300 24.3 0 52.6 22 58.3 300 13.2
10 2 16.3 22 7.6 330 34.1 1 36.4 22 36.3 330 24.1 0 61.7 22 58.7 330 12.9
12 2 15.5 22 8.3 0 33.9 1 35.5 22 36.9 0 23.9 0 50.7 22 59.1 0 12.7
14 2 14.8 22 8.9 30 33.7 1 34.6 22 37.4 30 23.7 0 49.7 22 69.5 30 12.4
16 .2 14.0 22 9.6 60 33.5 1 33.7 22 37.9 Bo 23.4 0 48.7 22 59.9 60 12.2
18 2 13.2 22 10.3 90 33.3 1 32.8 22 38.4 90 23.2 0 47.8 23 0.3 90 11.9
20 2 12.4 22 10.9 120 33.1 1 31.9 22 39.0 120 23.0 0 46.8 23 0.7 120 1 1 3
1 31.0 23 1.0 150 11.4
22
H. D.
2 11.6 22 11.6
0.4 0.3
150 32.9
... .. . 0.4
22 89.6
0.3
150 22.8
... .. . 0 45.8
0.5 0.2 ... .. .
Friday 3 Saturday 11
0 180 33.7 tl 30.1 22 40.0 180 22.5 to 44.8 23 1.2 ,180 11.2
2 2 10.0 22 12.9 210 32.6 1 29.2 22 40.6 210 22.3 0 43.8 23 1.8 210 11.0
4 2 9.2 22 13.6 240 32.3 1 28.3 22 41.0 240 22.1 0 42.8 23 2.2 240 10.7
6 2 8.4 22 14.1 270 32.1 1 27.4 22 41.6 270 21.9 0 41.9 23 2.6 270 10.6
8 2 7.0 22 14.8 800 31.9 1 26.6 22 420 300 21.6 0 40.9 23 2.9 300 10.2
10 2 6.8 22 16.4 330 31.7 1 25.6 22 42.6 330 21 4 0 39.9 23 3.3 330 10.0
12 2 6.0 22 16.0 0 31.6 1 24.7 22 43.0 0 21.2 0 38.9 23 5.7 0 9.7
14 2 6.2 22 16.6 30 31.3 1 23.8 22 43.6 30 20.9 0 37.9 23 4.0 30 9.5
16 2 4.4 22 17.3 Bo 31.1 22.9 22 44.0 Bo 20.7 0 36.9 23 4.4 60 9.2
18 2 3.6 22 17.9 90 30.9 21.9 22 44.6' 90 20.5 0 35.9 23 4.7 90 9.0
20 2 2.8 22 18.6 120 30.7 21.0 22 45,O 120 20.3 0 34.9 23 5.1 120 8.7
150 30.6 20.1 22 45.5 150 20.0 0 33.9 23 6.4 160 8.6
22
H.D.
2 2.0 22 19.1
0.4 0.3 ... .. . 0.6 0.2 . .. .. . 0:5 0.2 ... .. .
Saturday Sunday 12
0 +2 1.2 +22 19.7 180 30.3 t t O 32.9 +23 6.8 180 8.2
2 2 0.3 22 m . 4 210 30.1 0 31.9 23 6.1 210 8.0
4 1 59.6 22 21.0 240 29.9 0 30.9 23 6.5 240 7.7
6 1 68.7 22 21.6 270 29.7 0 29.9 23 6.8 270 7.6
8 1 67.8 22 22.2 300 29.5 16.6 22 47.8 300 18.9 0 28.9 23 7.1 300 7.2
10 1 57.0 22 22.8 330 29.3 14.6 22 48.3 330 18.6 0 27.9 23 7.6 330 7.0
12 1 56.2 22 23.4 0 29.0 13.6 22 48.8 0 18.4 0 26.9 23 7.8 0 6.7
14 1 55.4 22 24.0 SO 28.8 12.7 22 49.2 30 18.2 0 25.8 23 8.1 30 6.6

1 1
16 1 54.6 22 24.6 60 28.6 1 11.7 22 49.7 Bo 17.9 0 24.8 23 8.6 Bo 6.2
18 1 63.7 22 26.1 90 28.4 1 10.8 22 50.2 90 17.7 0 23.8 23 8.8 90 6.9
20 1 62.8 22 25.7 120 28.2 1 9.9 22 50.6 120 17.5 0 22.8 23 fi1 laa 6.7
160 28.0 t1 8.9 f22 51.1 150 17.2 10 21.8 -23 9.4 160 6.4
22 +1 52.0 +22 26.3
H.D. 0.4 0.3 ... .. . 0.5 0.2 ... .. . 0.1 0.2 ... .. .
NoTL-The Eqution of Time b to be spplied lo tha 0 . C . T.in .omrdanmwith lhe llrn u [IYen

336'73-368
106 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

18 SUN, MAP 1938

-
G C T
- -
on
for
> ,unday i
0 ,
-s
"C

h * I
7" 5
0 .

n in0 49.8 t 2 53 4 21 z n x n n no 15 n o no
2 210 49 7 2 528 21 2 9 6 1 0 1 5 0 1.5 1.5 0 nJ
4 240 49 (i 2 52 2 21 304 n w o 15 30 0 05
6 270 49 5 2 51 5 21 31 2 3 0 4 5 0 15 45 n ox
42 1 I n o 16 0 0 I O
a 300 4 9 4 2 509 21 320 16 1 5 0 13
in 330 49 2 2 503 21 3 2 x 16 :Kl 0
12 n 49 1 2 496 2 1 33 3 IS
I4 30 49.a 2 490 21 3 1 3 16 45 n 13
17 n o 20
16 60 489 2 4x3 21 33 I 17 1 5 0 23
I8 90 488 2 477 2 I 35 9 10 2 3 0 0 1 7 30 0 25
zn 120 48 lj 2 470 2: 31; 7 II 2 4 5 0 17 45 0 28
22 15n 484 2 46 4 21 3 7 5 I:! 3 0 0 18 o n 30
H. D. ... .. . 03 04 13 3 1 5 0 in 15 o 33
Thursday 26 1 4 3 3 0 n 1 8 .io n 35
15 3 4 5 0 I n 45 0 3x
n 180 484 '2 4 5 7 16 4 n o 1 9 n o 40
2 210 482 2 45 I 17 4 1 5 0 1 9 15 n 43
4 240 48 I 2 4.1 4 in 4 3 0 0 i o 30 n 45
6 270 480 2 437 IO 4 4 5 0 19 45 n 48
x 2n no 50
in
12
I4
3 II 6
3110
3 105
3100
21 I 8
21 2 7
21 3 6
21 4 4
300
330
0
30
470
47 R
47 ti
47 5
2 43 1
2 424
2 41 7
2 410
21 4 1 3
21 42 0
21 4 2 8
21 4 3 6
300
330
0
30
408
40 6
40.1
403
?o 15 n
LO 30 o
zn 45 n
':
58
21 n o 6n
1f ) 3 95 21 5 3 60 47.4 2 404 21 4.1 3 60 4 0 1 21 1 5 0 *I3 3
in 3 89 21 6 2 9n 47.2 2 397 21 45 1 90 399 21 30 0 65
zn 3 84 21 7 1 120 47.1 2 390 21 45 B izn 3 9 7 21 4 5 0 68
22 3 7 9 21 7 9 1.m 47.0 2 3n 3 21 466 150 3 9 6 yo n o
H D. 03 0.2 ... .. . 03 041 ... . yo 1 5 0
70
73
Friday 27 Tuesdny 31 30 7 30.0 22 30 n 75
31 7 450 22 45 n 78
0 +3 7 3 1 2 1 x n ian 46 8 t2 37 6 1.21 4 7 3 inn 394 32 8 no 2.3 0 0 no
2 3 6 8 21 9 7 210 46 7 2 36 9 21 4 8 0 210 392 33 n 150 23 15 n 83
4 3 6 3 21105 240 46.6 2 36 2 21 48 8 2,1O 39 1 34 8300 23 30 0 85
6 21114 270 46 4 2 35 5 21 49 5 270 389
3 57 35 n45n
9 no
23 45 n
no
XR
n 3 5 I 21 1 2 2 300 46 3 2 34 n 21 5 0 2 300 38 7 30 24 90
in 3 4 6 21131 330 46 I 2 34 I 21 5 1 n rm 385 37 9 150 24 1 5 n 93
12 3 4 0 21 1 3 9 n 46 o 2 33 4 21 51 7 n 3x3 38 9 300 24 3n n 95
14 3 3.5 21 1 4 . 8 30 4 5 ~ 2 327 21 5 2 4 30 3 8 2 39 9 450 24 45 0 on
16 3 29 21156 60 4 5 7 2 32 0 21 53 I Go 380
25 0 0 10n
25 1 5 0 IO 3
18 3 23 21 1 6 5 9n 45 ti 2 31 3 21 5 3 8 90 3 7 x 25 30 0 10 5
20 3 18 21173 120 45 4 2 3 0 5 21 54 ti izn 3 7 6 25 45 n IO 8
22 a 1.2 21 18 I 150 45 3 c2 298 121 5 5 3 i a 374 20 n o
H. D. 0.3 0.4 ... .. . 0.1 04 .... . I1 0
45 II I n 26 1 5 0 I1 3
Saturday 28 46 11 38.0 26 3n n I1 5
n 47 11 4 5 0 26 45 0 11 x
48 12 0 0 27 0 0 I2 0
2 49 12 1 5 0 27 1 5 0 12 3
4 SEMIDIAMETER
6 50 1 2 3 0 0 27 30 0 I2 5
51 12450 or 45 n I2 x
8 2 583 21 2 2 3 300 44 6 I 5 2 l a n o 28 0 0 1.5 0
in 2 57 7 21 23 1 330 44 4 53 1.3 15 0 LX 1 5 0 33
12 2 57 1 21 2 3 9 0 443 54 13 3 0 0 zn 30 n 13 5
14 2 56.5 21 24 7 30 44 1 55 13450 28 45 n 13 8
16 2 5 5 9 21 25 6 60 44 0 56 14 0 0 29 o n 40
16: 2 55 2 21 26 4 90 4 3 8 57 141.50 29 1 5 0 14 3
20 2 5 4 6 21 2 7 2 120 4 3 7 58 14300 29 30 0 4 5
22 t 2 54 o +21 28 n 150 43 5 50 14 4 5 0 KI 45 n 4'1
H. D. 03 04 ...... 00 115 0.0 m no 50
NOrr.-Th8 Equation alTims is t o be ~ptlliedto Ihe 0 C T i i ncrardnoea wirh the liign 3s given
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 107

80 MOON, 1938
GREENWlCH CIVIL TIME

c. ,., alfh& lhwllna-

Uon
aresnwlch MultlplsrolVsrlstiol
H.A. perMlnute

JUNE 12
h b m a a , . e h h m a O ' ' '
0 14 50 24 -17 27.6 36 6.3 0 16 32 7-20 44.7 11 38.0
1 1452 30 17 33.7 49 38.4 1 1634 15 20 46.4 26 8.6
2 145436 17 39.9 64 7.4 2 183623 2048.1 4038.9
3 145642 17 46.0 78 38.4 3 163831 2048.7 55 9.4
4 145848 17 62.0 93 9.4 R 4 16 40 39 20 51.1 69 39.8 R.A. Dee. R . A .
5 15 054 17 57.9 107 40.3 m 5 16 42 47 20 52.5 84 10.3 m a "
6 15 3 0 18 3.7 122 11.3 1 6 16 4465 2053.7 98 40.7 I 2 0.0 14.5
7 15 5 6 18 9.5 136 42.2 2 7 1647 3 2054.9 113 11.2 2 4 0.0 19.0
8 15 7 12 18 15.1 151 13.1 3 8 16 49 11 20 55.9 127 41.6 3 0 0.0 43.5
9 15 9 18 18 20.7 16544.0 4 0.3 68.1 9 16 51 19 20 56.9 142 12.1 4 0 0.0 58.0
10 16 11 25 18 26.2 180 14.9 6 10 165327 2057.8 15642.6 5 11 -0.1 72.5
11 15 1331 18 31.6 19445.7 (I 11 16 55 35 20 58.5 171 13.0 0 13 0.1 B7.U
12 15 15 38 18 36.8 209 16.6 7 12 18 07 43 20 59.2 185 43.5 7 16 0.1 101.6
13 iS 17 44 18 42.0 223 47.4 8 13 16 69 51 20 59.7 200 14.0 8 I7 0 . 1 l I 0 . 1
14 15 19 51 18 47.2 238 18.2 8 14 17 159 21 0.2 21444.5 0 I Y 0.1 130.6
15 15 21 58 18 52.2 252 49.0 IO ia 17 4 7 21 0.5 229 14.9 LO 21 0.1 145.1
16 1524 4 1857.1 267 19.8 m 18 17 6 15 21 0.8 243 45.4 m 43 0.9 m.2
17 15 28 1 1 19 1.9 281 50.5 30 (L1 204354 17 17 823 21 1.0 258 15.9 30 el 0.3 435.2
18 15 28 18 19 6.7 296 21.3 40 3:61680:0 ia 17 1030 21 1.0 27246.5 40 Sd 0 . 4 W . 3
19 19 17 12 38 21 1.0 287 17.0 W 107 -0.5 72b.4
20 2a 17 14 46 21 0.9 301 47.5
21 21 17 16 54 21 0.6 316 18.0
22 21 17 19 1 21 0.3 33048.6
23 23 17 21 9 -20 59.9 345 19.1

JUNE 11 JUNE 13

I
0 1541 1-1933.2 23 25.4 0 172917.-2059.3 359 49.7
1 1543 8 19 37.3 3756.0 1 17 25 24 2058.7 14 20.3
2 45 15 1941.3 5226.6 2 17 27 32 20 58.0 28 50.9
3 154723 1945.2 6657.2 3 17 29 39 20 57.1 43 21.5
4 154930 1849.0 81 27.8 R.A. DW. II. 4 4 17 31 46 20 56.2 57 52.1 R.A. Dsc. II. A
6 1551 38 1952.7 0558.4 m 8 ' ' 5 17 33 54 20 55.2 72 22.7
6 1653 45 19 56.3 110 29.0 1 2 0.0 14.: 6 1736 1 20 64.1 86 53:4 0:Ol 14:5
7 155553 1959.8 12459.6 2 4 -0.1 28.C 7 1738 8 20 52.8 101 24.1 2 4 to.) 9 . 0

1 I;
8 15 58 1 20 3.2 139 30.1 3 0 0.1 43.: 8 17 40 15 ?O 51.5 115 54.8 3 e 0.1 43.6
9 16 0 8 20 6.6 154 0.7 4 8 0.2 M.( 9 17 42 22 20 50.1 130 25.4 4 8 0.1 58.1
10 16 2 16 20 9.8 168 31.2 5 11 0.2 72.! P 10 17 44 29 20 48.G 144 56.2 5 0.1 72.6
11 16 424 20 12.9 183 1.8 6 13 0.3 87.1 11 17 46 38 20 47.0 159 26.9
12 16 6 31 20 16.0 197 32.3 7 15 0.3 IO1.t 12 17 48 43 20 45.3 173 57.6
13 16 839 20 18.9 212 2.8 8 17 0.4 110.1 13 17 50 50 20 43.5 188 28.4
14 16 1047 2021.7 22633.3 0 10 0 . 4 130.4 14 17 52 57 20 41.6 202 59.2 0 I9 0.3 130.6
15 I6 12 55 20 24.5 241 3.8 10 21 0.5 145. v 15 1755 3 20 3%6 217 30.0 I d all 0.31 145.1
16 16 15 3 20 27.1 255 34.3 m 4a 1.0 200.: 16 17 57 10 20 37.5 232 0.8 10 4 2 0.0 280.3
17 16 17 11 20 29.7270 4.8 30 el 1.6 435.: 17 17 59 16 20 35.3 246 31.7 39 61 0.8 436.4
18 16 19 19 2032.1 284 35.2 r10 86 2.0 w.: 18 18 123 2033.1 261 2.5 401 1 . 1 580.5
19 16 21 27 2034.4 299 5.7 W 108 -2.6 'is., 19 18 3 29 20 30.7 275 33.4 W 108 t 1 . 5 725.6
a0 162335 2036.7 313 36.2 20 18 535 20 28.2 280 4.3
21 162543 2038.8 328 6.6 21 18 7 41 20 25.7 304 35.3
22 16 27 51 20 40.9 342 37.1 22 18 947 20 23.0 319 6.2
23 1629 69 2042 8 357 7.6 23 18 11 53 20 20.3 333 37.2
24 1632 7-20 44.7 11 38.0 24 18 13 59 -20 17.4 348 8.2
-
OreaIl'plCll Moon's hloon's IIori~onlal
ChII Tima Scinidlmefer Porsllsx

11 0
15:O
14.9
1 55:O
54.6
d
12 0
13 0
I1
14 8
14.8
54.3
54.1
.
108

6 21 46 29 ,,-14 8.6
7 21 47 13
8 21 47 57

15 21 62 54

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
21 54 16
21 54 55
21 55 34
21 56 13

21 57 30
21 58 8
21 58 45
25 21 59 22
26 21 59 58
27 22 0 34
29122
28

6
7
22 1 4 9

22
22

9 22 7 4
10 22 7 33
11 22 8 2
12 22 8 29
4

1 22 2 6 2
2 I 2 2 3 26
'
9 21 4841 I' 13 57.8
10 21 4024

12 21 50 49
E

1253.1
12

3 22 368 ,-1241.9
4
5
22
22
4 31
5 2
i
14 5.0
14 1.4
13 54.3
11 21 50 7 ,2 -13 50.8
13 47.3
13 21 51 31 " 13 43.8
::
14 21 52 13 " 1340.5
13 37.1

13 14.2
13 11.1
13 8.0
13 4.9

1'
U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

APRIL

,I
3,7

:::
3,G

:::
3,5
3,8

3,5
3,,

i::
3,.1

3,1
3,1
3,1
3,0
223
e

223 48.9

23327.3
234 16.2
21 53 35 ,0-13 33.7 3,3 235 5 . 1 15.Wo 8
,
15.w

13 30.4 3,3 235 54.2 1 5 . ~ 1 8

13 27.1 3 , 3 236 43.3 15.0342 8
13 23.8 3,2 237 32 6 1 5 . 0 ~ 2 8
13 20.6 3,z 238 22.0 15.0543 8
21 56 52 ,-I3 17.4 3,2 239 11.5
240 1.1
240 60.8
241 40.6
242 30.6
,

1.3 l5.oJ31
22436.0 15.0332
225 24.4 1s.oaz
226 12.2 1s.0333
227 0.2 is.030
227 48 2 IS 0334
228 36.4 I:.WSI
22924.6 1 ~ 0 3 %
230 13.0 15.0830
231 1.4
231 50.0
2a'L 38.F

-13 1.9 3.0 243 20.6 15.05a 7 46

12 58.9 z,o 244 10.8 15.0318 7 42
56.0 z2,0

6 34 32 12 34.0
6 4 *,
12 31.4
8 22 6 34 so-12 28.9
12 56.5
12 24.1

13 22 8 67 ,-I2 17.1
14 22 9 2 4
I5 22 950
16 22 10 15
12 14.9
12 12.8
12 10.7
17 22 10 40 %-12 8.6
, j 2246

-12474

12 39.2
*'
11 36.6

12 21.7
12 19.4
& 5 51.1

9,s

z,4

i::
:::
::;
:::
1 . ~i&.ai.w
1 m 5 / 7 330
30 22 2 19 g-1260.2 2,8 24642.1 15.0352 7 32

MAY
24732 8 16ra6z 7 2 9
12 44:6 ~:~124823:6/ia:mal7 25

:::
i::
249 14.5 i6.m
6

250 6.6 i 5 . m ~
250 56.8 1 6 . W
JUPITER, 1938
GREENWICH CIVIL T I M E

15.0337
15.03%

251 48.1 1 5 . ~ 7
252 39.6 1 5 . W
253 31.2 16.w 7 6
254 23.0 1 5 . W 7 2
255 14.8 15.0381 658
b m
9 7
9 4
9 0
857
8 54
8 51
8 48
8 44
841
8 38

15m:i8 8 28

722
7 19
7 16
7 12
7 8

256 6.9 1 6 . ~ 1 2 6 5 4
256 69.1 i5.oaas 6 51
25761.4 l 5 . W 6 48
25843.8 15.03~3 6 4 4
26936.4 I . 5 M I341
26029.1 16:038? 6 3 7
261 22.0 16.m 6 34
!1 22 12 14 ,-12
2!

2
3
4
5
6
22 12 36
!3 22 12 58
14 22 13 18
!5 22 13 39
8 35 56 22 13 58
8 32 !7 22 14 17
!8 22'14 35
1 5 . m ~ 8 2 5 !9 22 14 52
1 ~ . 0 % o 8 22

15.owk
15.1~46
15.084~
IJ.QIG
15.0347
18
1.5
12

8 2
9
5

7 59
7 56
7 52
7 49
LO 22 15 9

7 22
8 22
9 2
0
.l'$!
22
22
22
22
22

8 22 18 17
.9 22 18 19
!o 22 18 21
!1 22 18 23
!2
!3
!4
!6
!6
16 59
17 10
17 20
1729
17 37
17 45
17 52
17 58
18 4
18 9
1.0
11 59.2
11 57.5
11 55.8
yi
11 54.2

:i
l7

:
I1 I22 15 25 & l l 46.0

I
1 22 1'6 41 1,1-11 44.8
2 22 I5 56 15-11 43.7 l , o
3 22 16 10 11 42.7 l,o
4 22 16 23 l3 11 41.7
5 22 16 36 l3 11 40.8
6 22 16 48 ::
11 40.0 o,B

'i

7 22 18 13 ,-I1 36.2 o , l
11 35.1
11 35.2
11 35.3 o,?
11 35.5 ,,,z
22 18 23 o-ll 35.7
22 18 23
22 1 8 2 2
22 18 20
22 18 18
!7 22 18 16
!8 22 18 11
I9 22 18 6
LO t
17 66
I1 22 18
11 36.0
11 36.4
.:
11 36.9
11 37.4

'-11
-11 52.7
11 51.2
11 49.8
11 48.5
11 47.2

JUNE

-11 39.2
11 38.5
11 37.8
11 37.3
11 36.8
,-1111 36.0
36.3

11 38.7
11 39.4
11 40.2
:::
:::
i::
1,3

l,J

:::
z:;
O"
::!
11 35.7 :::.287
11 35.4
11 36.3 ::;

o,3

:::
:::
i::
.
264 55.1 15.0372
265 48.7 15.U373
266 42.5 15.0311
287 36.5 1s.m;~
2G8 30.6 15.03ia
26924.9 is.win
270 19.3 is.om
271 13.9 1S.oJi'J
272 8.7 1.%.0381
273 3.6 1s.w~
273 58.7115.iwl

274 54.01 16.0385/

275 49A
276 45.1
277 40.8
278 36 8
279 32.9
16.0386~
is.0387
16.ain8
15.0%9
15.0301

280 29.2 10.03~2 ti i7

281 25.7 16.0303 6 14
28222.4 15. 81
283 19.2 , 0 5 w ~
284 16.2 15.0307 6 2
o,3 285 13.4 16.0398
286 10.8 1 6 . 0 3 ~
8.4 15.01a)
288 6.1 1S.MOl
288 4.0 16.0103
290 2.1
291 0.4
i:; 291 58.8
292 57.4
293 56.3
1I.MM
15.oMo
16.0107
16.MCB
1P.MW

294 55.3 15.M11

295 64.11 15.MIZ
296 53.9 lS.0413
297 63.4 16.0114
298 63.2 1s.0116
-11 38.0 o,, 299 63.1 IS.Ml7
300 53.2 1s.Mi8
801 63.51 8 . ~ 1 9
41.1 o,Q 30264.0
Hcf. Pu.llu: Jsn. 1. V.W Fob. 1.V.m; Mar. 1.V.M, Apt. 1, V.W, May. I.V.op, l- 1,V.m; July 1.W.a
303 64.7 M.MZI
i 6 . o ~
147

6 19
6 16
6 12
6 9
6 5
6 1
5 58
5 54
5 50
5 47
5 43

5 40
5
5
5
5
36
32
28
25
6 21

4 €23
A64
4 61
447
443
4 38
436
4 31
4 27
4 24
4 20
4 I6
4 12
4 8
4 4
4 0
3 M
,982
are.
~3 44
' ~
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 109

CORRECTION TO BE ADDED TO TABULATED GREENWICH HOUR 159

ANGLE OF PLANETS
-
Verlslloo of Eout Angle pfr Mlnute
nrr
- -
1 15
2 30
3 45'
4 60
5 75 6 0 6 3 6 6 6.9 7.2 7 5 7 8 81 8 4 8.7 9.0 9.3 9.6 9910.210.510.811.111.411.7 5
6 90 7.2 7 6 7 9 8 3 8.6 9 0 9 4 9710110.410.811.21I511912.212.613.013.313.714.0 6
7 105 8 4 8 8 9 2 9 7 10.110.510 911.3I 1 8 12.212.613.013.413 9 14.314.715.1 15.516.016.4 7
8 120 9 6 10.1 10 6 1 1 0 11.512.0 12.513 0 13 4 13.914.414.915.415.816.316.8173 17.818.2 18.7 8
9 135 10.8I 1 3 1 1 9 12.413.013.514 0 14 6 15 115.716.216.717.317 8 18.418.919.420.020.521.1 9
10 150 12 0 12 6 13 2 13 8 14 4 15.015 6 16 2 16 8 17.418.0I8 6 I9 2 19 820.421.021.622.222.821.4 10
11 I65 I3213914 515215.816.517217818.5l9 119820521 121 822.423.123.824.425.125.7 11
12 180 14 4 1 5 1 1 5 8 1 6 6 1 7 . 3 1 8 . 0 1 8 . 7 1 9 4 2 0 2 2 0 9 2 1 , 6 2 2 3 2 3 0 2 3 8 2 4 , 5 2 5 . 2 2 5 , 9 2 6 . 6 2 7 . 4 2 ~ . 1 12
13 195 1.5 616 4 17.217.918.719.520321 121.822.623.424225025 726.527.328.128.929.630.4 13
14 210 16 X 17.618 519.320.221.021822 723.524.425.226.026.927 728.629.430.231.131.932.8 14
15 225 I8 0 1 R 0 19 820.721 622.523 4 24 3 25 2 26.127 0 27 928 829 7 30.631.533.433.334.235.1 15
16 240 19 2 20 2 21 122.123.024.025025.926.927.8128:829:830:731.7 32.633.6134.635.536.537.4 16

17 2.55
18 270
19 285
20 300
21
22
23
- -
315
330
345
3'36 5'37 8'39 1'40 3\41 6142 8!44 1!45446 6\47949.1 21
038 339 IJ 10 942 243 644 946 247 548 8'50 251 5 24
OI40 0 4 1 4 42 844
I 249.5
I , 349
46 948 I 7I51 11
l52 4 l53 8 23 I
-
Verlstloa 01 Rour Angle pi hllnule
Urb

.;k;#
nrs
I .MII .M2I .M3I
, . I ,

15'.0IO
-
1 e0 5.0 i
i51 6
5.2 1
2
3' 45 7.2 .4 7.6 7.7
4 60 9.6 9.810.110.3
5 75 12.012.312.612.9
6 90 14.414.815.1 15.5
7 105 16.817.217.618e1
8 120 19.219.720.220.6
9 135 21 622.122.723.2
10 150 24 024.625.225.8
11 165 26.427.127.728.4
12 180 28.829.530.231.0
13 195 31.232.032.833.5
14 210 33 634.435336.1
15 225 36.036.937.838.7
16 240 38.439.440.341.3
17 255 40 841.842.843.9
18 270 43.244.345.446.4
19 285 45.646.747949.0
20 300 48.049.250.4516
21 315 50.451.752.954.2
22 330 52.854.155.456.8
23 345 55.256.658.059.3
110 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

CORRECTION T O BE ADDED TO TABULATED GREENWICH 161

HOUR ANGLE OF PLANETS
- Vlvlation of Uour Angle per Mlnute
- -
Tlms 1%. Orr.

- -
rn
0 0 0.0
1 1 0.3
2 2 0.5
3 3 0.8
4 4 1.o
5 5 1.3
6 6 1.5
7 7 1.8
8 159.8 8 2.0
9 2 14.8 9 2.3
10 2 29.8 229.9 2 30.0 2 30.1 2 30.2 2 30.3 2 30.4 2 30.5 2 30.6 2 30.7 10 2.5
11 2 44.8 2 44.9 2 45.0 2 45 1 2 45 2 2 45.3 2 45.4 2 45.5 2 45.7 245.8 11 2.8

‘{ *;!
12 2 59.8 259.9 3 0.0 3 0.1 3 0.2 3 0.4 3 0.5 3 0.6 3 0.7 3 0.8 12 3.0
13 3 14.7 3 14.9 3 15.0 3 15.1 3 15.3 3 15.4 3 15.5 3 15.6 3 15.8 3 15.9 13 3.3
14 3 29.7 3 29.9 3 30.0 3 30.1 3 30.3 3 30.4 3 30.6, 3 30.7 3 30.8 3 31.0 14 3.5
15 3 44.7 3 44.8 3 45.0 345.2 345 3 15 3.8
16 3 59.7 3 59.8 4 0.0 4 0.2 4 03 16 4.0
17 4 14.7 4 14.8 4 15.0 4 15.2 4 15 3 17 4.3
18 4 29.6 4 2 9 . 8 4 30.0 430.2 4 30.1 18 4.5
19 4 44.6 4 44.8 4 4BD 445.2 4 45.4 19 4.8
20 4 59.6 4 59.8 5 0.0 5 0.2 5 0.4 5 0 6 5 0 8 5 1.0 20 5.0
21 5 14.6 5 14.8 5 15 0 5 15.2 5 15.4 5 15.6 5 15 8 5 16.0 21 G.3
22 5 29.6 5 2 9 . 8 530.0 5 3 0 2 5 3 0 4 5 3 0 7 5 3 0 9 5 3 1 . 1 22 5.5
23 5 44.5 5 4 4 . 8 5 45.0 5 45.2 5 45.5 5 45 7 5 45.9 5 46.1 23 5.8
24 5 59.5 5 59.8 6 0.0 6 0 2 6 0.5 6 0.7 6 1.0 6 1.2 24 6.0
25 6‘ 14.5 6 14.8 6 15.0 6 15 2 6 15.d 6 15.7 6 16.0 6165 6168 25 6.3
26 6 29.5 629.7 6300 630.3 630.5 630.8 631.0 631.3 631 6 631 R 26 6.5
27 6 44.5 6 44.7 6 45.0 6 4.5 3 6 45..5 6 45 8 6 46 1 6 46.3 6466 8469 27 6.8
28 6 59.4 659.7 7 00 7 0.3 7 06 7 0.8 7 11 7 1.4 7 17 7 20 28 7.0
29 7 14.4 7 14.7 7 15.0 7 15.3 7 15.6 7 15.9 7 16.2 7 16 4 7167 7170 29 7.3
30 7 29.4 7 29.7 7 30.0 7 30.3 7 30.6 7 30.9 7 31.2 7 31.5 731 8 732 1 30 7.5
31 7 44.4 744.7 745.0 745.3 745.6 745.9 746.2 746.5 7469 7472 31 7.8
32 7 59.4 7 59.7 8 0.0 8 . 0.3 8 0.6 8 1.0 8 13 8 16 8 19 8 22 32 8.0
33 8 14 3 8 14.7 8 15.0 8 15.3 8 15.7 8 16.0 8 16 3 8 16 0 8170 8173 33 8.3
34 8 29.3 8 29.7 8 30.0 8 30.3 8 30.7 8 31 0 8 31.4 8 31 7 8320 8324 34 8.5
35 8 44.3 8 44.6 5 45.0 8 45.4 8 45.7 8 46.0 8 40.4 8 46.7 8 47 1 35 88
36 8 59.3 859.6 9 00 9 0.4 9 0.7 9 1.1 9 14 9 1.8 9 22 36 9.0
37 9 14.3 9 14.6 9 150 9 15.4 9 15 7 9 16 1 9 16.5 9 16 8 9 17 2 37 9.3
38 9 29.2 929.6 9300 9304 9308 9311 931.5 931.9 9323 38 9.5
39 9 44.2 944.6 945.0 945.4 945 8 946 2 948.6 9 46.9 9 47.3 39 9.8
40 9 59.2 959.6 10 0 . 0 10 0.4 10 0 8 10 1.2 10 1 6 10 2 01 40 10.0
41 10 14.2 10 14.6 10 15 0 10 15.4 10 1.5 8 10 16.2 10 16.6 IO 17 0, 41 10.3
42 10 29.2 1029.6 1030.0 1030.4 1 0 3 0 8 1031 3 1031 7 1 0 3 2 1 42 10.5
43 10 44.1 10 44 6 I O 45.0 10 45.4 10 45 9 10 46.3 10 46.7 10 47 I 43 10.8
44 10 59.1 10596 11 0.0 11 0.4 11 0.9 11 1.3 11 1.8 11 2 2 44 11.0
45 11 14.1 11 14.6 11 15.0 11 15 4 11 15.9 11 16 3 11 16.8 11 17.2 45 11.3
46 11 29.1 11 29.5 11 30.0 11 30.5 1 1 30.9 11 31 4 11 31.8 11 32 3 46 11.5
47 11 44.1 11 44.5 11 45 0 11 45 5 11 45.9 I 1 46 4 11 46 9 11 47 3 47 11.8
413 11 59.0 11 59.5 12 0.0 12 0.5 12 1.0 12 1.4 12 1 9 12 2.4 48 12.0
49 12 14.0 12 14.5 12 15.0 12 15.5 12 16.0 12 16.5 12 17.0 12 17.4 49 12.3
5a 12 29.0 12 29.5 12 30.0 12 30.5 12 31.0 12 31.5 12 32.0 12 32.5 12 33 0 12 33.5 50 12.5
51 12 44.0 12 44.5 12 45.0 12 45.5 12 46.0 12 46.5 12 47.0 12 47.5 12 48.1 12 48.6 51 12.8
51 12 59.0 12 59.5 13 0.0 13 0.5 13 1.0 13 1.6 13 2.1 13 2.6 13 3.1 13 3.6 52 13.0
52 13 13.9 13 14.5 13 15.0 13 15.5 13 16.1 13 16.6 13 17.1 13 17.6 13 18.2 13 18.7 53 13.3
54 13 28.9 13 29.5 13 30:O 13 30.5 13 31.1 13 31.6 13 32.2 13 32.7 13 33.2 13 33.8 54 13.5
5: 13 43.9 13 44.4 1 3 45.0 13 45.6 13 46.1 13 46.6 13 47.2 13 47.7
13 48.3 13 48.8 55 13.8
5E 13 58.9 13 59.4 14 0.0 14 0 6 14 1.1 14 1.7 14 2.2 14 2.R
14 3.4 14 3.9 56 14.0
5i 14 13.9 14 14.4 14 15.0 14 15.6 14 16.1 14 16.7 14 17.3 14 17.8
14 18.4 14 19.0 57 14.3
56 14 28.8 14 29.4 14 30.0 14 30.6 14 31.2 14 31.7 14 32.3 14 32.9
14 33.5 14 34.1 58 14.5
51 14 43.8 14 44.4 14 45 0 14 45.0, 14 46.2 14 46.8 14 47.4 14 47.9
14 48.5 14 49.1 59 14.8
6l 14 58.8 14 59 41 1.5 0.01 15 0 61 15 1.21 15 1.81 15 2.41 15 3.01 15 3.61 15 4.2’ 60 15.0
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 111

GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE OF POLARIS, 1938 265

FOR Ob GREENWICH CIVIL TIME
- - -
I " I . , I . , * ?

Jnn. 1 74 26 3 lay 1 193 2 9 ily 1 252 56 3 lov. 1 I3 44 5

2 75 25.8 2 I94 I 9 2 253 55 2 2 I4 43 6
3 76 25 2 3 195 1.0 3 254 54 0 3 15 42 8
4 77 24 6 4 196 0.0 4 255 52 8 4 16 42 0
5 78 24 0 5 196 59.0 5 1256 51 6 5 1741 1
6 79 23 5 6 137 48 6 6 197580 6 257 50 5 6 318 39 2 6 18 40 3
7 no 22 9 7 138 47 9 7 I98570 7 258 49 3 7 31938.1 7 I9 39 .5
8 R I 22.3 8 139 47 2 8 19956.0 8 259 48.1 8 320 37 0 8 20 38 7
9 R221 7 9 140 46 5 9 200550 9 260 47 0 9 321 35 9 9 21 37 8
in 8321 1 IO 141 45 8 10 201 54 0 IO 261 45 8 10 322 34.9 10 22 37 0
11 84 20 6 11 142452 1 1 202 53 0 1 1 262 44 6 11 323 33 8 11 23 36 2
12 85 20 0 12 143 44 5 12 203 52 0 12 263 43 4 12 324 32 7 12 24 3; 4
13 86 19 4 13 144 43 8 13 204509 13 264 42 3 13 325 31 7 13 25 34 7
14 87 18 9 14 14543 I 14 205499 M 26541 I 14 326306 14 26 33 9
15 88 I8 3 15 I46 42 4 15 206 48 9 15 266 39.9 15 327 49 5 15 27 33 I
16 89 177 16 147 41 6 16 207 47.8 16 267 38 7 16 28 32 3
17 90 I7 2 17 I48 40 9 17 208 46 8 17 268 37 6 17 2931 5
I8 91 166 18 149402 18 209 45 7 18 269 36 4 1P 30 30 8
19 92 16 0 19 150395 19 21044 6 19 270 35 2 IS 31 300
20 93 15 4 20 I51 38 7 20 211 43 6 20 271 34.1 2c 32 29 3
21 94 14 9 21 IS238 0 21 212425 21 272 32 € 21 333 23 3 21 33 28 5
22 95 14 3 22 I53 37 3 22 21341 5 22 273 31 7 22 334 22 2 22 34 27 8
23 96 13 7 23 15436.5 23 214 40.4 23 274 30 E 23 335 21 2 22 35 27 0
24 97 13 2 24 15535.8 24 215 39 3 24 275 29 2 24 336 20 2 24 36 26 3
25 98 12 6 25 156350 25 216 38 3 25 276 28 A 25 337 19 2 2: 37 25 5
26 99 120 26 I57 34 3 26 217 37.2 26 277 27 ( 26 338 18 1 2( 38 24 8
27 I00 11 5 27 15833.5 27 218 36 1 27 278 25 S 27 339 17 I 2i 39 24 I
28 I01 109 28 159 32 7 28 219 35.0 28 279 24 i 28 340 16 1 2t 40 23 4
29 102 10 3 29 16031 9 29 220 33.9 29 280 23 : 29 341 15 1 2s 41 22 7
3a 103 9 8 30 161 31 1 30 221 32 8 30 281 22 1 30 342 14 1 3( 42 21 9
31 104 92 31 16230.3 31 22231 7 31 28221 5 Oct. 1 343 13 I h c . ! 4321 2
Feb. 1 105 8 6 Lpr. 1 163 29 6 lune 1 223 30 6 i l l K . 1 283 20 ( 2 344 12 I 44 20 5
1 IO6 8.1 2 164 28.7 2 224 29 6 2 284 18 3 345 I I 1 45 199
2 107 75 3 I65 27.9 3 225 28 4 3 285 I7 8 4 346 IO 2 46 192
4 108 6.9 4 I6627 1 4 226273 4 286 16! 5 347 9 a 47 18 5
109 6 4 5 167 26.3 5 227 26 i 5 287 15 : 6 348 8 2 ! 48 I7 8
6 16825.4 6 228 25 I 6 288 I4 : 7 349 7 2 49 17 I
f 110 5 8
Ill 52 7 16924.6 7 229 23 S 7 289 I3 I 8 350 6 3 I 50 165
6 112 4 6 8 170 23.8 8 230 22.6 8 290 I I I 9 351 5 3 q 51 1 5 8
f 113 4 1 9 171 229 9 1231 21 i 91291 I O ' 10 352 4 3 11 52 15 I
I( 114 3 5 10 17222 1 IO 232 20 f 10 292 9 ! 11 353 3 4 1 53 14 5
I I I15 2 9 I 1 17321 2 I 1 233 19 1 I I 293 8 . 12 354 2 4 1: 54 13R
'5 116 2 3 12 174204 12 234 18 : 12 294 7 : 13 335 I 5 1: 59 132
1. 117 1 7 13 175 19 5 13 235 I7 13 295 6 14 356 06 1. 56 12 5
14 118 1 I 14 176 18 6 14 236 16 ( 14296 4' 15 356 59 6 I. 57 11 9
l i lis 0 5 15 177 17 € 15 237 I4 ! 15 297 3 I 16 357 58 7 11 58 I I 2
16 238 13 I6 298 21 17 358 57 I 1' 59 106
;; 120 0 0
120 59 3
16 178 165
17 I79 I6 C
I8 180 15.1
17 239 12 t
18 240 11 ;
17 299 1
I

18300 0 :
18 359
19 055 I
56 C 11
I'
60 9 9
61 9 3
:t 121 58.7
122 58 1 19 181 142 19 241 I O . 19 300 59 ' 20 155c 2
1 62 8 7
2( I23 57 5 20 182 13 3 20 242 9 1 20 301 58., 21 254 I 2 63 81
21 I24 56 9 21 I83 12 4 21 243 8 1 21 30256 22 3 53 5 2 64 7 4
2: 125 56 3 22 I84 I I 4 22 244 6 I 22 303 55
I 23 4 52 i 2 65 6 8
2: I26 55 6 23 185 101 23 245 5.l 23 304 54. 24 5 5 1 4 2 06 6 2
2' 127 55 a 24 186 9f 24 246 4.! 24 305 53 1 25 6 50f 2 67 5 6
2! I28 54 4 25 187 8 6 25 247 3.: 25 30652 2F 7 49; 2 68 5 0
2l I29 53 7 26 188 77 26 248 2: 26 30751 27 8486 2 69 4 4
2; I30 53 I 27 I89 6 f 27 249 1 I 27 308 60 28 9471 2 70 3 8
21 131 52 5 28 190 5 f 28 249 59 ! 28 309 49 29 1047.1 2 71 3 2
2! 132 51 E 29 191 41 29 25058 , % 1310 48 1 30 1 1 46: 3 72 2 6
3l 133 51 1 30 192 3( 30 1251 57 i 30 1311 46
31 31245 31I
32 1344.
i
12 45 3
3
73 2 0
74 1 4
3 134 50 5 31 193 2 s 31 25256.
112 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

TABLE 111 269

FOR FINDING LATITUDE BY AN OBSERVED ALTITUDE OF POLARIS, 1938
HOUR ANGLE, ARGUMENT
Correction for Local Bow Angle to be Applied to True Altitude
- - I

--
L.H.A.

.,-
CWr. AHA. Cm.

. I
..HA
c -con.
<.HA.

.,-
0 -1 1.0 60 -0 30.4 120 +O 31.2 180 +1 1.0 240 +O 31.2 300 -0 30.4
1 1 1.6 01 0 29.4 121 0 32.1 181 1 1.0 24 1 0 30.3 301 0 31.3
2 1 1.5 62 0 28.5 122 0 33.0 182 1 1.6 242 o 28.3 302 o a2.2
3 1 1.5 63 0 27.5 123 0 33.9 183 1 1.5 243 0 28.4 303 0 33.2
4 1 1.4 04 o 20.8 124 0 34.8 164 1 1.4 244 0 27.4 304 0 34.1
5 -1 1.3 05 -0 25.6 125 +o 35.7 185 +I 1.4 245 +O 26.5 305 -0 35.0
0 1 1.2 00 0 24.6 126 0 36.6 186 1 1.a 240 0 25.5 306 0 35.8
7 1 1.1 07 0 23.0 127 0 37.4 187 1 1.1 247 0 24.5 307 0 36.7
8 I 1.0 08 o 22.e 128 0 38.3 188 I 1.a 248 0 23.5 308 0 37.6
9 I 0.8 69 0 21.0 129 0 39.1 189 1 0.E 249 0 22.5 309 0 38.4
10 -1 0.0 70 -0 20.0 130 +o 39.9 im +1 0.7 250
11 1 0.4 71 0 19.0 131 0 40.7 191 1 0.6 25 1
12 1 0.2 72 0 18.5 132 0 41.5 192 1 0.3 252
13 1 0.0 73 0 17.5 133 0 42.3 193 1 0.c 253 0 41 7
I4 0 59.7 74 0 16.5 134 0 43.1 194 o 59.8 254
15 -0 59.5 75 -0 15.4 135 +o 43.8 195 +O 59.6 255 +O 16.5 315 -0 43.3
10 0 59.2 70 0 14.4 130 0 44.0 190 0 59.1 250 0 15.4 316 0 44.0
17 0 58.8 77 0 13.3 137 0 45.3 197 0 58.9 257 o 14.4 317 o 44.a
18 0 58.5 78 0 12.3 138 0 460 198 0 58.0 258 0 13.3 318 0 45.5
19 0 58.2 79 0 11.2 139 0 40.7 199 0 58.3 259 0 12.3 319 0 46.2
20 -0 67.8 80 -0 10.2 140 +o 47 4 200 +o 57.9 260 +O 11.2 320 -0 47.0
21 0 57.4 81 0 9.1 141 0 48.1 201 0 57.0 261 0 10.2 321 0 47.0
23 0 57.0 82 0 8.0 142 0 48.7 202 0 57.2 202 0 9.1 322 0 48.3
23 0 50.0 83 0 7.0 143 0 49.4 203 o 60.8 203 0 8.0 323 0 49.0
24 0 50.2 84 0 5.9 144 0 60.0 204 0 56.4 264 0 7.0 324 0 49.6
25 -0 55.7 85 -0 4 . 8 145 +O 50.0 205 +o 55.g 205
20 0 55.2 80 0 37 140 0 51.2 206 0 55.5 266
27 0 54.8 87 0 2.7 147 0 51.8 207 0 55.0 207
28 0 54.2 88 0 1.6 148 0 52 4 208 0 54.5 268 0 52.1
29 0 53.7 89 -0 0.5 149 0 52.9 209 0 54.0 209 0 1.0 0 52.7
30 -0 53.2 80 +O 0.0 150 +o 53.5 210 +o 53.5 270 +O 06 330 -0 53 2
31 0 52.7 91 0 1.0 151 0 54.0 211 0 52.9 271 -0 05 331 0 53 7
32 0 52.1 92 0 2.7 152 0 54.5 212 0 52.4 272 0 16 332 0 54 2
33 0 51 5 93 0 3.8 153 0 55.0 213 o 51.8 273 0 27 333 0 558
34 0 50.9 94 0 4.8 154 0 55.5 214 0 51.2 274 0 37 334 0 55 2
35 -0 50.3 95 +O 5 9 155 +0.55.9 215 +O 50.6 275 -0 48 335 -0 5 5 7
36 0 496 96 0 7.0 150 0 50.4 216 0 50.0 270 0 59 336 0 56 2
37 0 49.0 97 0 8a 157 0 56.8 217 0 49.4 277 01 70 337 0 56 6
38 0 48.3 98 0 9.1 158 0 57.2 218 0 48.7 278 o ao 338 o 570
39 0 47.6 99 0 10.2 159 0 57.6 219 0 48.1 279 0 9 1 339 0 57 4
40 -0 47.0 100 +O 11.2 100 +o 57.9 220 +o 47.4 280 -0 1 0 2 340 -0 5 7 8
41 0 46.2 101 0 12.3 161 0 58.3 22 1 0 46.7 28 1 0112 341 0582
42 0 45.5 102 0 133 102 0 58.6 222 0 46.0 282 0 I23 342 0 58 5
43 0 44.8 103 0 14.4 163 0 589 223 0 45.3 283 0 133 343 0 588
44 0 44.0 104 0 15.4 164 0 59.2 224 0 44.8 284 0 14 4 344 0 592
45 -0 43.3 105 +O 10.5 105 +o 59.5 225 +o 43.8 285
40 0 42.5 106 0 17.5 166 0 59.8 226 0 43.1 286
47 0 41.7 107 0 18.5 167 1 0.0 227 0 42.3 287
48 0 40.9 108 0 19.5 108 1 0.3 228 0 41.5 288
49 0 40.1 109 0 20.5 169 1 0.5 229 0 40.7 280 0 19.6 1 0.4
60 -0 a9.3 110 +O 21.5 170 0.7 230 +o 39.9 280 -0 20.6 350 -1 0.6
51 0 38.4 111 0 225 171 0.8 23 1 0 39.1 29 1 0 21.0 I 0.8
52
53
0 37.6
0 30.7
112
I13
0 23 5
0 24.5
172
173
1.o
1.1
232
233
0 38.3
0 37.4
292
293
0 22.6
0 23.6
%
353
1 1.0
1 1.1
54 0 35.8 114 0 25.5 174 1.3 234 0 30.0 294 0 24.0 354 1 1.2
55
50
-0 35.0
0 34.1
115
110
t o 26.5
0 27.4
175 I .4 235 +o 35.7 295 -0 25.0 355 -1 1.3
176 1.4 236 0 34.8 290 0 200 350 1 1.4
57 0 33.2 117 0 28.4 177 1.5 237 0 33.9 297 0 27 5 357 1 1.5
58 0 32.2 118 0 29.3 178 1.5 238 0 33.0 298 0 28.5 368 1 1.5
59 0 31.3 119 0 30.3 179 1.6 239 0 32.1 299 0 29.4 359 1 1.6
60 -0 30.4 120 tO 31.2 180 1.6 240 +O 31.2 300 -0 30.4 I 300 I -1 1.0
 Chapter VI.-METEOROLOGY
THE AIRWAY WEATHER SERVICE 1

ORGANIZATION

With all of the advancements which have been made in instrument

flying and radio navigation, weather still remains one of the major
problems of aeronautics. Because of this, it is necessary that an
accurate and efficient. weather reporting and information service be
maintained along civil airways to guard against the uncertainty of
weather.
The Weather Bureau of the De artment of Agriculture is charged
K
with the responsibility of furnis ing an adequate meteorological
service for aviation. Its authopity is contained in the organic act
creating the Weather Bureau, which was amended after the passage
of the Air Commerce Act of 1926 to include specifically thefurnish-
ing of weather reports, forecasts, and warnings ((to promote the
safety and efficiency of air navigation in the United States and above
the high seas, particularly upon civil airways designated by the
Secretary of Commerce under authority of law as routes suitable for
air commerce.”
Over 500 stations have been established at intervals of 50 to 100
miles on civil airways in the United States, Alaska, and Hawaii, and
over 160 a t intervals of 100 to 200 miles off the airways in the United
States for reporting weather observations. The reports are collected
by teletype, radio, telegraph, and telephone and rela ed as required
over the Bureau of Air Commerce teletype system. t 52 important
airway terminals the Weather Bureau maintains first-order stations
1
with qualified meteorological personnel on duty 24 hours a day, where
reports are mapped and analyzed, and the meteorological situations
are discussed with pilots. In addition, there are 72 well-distributed
stations equipped for taking upper air wind observations, and 27
stations equipped for taking airplane upper air observations. The
airway weather service is controlled by 11 general su ervising sta-
tions; a map showing the supervising districts and the ocation of all
weather reporting stations in the United States may be obtained
P
upon request from the Chief, United States Feather Bureau,
Washington, D. C.
SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS

Weather observations aro taken hourly throughout the 24 hours a t

most of the stations located on busy airways. Special observations
are taken at those stations whenever marked changes in weather con-
ditions occur. Observations are taken a t 1:30 and 7:30 a. m. and
m., eastcrn standard time, a t stations located off tho airways.
&he observations consist of ceiling (height of cloud layer above the
ground) in feet, sky conditions, visibility in miles, weather conditions
(including prccipitation, squalls, etc.), obstructions to vision (dense
1 This sectlon prepared by the Aerologlcd Dlvlsion of the U.8. Weather Bureau.
113
114 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

fog, haze, etc.), temperature, dew point, wind direction and velocity,
barometric pressure, amount and type of clouds, and miscellaneous
information, such as thunderstorms, line squalls, etc. The stations
on civil airways report their observations in symbols on teletype and
radio circuits, as shown in figure 69, while off-airway stations, in-
cluding stations in Alaska and Canada, report their observations in a
word code.

ElS@ST+R+HL+ 75/73-)30+ 991 F I E L D FLOODED

T I I D R S T M MVG E
Ceiling estimated 1 200 feet. sky overcmt' visibility 2 miles; severe thunderstorm;
heavy rain. heavy hill. temierature 7 6 O . hew oint 73"- wind, west, 30 miles er
hour, stronk gusts; barobetric pressure (&a level~29.91indhes; fleld flooded; thunckr-
storm moving toward east.

FIGURE
6B.-Typical symbolized airway weather report, with interpretation.

Assuming that this weather report were broadcast at Cleveland, a t

9:31 a. m., it would be spoken over the radio as follows:
WWO Cleveland, Ohio: 9:31 a. m. ; Cleveland, Cleveland; ceiling estimated
one-thousand-two-hundred feet; ceiling estimated one-thousand-two-hundred
feet; sky overcast; visibility two miles; severe thunderstorm; heavy rain; heavy
hail; temperature seventy-five, dew point seventy-three; wind west thirty;
strong gusts; barometer twenty-nine ninety-one; field flooded; thunderstorm
moving east. WWO Cleveland, Ohio.
Ships at sea report weather observations at 8 a. m. and 8
eastern standard time, in a special figure code from which se ected
reports are transmitted on airway teletype circuits. For a complete
m.' Y
description of the observations and codes used, pilots are referred to
Weather Bureau publications, Circular N, Instructions for Airway
Meteorological Service, the 1936 Weather Code, and Publication No.
1046 International Code for Radio Weather Reports from Ships.
UPPER AIR OBSERVATIONS

All Weather Bureau first-order stations a t airway terminals and a

number of stations off the airways are equipped to take 6-hourly
observations of directions and velocities of upper air winds. The
observations are made by means of so-called pilot balloons, light-
weight balloons inflated with hydrogen gas to a diameter of approxi-
mately 26 inches. When released they ascend at a fairly uniform
rate of approximately 600 feet a minute. I n taking an observation,
the observer follows the baIloon with a theodolite, an instrument
similar to a surveyor's transit, and angular readings are made each
minute. From these data and the ascensional rate, wind direction
and velocity a t the height of the balloon are readily computed for
each minute of ascent. This information is transmitted in figures
and symbols, as shown in figure 70, by teletype and radio along the
airways shortly after the observations are completed. For a descrip-
tion of the code used, pilots are referred to the Weather Bureau
circular, Instructions for Reporting Pilot Balloon Observations.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 115
C V l l 02318 2422 22825 2728 42832
2844 62852 2867 83078 3087 03184
8202'
Cleveland, Ohio.
Time-1l:W a. m., 75th Meridian. I

0
1-
18
22
260 25
270 2R
ino 32
2x0 14
280 52
2w 67
300 78
3w R7
310 94
, 320 102

Velocities of 100 miles per hour or

over are indicated by adding 50 to the
direction flgures.

FIGURE'IO.-Typical symbolized report of pilot balloon observations, with interpretation.

Upper air observations are also made by means of airplanes a t 27
stations in the United States through cooperation of the Weather
Bureau, War, and Navy Departments. The Weather Bureau ob-
servations are made under contract with commercial pilots, while
Army and Navy pilots take the observations for their respective
services. In most cases, the flights are made daily at 4 a. m., eastern
standard time, to a height of 16,500 feet. The airplanes carry a
self-registering instrument (aerometeorograph) which records the
barometric pressure, temperature, and humidity, throu hout the flight.
After the airplanes return to the ground, the recor s made by the
instruments are evaluated and are coordinated with the visual obser-
%
vations made by the pilot, such as those of icing, heights of cloud bases
and tops, levels of precipitation, turbulence, vertical and oblique
visibility, etc. The information thus obtained is transmitted in code
form by airway teletype and radio, and is particularly useful in
identifying air masses, tracing their movement, and delimiting their
boundaries, along which so many of the weather changes occur. The
observations serve also to give pilots information regarding the height
of the top of cloud layers, regions of ice formation on the airplane,
elevations of extreme bumpiness, etc. For a descri tion of the code
used, see Weather Bureau circular, Instructions or Daily Trans-
mission of Airplane Weather Observations.
P
COMMUNICATIONS
A rapid communication system is of prime importance in collecting
and distributing weather information. Such a system is provided by
the Buroau of ilir Commerce in its network of teletypo and radio
circuits. All of the hourly airway weather reporting stations have
either teletype or radio connections to the land line circuits. A map
showing the teletype and radio circuits in the United States may be
obtained upon request, from the Director, Bureau of Air Commerce,
Washington, D. C.
The weather observations are collected in sequence each hour,
beginning with the first station on each circuit and continuing station
after stateionuntil all reports are collected. Relays between circuits
are made automatically as required. Since a report transmitted by
an station is received by all stations on the teletype circuit, complete
9
in ormation is available at every station after the sequences and relays
have been run. Most of the air transport companies have teletype
116 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

machines connected to the airway circuits, and thus secure the weather
information they need without loss of time. The reports for each
airway are broadcast by radio for the information of pilots in the air.
After that, they are turned over to the meteorologists for mapping or
posting on airport bulletin boards.
Reports from stations off the airways are collected by telegraph or
telephone every 6 hours at designated centers and relayed to teletype
circuits for use of all stations. Pilot balloon observations are broad-
cast locally and then transmitted in sequence on teletype and radio
circuits. Airplane observations are transmitted once a day on all
circuits.
WEATHER MAPS

A collection of weather reports gives a picture of instantaneous

weather conditions at each respective station. It does not ive a
picture of conditions over a large area unless the reports are p otted
on a map. For that reason, Weather Bureau airport stations plot
f
R large number of reports on base maps every 6 hours. Symbols we
used for brevity, and a description of them is fven in figure 71,
pages 117 to 119, from Weather Bureau circu ar Preparation of
Manuscript Maps.
.4n analysis of the data is made and lines are drawn on the map
through points of equal barometric pressure, with auxiliary lines
delineating the warm, cold, or occluded fronts between the air masses.
Copies of the maps are available to the air transport operators. Maps
in greater d e t d are prepared and analyzed at the general supervising
stations where forecasts are prepared. Detailed analyses of meteoro-
logical conditions over the United States are made daily in the Divi-
sion of Meteorological Research at the Central Office of the Weather
Bureau in Washington. The daily analysis of the 7:30 a. In., eastern
standard time, map is transmitted on teletype circuits in a special
figured code headed “AMAFA” and is described in Weather Bureau
c.ircular.entitled “Transmission of Air Mass and Frontal Analysis by
Teletype and Radio.” A typical weather map, with the analysis of
air masses and fronts indicated thereon, is given in figure 72.
AIRWAY FORECASTS

The airway forecasters are on duty 24 hours R day at the supervising

centers referred to at the end of the section headed “Organization.’)
They prepare regional forecasts for their respective districts, and ter-
minal airport forecasts every 6 hours covering an advance period
of 8 hours. Special intormediato forecasts nre issued when condi-
tions change rapidly. In addition, forecasts for advance periods
up to 30 hours are prepared on request for lohg cross-country flights.
The folIowing is given as an example of a regional airway forecast
issued by a supervising station:
Warm front extending Springfield to Tarkio to North Platte to Dickinson with
warm moist air to south and west overrunning cold surface air to north and east
will advance slowly north and eastward causing scattered t o broken clouds with
ceiling 8,000 feet or more ahead of i t and overrnst 5,000 feet or more in few mild
thundershowers. Visibility 6 miles or more all stations except in rain areas and
smoke at Chicago where visibilities of 3 miles or more will be experienced. In-
creasing high scattered to broken clouds and increasing lower clouds becoming
overcast during afternoon in mild to moderate thundershowers within warm sir
mass in Iowa and southern Minnesota. Ceiling 3,000 feet and visibility very
low at times during afternoon in shower areas, otherwise visibility more than
6 miles.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 117
METEOROLOGICAL DATA SYMBOLS AND DESCRIPTIONS
SKY COVERING
1. 0 Clear. cloudlrss.
1. €batted clouds. 3. 6 Partly cloudy. 4. Broken cloud& 5. O v e d , cloudy.
(Either blgh cloud., low cloud., or W m b h t i o N of b t b . )
6. @ Sky obsourd by obstrnctiona. auch'rs dust, sand. smoke, blowing mow, etc.
(Enter chameter of phenomenon in plain language or in sbbmviationa gimn in I to bo.
WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY

N-1 6 "E-, 6 N E - 8 6 ESE-12e

011
E-13
EsE-18 % SE-195c3 ssE-24

s=Y
w-uako
wsw-*

STATE OF WEATHER
Symbols 8 to 38, 41 to 60, and 54 to 55, inclusive, will be entcred to the .It*ft of the Station
circle ( b t w r r n circle and ceilingjvisibiiity dnta on airport >imps.)
8. Light rnin. 28. = Light or modernte fop.

9. : &derate rain; mining. 29. Ground fog(light,nlodcrate,or dense).

le. i Henvy rain. 30. Dense fog; foggy.

31. 00 Light haze.

11. 0* Light shower; sprinkling.
32. E11 Thick hare, hnzy
12. 0: Moderate shonrr.

13. 0: Heavy Rhower.

14. 1 Light mist; mist. Bbrm (i-2,)

IS. ; Heavy niiet.

36.. Q Thunderetorm in progress at tilnr of
16. A Light hail. obaervation.

17. 2 Moderate hail; bniling. 37. Thunderstorm in progrees a t tinir of

previous ohervation.
A
18. A Heavy hail. 38." Thunderstorm in progress at prrvioua
A oherration, and nnother at eur-
19. * Light mow. r m t obaervation

39." Thnndrrstorni in progress at previous

20. $ hloderste anow: snowing. olrrrrvation, another (others) Inter.
* but none at linir of cuirrnt

**
ohservntion.,
21. Heavy anow.

ZZ. O* Light anow showers; tlurrirs.

40." 0
- Thunderstorni(s) between o k r v e -
tions.
*Entry oi time of occurnwce of a thunder.
m i n i hy (igurea ( 1-3, 4-i. etc. ) under
llie red tine below the miion circle IS
23. 0; Moderete snow showers. pptioeal.

2q. **
V* Heavy anow showers. 41. \ Distnnt lightning.

25. A Light deet.

41. 2 Squalls or squally wenthy.

43. 2 Heavy (or severe) quaIl(8).

16, 2 h1odrrnte sleet: sleeting
44. 6 Signs that tropical storm in forming.
n
27. a
a H e a v y sleet. 45, 5 S i i s that tropicnl dorm hrs formed.

F l C U H E ;I .-Meteorological d a t a symbols a n d descriptions.

118 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

46. Bs Blowing snow; thick blowing snow.

47. BSA Blowing sand; thick blowing sand. uee symbol
48. BD Blowing dust; E thick blowing duat. So. 6 when
sky in
Obacllfed.
49. K Light smokc; _K thick smoke; smoky.
50. D Light dust; thick d w t ; dusty.
51. Line equal1 (in plain Inngnape)

SURFACE CONDITION

52. Light Light frmt. 1~ ~ J e ~ , , H l 54. c/J Light or niodrrate freezing rain (glaze).
53. Heavy Hcavy frost. in red. 55. c/3 lirnvy freezing rain (heavy glaze).

PRESSURE CHANGE
(During 3 hours preceding obeervation. )
In black or in colors (56 to 60 in red; 61 to 66 in blue) placed to right of barometric presnurr.
Nred not be uaed on hlap A, AA. CA, or other similar maps. at stations where a separate preseure-
change chart is prepared.

56. Rioing, then falling. 61. \ Falling. then rising. I

57. /- Rising then steady; 62. ‘\L Fnlling then steady;
o r f a l l i n g then
or rising then ris-
ing more dowly. falling more
slowly.
Barnmeter now B u o w r now
S. f Unsteady. hiisher than or
tbelUmews
hours ago.
63. % Unwdy. lower than S
houn ago.
59. / Steady or rising. 64. \ Falling.

60. J Fallingorsteadylhen
rising: or nsing
65. 2 Steady or rising then
falling: or falling
then riming more then falling more
quickly. - quickly.

66. Amount of pres~urechange: Indirate by figures, showing actual amount of change, placed
to the right of the symbol.
Emmp’cs:

-lining. then falling; .04 inch hiaher then 8 hours prior to obeervation.

\Z =Falling steadily; .12 inch lower than 3 hours prior to o b r v e t i o n .

MISCELLANEOUS
67. Temperature (Current).-Use figures placed 73. Time of Occurrence of Precipitation.-Enter
to right of c~rcle. in parrntheain irnmediately at side of
68. Maximum (Minimum) Temperature.-In pa- amount of precipitation. Use time periods
renthesis immediately at side of CUIrenl t o c o r r e s p o n d t o p a r a g r a p h s 50-53,
temperature or dew point; optional use, Wenthrr Codr, Rrviwd, 1936.
if %’parate temperature-change chart is 74. Ceiling.-In hundreds of feet, to left of circle
prepared. and oppasite current tempc~ratiire; un-
69. Dew Point.-At side of currrnt temperature. limited ceiling will not be rntrrrd.
scpwu/dd/rorn it by a dot. i. e., 56-47.
70. ~ ~pressure~ in Inches, Reduced
~ to~ 75. Visibility.-I
~ nt m i 1 ~ aiidior
s ~ fractions.
i and ~
See Level.-Use three figures, place directly below rviling; when the Inttc~ia
directly under current temperature and other than unlimited, to thr left of circle.
dew point. 76. Isobars.-Each tenth inch. IRI~ red (prncil
71. Amount of Precipitation.-In inrhrs and hun- or ink), mcrpt in C I I W of air-mass-analysir
dredths of an inch. Place figurr8 directly maps.
under those barometric 77. I.qothcrms.-Earh 10°F. Use blue (pencilor
Underscore in blue if dmirrd. ink). Not used on nir-maau-anal?.ri~niape.
72. Maximum Wind Velocity.-In rnilrs per hour.
Place figures in pwenthrsis hlow station 78. W i r n a rrport is missing, the letter “bl” niay
circle, with arrow to indicate direction. be placed within thr virclr.
FIGURE
il-~(.’ontinued.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 119
AIR-MASS-ANALYSIS MAPS
Air-maRn-analy& mapa are drawn in the Air-mass Section of the Meteorological Fhwareh Diviaion
at Wunhington, at airport stations, and alm at Wrather Bureau stations authorized to follow air-msas
nnalyeis nu a rrgular prartice in conjunction with thc annlysen distributed by teletype and radio
from the Central Office.,' The application of air-malm analysie to airport maps is coverrd in a circular
dated October 1-5. 1935, Transminnion of Air Mas8 nnd Frontal Analyeis by Trletype and Ridio", and
amrndnienta. Construction of air-nmas manuwript maps at city o f i e s must bc authorized by thr Chid
of Burrau in writing.
All air-msas-analysis map8 must be prepared in acrordance with the following pargraphn, 79 to 82,
inrlusive.
79. Isobers.-Ench tenth inch. Upe eofl, blark Linea of fronto-genesis are IQ be Rhown by
lrad pencil. hravg red or blup dots dep-nclinp on
whethcr the front being formed is n warm
80. Isotherms.-No irotherms will be drawn. or cold front.
81. Fronts-For surface fronts use heavy blue 82. Air-mass abbreviations.-Uee blue prnril lor
solid lines for cold fronte. red for warm entrring air-mass abbreviations lor nir of
fronts, purple for occluded fronts: for polar origin (Pc. Npp, etc.) and rrd for
upper air frontu uw brokrn liner of cor- those of tropical origin (Tp, Ntp, etr.)
reaponding color. Stationary fronts are to The symbol for superior &(a) will be rn-
be shown by continuous ainglc lines roni- t e r d in rrd whethrr of tropical or polar
posed of alternating red and blur srginents. air-mass origin.
CLOUDS
83. Entry of rloud forms on manusrript charts prepared at city and airport offices ia not compulsory,
hut whenever and wherever entered the following abbreviations mu& be uaed:
ABBREVIATIONS (SYYBOl.3)
=Cirrus. * Cu==Cumulus.
CiSt-Cirro-stratne. StCu- Strato-cumulus.
~CU-Mamniato-cuniulua.

\ FrSt-Fracto-stratus.
Whrn a separate rloud chnrt io not prepared, amounts (in tenths), and directionsof movement may
be nhown by figures nnd arrow (upper rlouds in red and lower clouds in blue), 88 follows: Ezaonipleu:
3 ASt + 1cu \
(1111x4) (.In blue )

'Il.-Continued.
FIGURE

CONSULTATION WITH METEOROLOGISTS

A consulting service is maintained by all first-order Weather Bureau

airport stations. Here facilities are available for pilots or operators
to discuss their meteorological problems. Information concerning
the movement of pressure centers, cloud, rain, or fog areas, and fronts
or line squalls may be secured throu h consultation with the meteor-
7
ologists and reference to the 6-houry maps. Air navigation prob-
lems, particularly in regard to avoiding weather disturbances or
choosing the most desirable altitude with respect to upper air winds,
are satisfactorily solved when pilots avail themselves of this service.
 INTERPRETATION OF THE WEATHER MAP
IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING WEATHER MAPS

The preceding section was prepared by the United. States Weather

Bureau, and describes the collection and dissemination of this most
important information. It is not expected that a pilot should be his
own forecaster; however, a knowledge of fundamFnta1 meteorological
principles renders the advice of the meteorolog.lst more intelligible
and may prove of great value when such services are not available.
The brief treatment which follows is necessarily general and suggestive
only, but it is hoped that it may be of some assistance, and may make
reference to the standard texts on meteorology a bit easier. Those
desiring a more complete and detailed treatment are referred to the
bibliography on page 182.
METEOROLOGICAL SYMBOLS

In order to depict aeronautical data clearly on the charts of the

Coast and Geodetic Survey, special aeronautical symbols are required ;
similarly, numerous symbols are used to record the various meteor-
ological data. By comparing the weather map of figure 72 with the
symbols and descriptions of figure 71, the wealth of information which
it contains may be more fully appreciated.
The amount and type of cloudiness at any of the reporting stations
on the map; temperature and dew point; precipitation of various
kinds and degree (light, moderate, or heavy) ; fog, thunderstorms,
barometric pressure and pressure changes; wind direction and ve-
locity-all and more are clearly indicated .by symbols and figures.
To avoid any confusion, it should be explamed here that the placing
of data on the map of figure 72 does not conform to the usage given in
figure 71. The data for ceiling, visibility, and barometric pressure
have been omitted from figure 72 altogether, and the remaining items
are not entered in their usual positions, in order to provide greater
clarity a t the reduced scale of the map.
Wind directions are indicated b arrows; “the arrows fly with the
wind,” the wind always blowing afong the shaft of the arrow, toward
the city. The wind velocity is indicated by the number and length
of the barbs on the feather end of the arrow. Referring to t,he
Beaufort scale of wind force (table 6, p. 163), it may be seen that a
number has been assigned to each wind velocity defined and tabulated.
Wind of force 1 is represented by one short barb on the arrow;
wind of force 2, by one long barb; force 3 by one long and one short
barb, force 4 by two long barbs, and so on. Thus, the arrow a t the
right end of the second line under “Wind Direction and Velocity’’
(fig. 71) shows two long barbs and one short, and corresponds to a
wind of force 5 , which ranges from 19 to 24 m. p. h.; in figure 71 this is
interpreted as 24 m. p. h.
Lines known as isobars are also shown, connecting points where
the barometric pressure is the same, and the boundaries or fronts be-
tween the diverse air masses are indicated.
120
Special Publication No. 197 (?d edition)

FIGURE
iZ.--Typical veather map fgreatl? reduced)
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 121
THE AIR OCEAN

In order to understand the various meteorological actions and reac-

tions and their interpretation from the weather maps, it should be
realized that “man is a deep-air animal.” We live a t the bottom of
an air ocean, and our fastest planes are those which have been stream-
lined so that they resemble a great fish, or a whale, and are able to
pass through the air ocean with the least resistance.
Even though it is invisible, the ocean of air is just as real, just as
tangible, as the ocean of water. In it there are currents (winds),
some of which flow with the regularity of the Gulf Stream, while
others are “as changeable as the wind.” Near the surface of the earth,
wind is restrained and deflected by ridges and other obstructions,
resulting in gusts and bumpy air. “Airfalls” exist over the top of a
ridge or hangar,just.as waterfalls exist where the stream plunges over a
ledge; the reverse situation also exists, the wind being deflected up-
ward for a considerable distance when it meets an obstacle. The
greatest care must be exercised, therefore, when flying near the ground.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The air ocean is substantial enough to support ships weighing many

tons, and possesses weight, exerting a pressure of marly 15 pounds per
s uare inch a t sea level. This means that a t sea level the body of an
3
a ult is subject to an atmospheric pressure of approximately 30 tons.
The weight of the air ocean may be measured with a barometer.
As we ascend there is less air above us, and hence less weight, or
atmospheric pressure; the altimeter is simp1 a barometer whch has
P Ti
been graduated to record this ressure-di erence directly in feet.
Atmospheric pressure is genefa 1y measured in terms of the height
of the column of mercurywhich it will support in an ordinary mercurial
barometer; aneroid barometers are so graduated that they may also
be read in these same terms. The extreme variation in barometric
pressure recorded in the United States ranges from about. 27.40
inches to 31.50 inches of mercury a t sea level. The normal vanation,
of course, is much less; the lowest appearing in figure 72 is about
29.93 inches, and the highest is about 30.05 inches.
On the manuscript weather maps prepared a t the airports, tempera-
ture is recorded immediately to the right of the circle representing a
city, and the last three figures of the barometric pressure are recordad
just below the temperature. In order to have a uniform basis of
comparison, the pressures observed a t various places are reduced to
pressure a t sea level before being recorded on the map. The isobars
are then drawn through points having the same barometric pressure,
usually for each hundredth of an inch difference in pressure. The
centers of areas of low barometric ressure are indicated by the word
( C LOW,” P
and the centers of areas o high barometric pressure by the
word “HIGH.” Three areas of high barometric pressure and two areas
of low pressure may be noted in figure 72.
CAUSES OF WEATHER CHANGES

Comparison has already been made between the air ocean and the
ocean of water. Between the warm water of the equatorial regions
m d the cold water near the poles some interchange and admixture are
33573-38-9
122 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

continually taking place, and definite physical reactions occur.

Similarly, when a mass of air from the warm equatorial regions meets
a n air mass from the cold polar regions there occur physical reactions
which may be readily understood.
Most of the phenomena associated with weather changes occur in
this way, a familiar illustration being found in the escaping steam from
the exhaust of a Iocomotive or power plant (fig. 73).
All air contains a certain amount of water vapor; the warmer the
air, the greater the amount of moisture it can contain. As the steam
(which-is essentially very warm, moist air) rises into the cooler and
drier atmosphere, it is cooled until it can no longer retain all its
moisture; some of i t condenses into the minute water droplets which
we see as steam, and a small cloud is formed; an occasional drop of
water, or “rain,” may even fall to the ground. The wind imparts
horizontal motion, but the miniature cloud never attains any great
size, since around its edges the water vapor is again being absorbed
by the drier and “thirstier” surrounding air.
I n this one illustration, as a result of the reactions between two
different air masses, we have seen vertical currents set up, horizontal
movement, condensation and precipitation, and clourd formation.
I n a general way, this is the process of all weather phenomena.
Masses of air that remain for some time over particular regions of
considerable esterit develop properties that are Characteristic of the
region, especially as regards temperature and moisture. For example,
a mass of air overlying the Gulf of Mexico gradiially acquires the high
temperature and large moisture content characteristic of the region ;
on the other hand, a mass of air over northwestern Canada, whsrc
temperatures and humidities both are low, acquires the properties of
its own source region. When warm, moist air from the Gulf comes in
contact with the cold polar air, it is chillcd to the point where it can
no longer retain all its moisture; some of it condenses, just as in the
case of the warm, moist stcam meeting the colder and drier air, and
cloudiness or precipitation and other meteorological reactions take
place.
On weather maps (see fig. 72) the air masses are divided into two
principal classes, according to their source regions-polar, or cold, and
tropical, or warm. These are again subdivided, on the general basis
of moisture, into two main classes, depending on whether the source
is land and dry, or water and moist; these two classes are designated
8s continental and maritime, respectively. The identification of the
source regions of the air masses, and the tracing of the boundaries or
“fronts” between them, are important parts of the work of the
meteorologist.
Air masses that have acquired characteristic properties are desig-
nated by the name or abbreviation of the source region, even though
they may have moved to some other region and acquired different
thermal and moisture characteristics, especially in the lower layers.
When their characteristics have become somewhat modified , their
designations are changed by prefixing the letter N (Neutralized-
transitional or modified). The following table defines the source
regions used on weather maps and lists the abbreviations commonly
employed to designate them.
Special Publication No. 197 (21 edition)

F I ~ , ~ :?.-cloud
RE formation illuctrated b:- Picaping. Steam.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 123
Table 3.-Air mass designations
L

I I
Source by lati-
tude 1 Natural
Classiflcstion of local source regions

Local source region

General classiflcation with
symbols

1 Tropical sec is tropical air, probsbly of high altitude. Pariflc origin, that, having crossed the Rockies,
desceuds over the grunt centre1 valleys.

74 - Debeloprnent of a depression.
FIGURE

In the weather map of figure 72, the greater part of the United
States is covered by polar continental air, with neutralized tropical
Pacific and tropical sec aloft; all of these air masses, as present here,
are relatively cold and dry. Farther south, and also in the northeast,
the polar continental air has become neutralized.
From the southwest, a wedge of neutralized tropical Pacific air
extends to the Canadian border, with a “warm front” (heavy dotted
line) between it and the polar continental air to the east. The neu-
tralized tropical Pacific air is in turn being squeezed out and up
(lLoccluded;”see p. 125) by the underrunning neutralized polar Pacific
air from the west, the “cold front” between the two masses being
indicated by a heavy solid line.
In the eastern part of the map, warm, moist air (tropical Atlantic
and tropical maritime) is pushing northward to meet the colder and
drier neutralized polar continental air along the warm front (heavy
dotted line). The meeting of these dissimilar air masses results in
wiclespread precipitation, the latter being indicated by shading.
The way in which the meeting of dissimilar air masses produces the
various meteorological reactions is further illustrated in figure 74. A t
the left of the figure cold air is shown flowing from the northeast,
124 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

wit,h warm air flowing from the southwest. The surface between the
two air masses and along which they move is referred to as “the surface
of discontinuity,” and the line representing this surface on the weather
map is called the “polar front.” Depressions (areas of low barometric
pressure) form along this front as described below, and constitute the
means by which interchange takes place between the cold and warm
air.
As the two air masses continue to rub elbows along the front be-
tween them, the usual tendency is for the cold air t~ bulge southward
and for the warm air to bulge northward, causing a bulge toward the
north, as shown in the central part of the figure. This movement
having once started, the cold air tends to swing around still farther
at the back, emphasizing the bulge as illustrated in the right section

FIGURE 76.--TypI~%l deprossion, with section through fronts.

of the figure. This exaggerated bulge is the newly born depression,

which is shown on A, lar er scale and in more detail in figure 75.
f
I n the upper part o the figure the broken line representing the
polar front is divided into two sections, marked respectively as the
“warm front” and the “cold front.” The area within the bulge of
the polar front, between the warm and cold fronts, contains warm
air, while the rest of the area shown is covered by cold air.
s
In the lower art of fi ure 75 there is shown a cross section throu h
the depression a ong theyine AA, each part of the section lying direct y
beneath the corresponding part of the depression in the upper portion
5
of the figure.
Non the warm front, the warm air, being lighter, ascends and is
P
forced onvard over the gradually sloping surface of the colder under-
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 125
lying air. Just as the warm, moist steam coming in contact with the
colder air resulted in condensation and preci itation,.so in ths case
i
the ascent of the warm air over the colder air eneath it results in the
cloud sequence shown. The approach of the warm front, then, is
marked by increasing and lowemg clouds, and final1
becomes heavier as the front approaches and the
Rain is represented in the lower part of the figure
The passing of the warm front is followed by a rise in temperature,
as the cold air is replaced by the warmer air behind the front. Rela-
tivel clear sky and sunshine are to be expected, although cumulus
cloudys and scattered showers are not infrequent, because of ascending
currents in the warm, moist air.

FIGURE76.-Occlusion (cold-front type). FIGURE

77.-Occlusion (warm-front type).

up. The warm air meeting the cold air at higher levels results in the
formation of clouds-usually . cumulus or cumulo-nimbus. The
resulting weather characteristics of such areas are clear periods
alternating with occasional showers.
The shaded area in the upper part of figure 75 represents the area
of the de ression in which precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) is taking
place. Tge area of precipitation preceding the warm front is usually
quite broad, while the precipitation following the cold front as a rule
is uite narrow.
8rdinarily the cold front advances more rapidly than the warm
front, and overtakes it. When the cold air from the back of the
depression overtakes the cold air before it, the warm air is lifted
entirely from the ground, and is said to be occluded. If the over-
takin air is colder than the cold air in front of the depression, because
of a f z e r e n t path of travel or other reason, the situation is as shown
in figure 76, and is known as a cold-front type of occlusion; if the
reverse is true, a warm-front t pe results (fig. 77). The cold-front
7
type is characterized by squal y rain and falling temperature, the
warm-front ty e by low cloud and continuous rain or drizzle.
t
It has alrea y been suggested that the apex of the northward bulge
of the polar front is the center of the depression. The air at this point
is warmer, and therefore lighter, than elsewhere; as a result, the
barometric pressure (weight of the air ocean) i s lower here. As we
126 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

progress away from the center of the low-pressure area to points where
the air is colder and heavier, the barometric pressure increases until,
where the air is coldest, a high-pressure area (or HIGH) is located.
Figure 78 shows the depression of figure 75, with the addition of a
system of typical isobars.
Generally speaking, the western part of a LOW and the eastern part
of a HIGH may be considered as similar air masses; conversely, the
eastern part of a LOW and the western part of a HIGH may be so con-
sidered. This may be illustrated from ths LOW shown in the north-
eastern part of the United States in figure 72. Air in the western
art of this LOW and in the eastern part of the HIGH over the Great
Ealres is from one sourcc region ( P c ) ;air in the eastern part of the
same LOW and in the western part of the HIGH in the northeast corner
of the map is also of one common origin (Npc). I n the first case
(west of the LOW, east of tho HIGH) surface temperatures are low or
falling, and the pressure rising; in the second case, temperatures are
high or rising, and tho pressure is falling.

78.-Typical depression, showing isobars.

FIGCRE

ISOBARS

More than anything else, the system of isobars on a weather map

resembles the system of contours on a topographic,map. As a matter
of fact, they are very similar, as may be seen from the following
comparisons.
A contour is a line a t every point of which the elevation.above sea
level is the same; a t every point on an isobar the barometric pressure
is the same.
If we think of the isobars as contours depicting the atmospheric
topography, the area represented by a HIGH re resents a hill of air;
the area represented by a LOW rcpresents a fepression, or valley.
This conception is further suggested by the use of the words HIGH (for
the hill of air) and LOW (for the valley).
On a topographic map, contours close together indicate a steep
slope; on a weather map, isobars close together represent a steep hill of
 PRACTICAL AIR N A V I G A T I O N 127
air, or “gradient.” I n contrast with the topographic feature, an air
hill is fluid, and therefore tends to flow down into the valleys-the
closer the isobars, the faster the rate of flow (wind velocity). We
find, then, surface winds always blowing out from a HIGH, and in toward
a LOW. If the earth were stationary, this flow might follow a direct
line between the two centers; however, because of the rotation of the
earth, wind in the northern hemisphere is always deflected toward the
right. Wind therefore blows spirally outward from a HIGH in a
generally clockwise direction, and spirally inward toward a LOW, in a
counterclockwise direction (fig. 79). While individual exceptions
may be noted in figure.72, for the most part the arrows indicating
wind direction follow thls rule.
This regular circulation of the winds about a pressure center is
more pronounced near the surface; it becomes less definite as the

‘::yo
altitude increases, due to the effect of the prevailing winds a t higher
levels. The HIGHS and LOWS themselves move across the United
States in a generally easterly or northeasterly direction, a t a rate
usually in excess of 500 miles a day (from about 20 to 30 miles an
hour).
Technically, a low-pressure area with its system of winds is known
as a cyclone, a high-pressure area as an anticyclone. “Cyclone” as

structive
used
confused
here storm
with
shouldthe
sonot
often
de-
be
given that name, but ----*
properly known as a - - _ _ - -FLOW- -
tornado. Storm
area
As already stated, the
altimeter is simply a 79.-Wind system of a LOW.
FIGURE
form of barometer. It
is well to remember that in flying.from a high-pressure area into a
low-pressure area the instrument indicates an altitude higher than
the true altitude; the same is true, of course, if the pressure falls
during flight, before the plane returns to the point of departure.
For this reason altimeters are provided with a barometric scale, by
which they may be adjusted to the pressure in the vicinity of flight,
so that they indicate actual heights, and not dangerously misleading
altitudes.
For example, in figure 72 the barometric pressure a t Buf€alo is about
30.01 inches, and a t Portland, Maine, about 29.95 inches. Under
these conditions, if a pilot left Buffalo with his altimeter adjusted to
the pressure there, upon landing at Portland his altimeter would
indicate that he was still approximately 60 feet in the air. If he were
coming in to land under conditions of low visibility, and thought
he was flying 120 feet above the airport in order to clear a 60-foot
tower, his actual height above the field would be only 60 feet, and he
would be in danger of colliding with the tower.
I n the illustration just given, the pressure difference was not
great-only 0’106; under conditions that are not infrequent a differ-
ence in pressure of as much as a half inch rnriy be met, and in this case
tho altimeter error would amount to approxirnntely 500 feet. An
error of this magnitude might prove serious, and it is important tliat
the altimeter be adjusted for the barometric pressure prevailing a t the
128 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

time in the region of flight. The necessary information for making

this adjustment is given in the hourly weather broadcasts (see fig. 69).
TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT

If a glass of cold water is placed in a warm room, tiny drops of

moisture form on the outside of the glass. This is another everyday
illustration of the meeting of dissimilar air masses: the warm air
coming in contact with the chilled glass is cooled to the point where
it can no longer retain all its moisture, and condensation takes place.
The temperature a t which condensation begins is known as the dew
point.
The name “dew point” was probably used in this connection because
it is in this manner that dew is formed. After sunset the earth rapidly
radiates the heat which it has stored up during the day; finally the
surface of the earth becomes cold enough that air coming in contact
with it is chilled to the point where condensation must take place,
and the drops of dew are formed.
Temperature and dew point are among the most important items of
information appearing on the weather map. On the manuscript maps
prepared at the airports, temperature is recorded immediately to the
right of the circle representing a city, and the dew point is recorded
beside the temperature, without parenthesis. The dew point is also
given in weather reports (see fig. 69), and should be especially noted
m reports received by radio while in flight. When the dew oint
P
comes within about a degree of the air temperature, fog may usua ly be
expected within an hour, There are many instances when the ex-
pected fog fails to materialize, but safet demands that pilots should
recognize the danger and plan according y.’I
While knowledge of surface temperatures is important,. pilots are
more particularly concerned with temperatures at the fllght level.
Under normal conditions temperature decreases with altitude at the
rate of approximately 1’ F. for each 300 feet.
When a body of air is caused to rise-because it has become warmer
(and hence lighter) than $he surrounding air; because of pressure;
because of being lifted over a mountain range or underrunning mass
of air, or for other reasons-it meets continuously decreasing atmos-
pheric pressure, and therefore continues to expand. As it expands
it becomes cooler, and is said to cool at the adiabatic rate if its cooling
is due to expansion alone, and it neither gains nor loses heat from its
surroundings. The adiabatic rate of coolmg is about 106 E’. for each
300 feet of change in elevation.
An ascending mass of air which cools a t the adiabatic rate (106
for 300 feet) because of expansion, is cooling more rapidly than the
normal decrease of temperature with altitude (1’ for 300 feet); under
these conditions the ascending air soon reaches a level where it is as
cool as the surrounding air and ceases to rise. If the ascending air
is rising through air, the temperature of which decreases more rapidly
than the adiabatic rate, it remains warmer than its surroundings and
continues to rise until it is cooled to the dew point (because of expan-
sion) and cloud formation begins.
Under certain conditions (as on clear nights, when there is little or
no wind) the air becomes appreciably colder a t the surface than a t
higher altitudes. Such an increase of temperature with altitude is
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 129
known as a temperature inversion, since the normal condition is
inverted, or u side down. If a considerable amount of moisture is
g
present, the c illing of the air near the surface may result in con-
densation and the formation of fog.
CLOUDS AND FOG

The general process of cloud formation has already been illustrated

by the escaping steam, the glass of cold water, and the meeting of
dissimilar air masses. A study of the various cloud forms is of very
practical value. From the weather map we may learn the tempera-
ture, dew point, wind direction and velocity, and other related data,
a t or near the ground level; from a study of the clouds we may visual-
ize the unseen air currents, and may know something of flying condi-
tions-wind direction and velocity, temperature, and humidity-at
the cloud levels. Within lirmits, we may even predict the weather
from them.
As an aid to cloud study and identification of cloud types, a 25-page
bulletin of photographs and descriptions, entitled “Cloud Forms Ac-
cording to the International System of Classification,” may be ob-
tained for 20 cents, from the Superintendent of Documents, United
States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. The stand-
ard abbreviations for the various cloud forms, as used in weather
reports and on weather maps (fig. 72) are included in figure 71.
The sequence of cloud t pes is illustrated in figure 75. The cirrus
9
clouds are the highest of 1, a t times reaching altitudes of 40,000 feet.
At their altitude i t is so cold that the condensed water droplets are
frozen, and these clouds alwa consist of minute ice crystals.
%“
The flat, darker bases of t e cumulus clouds indicate the altitude
at which the dew point is reached as the vertical current of air ascends.
If the mass of rising air is of considerable proportions, these clouds may
develop into the familiar “thunder head,” or cumulo-nimbus, and the
s
condensation soon becomes sufficient to cause recipitation. It has
been said that “cumulus clouds are the visib e tops of ascending
columns of air.”
At times the towerin heads of thunderstorms reach the regions of
3
high winds, where the c oud tops are whipped off and driven on well
in advance of the storm. These cloud tops, driven by the wind,
resemble cirrus clouds, and are often referred to as “false cirrus.”
Stratus clouds are defined as “a uniform layer of cloud resembling
a fog but not resting on the ground.” When such a layer occurs at
greater altitudes, it takes on something of the form of the clouds
ordinarily found a t those levels, and a combined name is given to the
layer, as cirro-stratus.
Fogs are stratus clouds a t or near the ground; they seldom extend
more than a few hundred feet above the surface, although they some-
times reach heights of two or three thousand feet. Land fogs occur
most frequently when temperature inversions exist, although they are
also due to other causes.
THUNDERSTORMS

The common thunderstorms of summer are the result of tempera-

ture differences and ascending air currents caused by uneven heating
within a given body of air. A concrete or macadam road becornen
130 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

appreciably hotter than a grassy meadow; a ploughed field absorbs

more heat than the shady woods, and the sandy beach becomes much
hotter than the sea. Air in contact with these warmer surfaces is
heated by conduction; as it becomes hotter it also becomes lighter and
is forced to rise by the cooler and heavier air around and above it.
From the rising currents of air thus set up, the cumulo-nimbus
clouds are formed as described in the preceding section, and a thunder-
storm is soon in progress. Many rules have been given for A ing in a
9
thunderstorm; the only safe rule is to avoid one. Aside rom the
hazards of hail and lightning, the vertical currents are frequently so
strong that an aircraft cannot be controlled in them; also, they often
extend to such heights that it is doubtful if a plane can climb above
them. Even if the plane is able to fly above the storm, the time lost
in climbing would enable the pilot to fly many miles in level flight
around the storm-which is a much safer procedure.
It should be remembered that whenever a cohimn of air ascends,
an equal amount of air must descend. Just preceding a cumulo-
nimbus cloud (thunder head) a strong upward current of air is found;
just behind this current is a compensating down draft, which is more
dangerous, since, if flying low, a plane may be carried all the way to
the ground.
As a rule, a thunderstorm of the thermal type just described is com-
paratively local in character, and it is quite practical to fly around it
with little delay. There is another type of thunderstorm, however,
associated with the passage of a cold front and known as a line squall,
which may prove more serious. Not only are the vertical currents
often stronger, but thc storm may extend along a front for several
hundred miles, making i t impractical to fly around it.
If, along a cold front, the cold air underruns tho warmer air which
it replaces, the warm, moist air is forced up to lev.els where condensa-
tion and all the other characteristics of the ordinary thunderstorm
occur; the only difference in this case is that the thunderstorm is pro-
duced by mechanical lifting of the warm air. When the cold air
overruns the warmer air, violent vertical currents are set up as the
Iighter air breaks through the colder and heavier air above it. In
either case a series of thunderstorms is developed almost simultnne-
ously along a line several hundred miles in length.
The violent motions associated with the line squall usually extend
only to an altitude of about 6,000 feet, and it is sometimes possible to
fly above them; however, the vertical currents common to all thiinder-
storm clouds may extend up to 15,000 or 20,000 feet, and may exceed
velocities of 100 m. p. h. There are also many line squalls of mor0
moderate intensity, but it may be seen that attempts to fly through
or over such a disturbance are hazardous.
At best, ascending and descending air currents and gusts result in
turbulence and bumpy air. Ordinarily, this is not of great impor-
tance, aside from the personal discomfort involved, yet occasionally
serious injury to passonngers has resulted from this cause, even on
heavy transport planes. When rough air is encountered it is often
ossibIe to find relatively smooth air at another levol-sometimes at
Power altitudos, if the terrain permits, and sometimes by flying as
high as possible, where the vertical currents have already spent much
of their energy and a comparative state of balance has again been
established.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 131
VERTICAL CURRENTS AND SOARING

Knowledge of ascending and descending currents as revealed by

cloud forms is important to pilots of powered craft, but it becomes
of first importance to glider pilots. Clouds do not float-rather, the
minute drops of water are falling in a current of rising air. Similarly,
a turkey buzzard has no secret formula for escaping the law of gravity
and soaring to higher levels without flapping a wing; he is falling all
the time with respect to the air, but has learned to do his falling in
air currents that ascend faster than he falls.
As already suggested, rising currents of air may be found beneath
a cumulus cloud, particularly just ahead of it; up the windward slope
of a ridge or mountain; over a sandy beach, desert, ploughed pound,
or paved highway; over a smokestack or factory; when an air mass
is driven upward over a wedge-shaped mass of dissimilar air, and from
other causes or combinations of causes. Descending currents may be
found over the leeward edge of a ridge or other obstruction; over a
lar e lake or river; over wooded areas, etc.
$hose few instances are only suggestive of the possibilities in this
fiold, and a more detailed study of the subject will be well repaid.
ICE

In spite of the progress that has been made towurd overcomin the
formation of ice, condensation near freezing temperatures stil re- f
mains one of the greatest hazards of flight. This is due not only to
the increase in weight, but also to the loss of efficiency resulting from
tho de€ormation of the wings by the encrusted ice. Ice may also
form around the controls and render the plane unmanageable.
I n general, ice doos not form on an aircraft unless moisture is
prrsent in the air in visible form (rain, fog, snow, etc.) and the tem-
perature of the air is 34' or less. Frost sometimes forms in clear air
when a cold plane enters a warm, moist air mass, but it usually dis-
appears as tho plane reaches the same temperature as the surrounding
air. Ice seldom forms in any considerable quantity a t temperatures
below 0' F., because of the small amount of water vapor present in
air a t such low temperatures.
Maximum icing occiirs a t temperatures between 26' and 34O, and
in regions of strong vertical currents, which are evidenced in some
measure by the cloud types. Such aroas should be avoided if possible.
If tomperatures near the ground justif , icing may be avoided by
flying low; if not, the pilot should climx as high as possible and as
fast as possible-.high, in ordor to reach colder rogions where the
moisture content is small; as fast as possible in ordor to accumulate
the minimum amount of ice while climbing.
Somotiines the pilot may have dofinite knowledge of the existence
of a temporature invorsion, from Weather Bureau radio broadcasts ;
in this case, by climbing to the rogion of higher temperatures ho may
not only escape further icing, bnt may even melt off ice that has
already formed.
CONCLUSION

While a knowledge of the genernl principles of meteorology lends

to a better understnnding of tho woather map and may prove useful
in an emergency, it should always be romemberod that the most
132 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

approqed theories have their exceptions and may be wrong in any

gven instance. Also, weather often changes very quickly-some-
times in ways entirely unexpected even on the part of the most ex-
perienced meteorologists. To keep informed of these constantly
changing conditions pilots should be careful to listen in on all weather
broadcasts during flight and should not depend for too long a period
on reports and forecasts received before taking off.
Conclusions based only on general principles may be very mislead-
ing. For example, knowing the general ulnd system accompanying
a LOW (see fig. 79), it is sometimes suggested that when flying in a
northerly direction it is preferable to fly to the east or southeast of a
LOW because of favoring winds. This is theoretically correct, yet the
LOW itself is moving in an easterly direction and the worst weather
is found along the easterly or southeasterly odge, while better or
clearing weather may be expected west of the LOW; to fly to the east
of the LOW, then, would mean flying throu h bad weather, or flying
so far east to avoid it that better time woufd be made by facing the
headwinds in the safer weather west of the LOW. For an east-west
fli ht, better weather might be expected north of the LOW.
b i t h the necessary knowledge and experience, very helpful results
can be obtained from local observations of pressure, temperature,
winds, snd clouds; however, except in emergencies, conclusions based
on observations at a single point should not be relied upon. Far more
definite and reliable forecasts can be made from reports from a well-
organized network of stations, since more complete information is
available regarding the size, rate, and direction of movement of dis-
turbances, or of a u masses and the fronts that attend them. It is
for this reason that the regular weather ma s are prepared and expert
%
advice is made available. Whenever possi le, therefore, consult the
airport meteorologist.
 Chapter VI1.-PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
If, for any of the methods of air navigation described herein, the
procedure seems complicated or in any way involved, it is only be-
cause of the difficulty of finding words as simple as the operations
required. Most of the mystery can be removed from the subject by
just a little practice. Even working out a few typical problems
will help to correlate the various steps and to demonstrate the nat-
ural procedure from one step to another; at the same time, more
efficient operation and the personal satisfaction and safety of the
pilot make it well worth while. With this in mind, the following
practical examples are offered.
Example 1.-Starting at 10 a. m., a flight is to be made from Scott
Field (near Wheeling, W. Va.) to Huntington Airport (Huntington:
sectional chart).
Known data: Cruising speed of plane, 90 m. p. h.; wind 15 m. p. h.,
from 45'.
Required :The distance, compass heading, and time of arrival.
A straight line is drawn on the chart between the two airports,
and is found to be a ractical route, with two intermediate airports
P
and an abundance of andmarks for checking the route of the plane
in flight.
By means of the border scale of miles the distance is found to be
151 miles.
When the route crosses not more than 3 or 4 degrees of longi-
tude, the course may be measured for the route as a whole, but
must be measured with the meridian nearest halfway between the
two points, as illustrated in figure 20. By inspection it is seen that
the meridian of 81'30' is nearest halfway.
219' true course, measured with meridian of 81'30'.
+3 O westerly magnetic variation (average),
-
222O magnetic courae.
+2' westerly deviation on this heading (from deviation card).
-
224" compass course.
The wind from 45O, in this case, is almost directly behind the plane;
hence there will be no correction to the course for wind, and the com-
pass course (the true course plus or minus variation and deviation) is
x
also the com ass heading (the compass course plus or minus the correc-
tion for win effect).
With a tail wind of 15 m. . h., the ground speed of the plane be-
P
comes 105 m. p. h. The tota distance of 151 miles will be covered in
1 5 1 x 6 0 minutes, or a little more than 1 hour 26 minutes, making
105
the time of arrival 11:26 a. m.
This is checked in flight b noting that the town of Woodsfield,
5
34 miles southwest of Scott ield, is passed in about 19.5 minutes
of flying. The spacing dividers are set with the tooth marked 0
on Scott Field, and the tooth marked 10 just a little south of the
133
 134 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

town of Woodsfield; each tooth now represents 2 minutes of fly-

ing time, and the space between teeth numbered 0 and 10 represents
20 minutes. Four 20-minute sections are stepped off along the route,
and the short section remaining is found to represent 7 minutes,
which checks rather closely the data obtained before taking off.
By means of the spacing dividers the exact time when the plane
should pass Marietta, Parkersburg, Gallipolis, the bends of the Ohio
River, or other characteristic landmarks may be noted.
The section below Marietta, where the route follows the general
trend of the Ohio River, affords a splendid opportunity for checking
the compass heading in flight.
Attention should be given to the number of landmarks along this
route. Starting from Scott Field, in about 9 minutes the plane
should pass the town of Jacobsburg, which is near the top of a ridge,
and a t the end of a railroad. Note also the race tracks a t Woods-
field, Marietta, Parkersburg, and Gallipolis; the two bridges at
Marietta, with dam and lock between; the dams and locks along
the Ohio River; and the location of the Huntington Airport with
respect to the dam and bridge.
Example 2.-A flight is to be made from Pittsburgh-Allegheny
County Airport to Chanute Field, Rantoul, Ill.
For this flight either the Cleveland and Chicago sectional charts,
or regional chart 9M may be used. In this case the ship is fairly
fast, dead reckoning (rather than piloting) will be employed, and
the drainage pattern and larger cities will furnish sufficient check
of position; therefore chart 9M is chosen.
Known data: Cruising speed of plane 165 m. p. h.; wind 20 m. p. h.,
from 165'.
Required :The distance, compass headings, and the total flying time.
A straight line between the two airports is drawn on the chart
and, by means of the border scale of miles, the distance is found
to be 434 miles.
When the route crosses more than 3O or 4' of longitude the straight

I (=) I (b) (C)

_ _ ____ _ _ _ _ _____ ____

. . ._ ._ ._ ._._._. _. _. _. _. _. _. ____
- 81O15'.
Meridian nearest halfway 83"4,5'-- ___ 8 6_
3 0 '..
True c0ur.w
Variation
__.__
271'
+4'-.
.____ ._ ._ ._ ._._. _ ______
~

270". _ _ _ _ . _ _
_.__.
+2". _ _ _
_..__. _____ ___
__
26X0.
_-lo.
.
___.
____.
_ __ __ __ _ ___
~

~
_______
Magnetic course . _ _ _ _ _ _ _275"-..
_ __ __ ______272'..
_ ___ ..
_ _
___
_ __
____ . _267'.
.._______.
________ ____
Deviation _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Compass course
+lo_ _ _ _~.
278 .__ ._
_+I"
_._
_
_.
_____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
- ___
-7O..
___.._.._.___._
__
_
273'_____
_.

...___
._

_
_

.
__
._
Wind 1 . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - . . . _ _ _ .
-7O _
__

_
__
~.
_+I*.

-
7
'
.
_
_
_.
_
_268'.
_
_ _.___
O...
~

___ _ _ _ _ _ _
Compass heading ___________ __ __ _ _
2W.. . ..~
miles
266
..--
miles
- _ _ _ _261'.
_._ _____. ___ O...
~

Length _ _ . _ . _ _ _ 136_ ._ ____132

__ _ _ _ . _ _ _166
_.____.__.._.._miles.
nistanoe from Pittsburgh
__
__ _ _._
136 miles.
_ _ _ _
~ _
___________
Zfj8 miles .___._..._____
434 miles. ______ _ _ _
Time from Pittsburgh-. 48 minutes ____________
1 hour, 35 minutcs. _. 2 hours, 34 minutee. ________
-
1 With the known data of true course and air speed of plane and direction and velocity of wind, a triangle
of velocities is constructed for each section of the route. Figure 80 shows the solutlon for the flrst sectton
In each case the correction to the course is determined as 7'. and since the wind IS from the left the-correction
must be subtracted; the ground speed is 189 m . p. h.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 135
Example 3.-A flight is proposed from Pittsburgh-Allegheny
County Airport to North Platte Airport, Nebr.
Required: The distance and compass headings.
The cruising speed of the plane in this case is relatively low, and
the flight will be chiefly for pleasure. Navigation will consist in
large measure of piloting, and the sectional charts will therefore be
used.
Since the Lambert projection affords a perfect junction between
any number of charts, if space is available the charts required may be
carefully fitted together and a straight line drawn across all of them,
from starting point to destination.
However, when more than two or three charts are involved, it is
often easier to plot the route first as a straight line, or series of
straight lines, on a small-scale control chart, such as Coast and Geo-
detic Survey chart No. 3060a or 3074 (see p. 28). The points a t
which the straight line crosses meridians and parallels on the small-

80.-Grapliic determination of wind correction and ground speed.

FIGURE

scale chart are then measured and transferred to the large-scale charts,
and connected on each of them with straight lines. The portion of
the route appearing on each of the large-scale charts is treated as in
the two preceding examples, in order to obtain the required distance
and compass headings.
Following this procedure, we find that the straight line between the
two airports on chart 3074 crosses longitude 84' (the western limit
of the Cleveland sectional chart), a t latitude 40'48'. This point is
plotted on the Cleveland chart, using the marginal scale of minutes
of latitude, and connected with Pittsburgh-Allegheny Airport by a
straight line.
The portion of the route on the Cleveland chart crosses 4' of longi-
tude, and is therefore divided into two sections crossing 2O of longi-
tude each. The true course for each section is then obtained as in
example I , and magnetic variation, compass deviation, and correction
for the effect of wind are applied in order to find the required com-
pass heading for each section. The total distance on the Cleveland
chart is 215 miles.
I n the same way the portions of the route crossing the Chicago,
Des Moines, and Lincoln sectional charts are subdivided into S ~ C -
tions of practical length, and the compass heading for each sectlon
determined, The distances from the various charts are totaled, of
course, to obtain the distance for the entire route.
136 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

Example 4.-After leaving Burgess Field, Uniontown, Pa., under

conditions of poor visibility, a plane is flown for 40 minutes on a
compass heading of 55' and a t an air speed of 120 m. p. h. Com-
pass deviation on this heading is 3' east; average ma netic varia-
tion in this vicinity as noted on the chart, 6' west; win as reported
at Burgess Field, 30 m. p. h., from 315'. (Cleveland sectional chart,
f
or regional chart 9M.)
Required: The track of the plane (the "course made ood"), and
the dead reckoning position of the plane a t the en of the 40
minutes.
%
+55'3" compass heading.
easterly deviation (to rectify, add easterly deviation).
58" magnetic heading.
-6" westerly variation (to rectify, subtract westerly variation).
__
52' true heading.
/
;\ /

A /'

81.-Qraphic determination of track and ground speed.

FIGUBE

Because of poor visibility it was impossiblelto obtain drift ob-

servations, and therefore the true heading must be rectified for wind
by means of a triangle of velocities, from the dnta obtained a t Burgess
Field.
From 0 (fig. 81) lay off OA on the true heading of 52' and equal
to the air speed of 120 m. p. h.; from A lay ofT AW to represent
the direction (from 315' true) and velocity (30 m. p. h.) of the wind.
Draw OW, which represents the track of the lane over the ground,
and also the ground speed. O W is measure c f and found to be 127
m. p. h., and the angle AOW (the drift angle) is found to be 14'.
52' true heading (see above).
+ 14' drift (to rectify, add for wind from left).
-66" true course (track).
I n 40 minutes, at a ground speed of 127 m. p. h., the plane will
have covered 85 miles. Here it must be remembered that we are
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 137
plotting a course, not a bearing, and that the true course made good
must be plotted with the meridian nearest halfway. Roughly esti-
mating the distance of 85 miles on a true course of 6 6 O , it is seen
that the meridian of 79' is about in the center of the route already
flown. From any convenient intersection on the sevent -ninth me-
T
ridian the true course of 66' is laid off (lightly), and a ine parallel
thereto is drawn from Burgess Field. This final line represents the
track of the plane, and a point along this line 85 miles from Burgess
Field is the dead reckoning position of the plane.
Example 5.-While flying the radio range course between Colum-
bus and Cleveland, Ohio, in heavy fog, a pilot became uncertain as
to his position along the course. He was able to tune in the Goshen
radio range station and, by means of a direction finder on his own
plane, the true bearing of that station from his position was deter-
mined as 294'. See chart 9M.
Required: The position of the plane.
In this case we are working with a bearing, not a course, and the
angle must be plotted with the meridian nearest which it was deter-
mined; no correction for distortion is necessary when using the
Lambert projection. The pilot supposed himself to be somewhere
near Mount Vernon; consequently, the bearing was plotted with the
meridian of 82'30', at its intersection with latitude 40'30'. It was
found that this plotted bearing passed slightly to the north of the
Goshen radio station, so a second line was drawn, through the Goshen
station and parallel to the first line. The intersection of the second
line with the northerly course of the Columbus radio rango, about
6 miles north of Mount Vernon, marks the position of the plane a t
the moment the bearing was measured.
If the Cleveland sectional chart were being used on this flight, it
would be easier to plot the bearing directly from the Goshen radio
range station on the Chicago chart, .transferring the bearin
Cleveland chart at the point, where it crosses the meridian etween
to the
the two charts. The bearing to be plotted from the radio station is
B
obtained as follows (see p. 65):
294' bearing observed at plane.
- 180°
114' reciprocal bearing.
The difference of longitude between the plane and the radio range
station is 3'. Multiplying this number by the convergence of 0?6
per degree of longitude (see p. 32), we obtain 3X0?6=1?8 or, to
the nearest whole degree, 2'. The correction is to be subtracted,
since the plane is east of the station.
114'
-2O to be subtracted, since plane is east of station.
1120 bearing to be plotted from Goshen radio range station.
The bearing of 112' is plotted from Goshen and crosses the 84th
meridian at 40'58I5 of latitude, the bearing at that point being
measured as 113'. This bearin is laid off from the same latitude on
K
the 84th meridian of the Cleve and chart, and its intersection with
t,he northerly course of the Columbus radio range determines the
position of the plane in the same location as before.
Exam le 6.-In
B a
!he precedin example, if the Goshen radio sta-
tion ha been equipped with t e necessary apparatus (as are the
33573-3-10
FIGWE82.--A fix from radio bearings when t h e assumed position is considerably in error
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 139
naval radio direction finder stations along our coasts), the pilot
might have called Goslien and requested that his bearing from that
station be determined. When the bearing was reported back by
radio, he could have plotted the bearing a t once with the meridian
nearest the radio station (not with the meridian nearest the location
of the plane), and its intersection with the Columbus radio range
course would have determined his position as in example 5 .
Example 7.-On a direct flight from Key West, Fla., to Brownsville,
Tex., a pilot was approximately a t position A , figure 82, but by dead
reckoning believed himself to be in the vicinity of B. By radio
compass he determined the bearing of WWL (New Orleans) as 39’,
which was plotted on the chart with the meridian nearest B, an’ording
“bearing No. 1.” Not until 30 minutes later was he able to obtain
the bearing of WOAI (San Antonio). Since he was flying due west
a t an estimated ground speed of 125 m. p. h., his true position was now
a t C, although he believed himself to be near D. The bearing of
WOAI, 322’ truo, was therefore plotted a t the meridian of D,resulting

3459

405O
-360”
Magnetic bearing of RS from P 45O
I
FIGURE
83.--Plotting ti radio bearing on a radio diroctlon 5nding chart.

in “bearing No. 2.” Carrying bearing No. 1 due west 62.5 miles
(the dead reckoning distance and direction made good between the
taking of tho two bearings), fixes the approximate position of the
plane a t F.
Since this fix is nearly 2’ of longitude away from the supposed
position a t D,it is decided to replot both bearings, plotting them at
the meridian nearest the preliminary fix. I3earing No. 2 is replotted,
and No. 1 is roplotted and carried forward as shown, giving the fix
a t P. From E” an adjusted course to Brownsville can be deter-
mined, and the estimated time of arrival is revised, not only to allow
for the shorter distance ahead, but also for the tail winds which had
placed the plane so much farther ahead than was supposed.
Example 8.-A pilot was flying in the vicinity of P (fig. 83) when,
by means of radio direction finder, he obtained the bearing of tho radio
station RS.
140 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

Known data:
Compass heading, 347'.
Compass deviation, 2' W.
Bearing of RS, 60' to the right of the pIane's head.
Required: The line of position on the radio direction finding chart
of the region.
To rectify for deviation of the compass (case 11; p. 43), subtract
westerly deviation: 347' - 2' = 345', the magnetic heading of the plane
when the bearing was obtained.
The observed bearing was 60' to the right of the plane's hesd, or
45' magnetic. From the radio station draw a straight line through
the 45' graduation of the compass rose as read from the outer figures;
this is the desired line of position, at some point on which the plane
was located when the bearing was observed.
Example 9.-In Notices to Airmen there is reported the erec-
tion of a high radio tower which is considered an obstruction to air
navigation. The position of the tower is given as latitude 40°19',
longitude 83'44'.
Required: To plot the position of the tower on the Cleveland
sectional chart (pl. I).
By means of the marginal scale showing minutes of latitude, on
the adjacent meridians (83'30', and 84') lay off northward from lati-
tude 40' a distance equal to 19 minutes of latitude and draw a straight
line through the points so obtained. This line represents the latitude
of the radio station.
I n the lower margin are scales showing minutes of longitude for
each parallel of latitude printed on the chart. Lay off along lati-
tude 40°30', westward from longitude 83'30', a distance of 14 min-
utes measured from the scale for latitude 40'30'; along latitude 40'
lay off 14 minutes measured from the scale for latitude 40', and draw
a straight line between the points so obtained. This line represents
the longitude of the radio station (83'30'+ 14'=83'44'), and its
intersection with the line representing the latitude is the position of
the tower.
I n practice it should not be necessary to measure, the 14 minutes
along both parallels. Instead, having drawn the line representing
the latitude of the station, the 14 minutes may be laid off along it,
if the value of this measurement has been scaled a t the correct pro-
portionate position on the scales of minutes of longitude.
On some sectional charts the meridians and parallels themselves
are subdivided into minutes, and in this case positions can be plotted
directly as outlined above.
Example 10.-After an-extended period of flying above fog, i t is
desired to check the position of a plane by celestial observations,
and the latitude and longitude of the dead reckoning position are
required.
On the regional charts (pl. 11) the meridians and parallels corre-
sponding to whole degrees are subdivided into minutes of latitude
and longitude. It is therefore necessary only to draw a north-and-
south line through the dead reckoning position to the nearest sub-
divided parallel and read the longitude, while a straight line east-
and-west permits reading the latitude from the nearest subdivided
meridian. The slight curvature of the parallel within the limits of
1' is entirely negligible for all practical purposes.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 141
Example 11.-A pilot flying “over the top” by dead reckoning,
believed his position to be about latitude 37’15‘, longitude 99’30‘,
when he was able to obtain a series of altitudes of the sun.
Having made the necessary computations with the aid of the line of
position table, the pilot has these data:
Azimuth (bearing) of the sun_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 235’
_
Observed altitude, H , - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _42’34‘
___
__
Computed altitude, H , - _ - - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42’20’
Altitude difference, a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 14’
The azimuth, or bearing, of the sun is laid off from the dead reckon-
ing position of the plane. The altitude difference of 14 minutes is
equal to 14 minutes of latitude; therefore, a distance equal to 14
minutes of latitude is measured on any convenient meridian, or on the
marginal scale, and laid off along the bearing, toward the body (since
the observed altitude is greater than the computed altitude). A
line drawn a t right angles to the bearing through the point so obtained
is the required line of position.
The intersection of this line of position with a second line obtained
by observing the moon (if visible by da light), or the intersection
E
of lines of position from two stars a t nig t, fixes the location of the
plane.
Example 12.-A flight is planned from New York to Paris, along
the great-circle route. It is desired to leave New York on May 13,
1938. From the best data available, a ground speed of 190 m. p. h.
is expected (165 m. p. h. air speed plus 25 m. p. h. westerly wmd).
The distance is a little more than 3,600 statute miles, and approxi-
mate1 19 hours are required for the flight. I t is planned to leave
New $ork about 1:30 p. m. eastern standard time (=18’3Orn GCT),
arriving at Paris a t about 1:30 p. m. the following day (=13h30mGCT).
From the Nautical Almanac i t is learned that the moon will be full
on May 14, and will be favorably situated for observation. The
dead reckoning positions of the plane from about the end of evening
twilight, May 13, to about the beginning of morning twilight, May 14,
are as indicated in figure 84.
Using the latitude, longitude, and GCT corresponding to each dead
reckoning position, the altitude and azimuth of the moon for each
position are computed by means of the line of position table, pages 167
Bo 181. In the Nautical Almanac it is noted that the horizontal
parallax for the moon on May 14 is 55I 1. From the table on page 101,
the bubble sextant corrections for refraction and parallax are found
and applied to the computed altitudes, with reversed sign. The azi-
muths are then plotted on the chart of the route (fig. 84), and the pre-
computed altitude curve of figure 85 is drawn. During flight, the
only correction to be applied to the sextant altitude of the moon is that
for index error (if any).
To illustrate the use of the method in flight, suppose that at 3”30m
GCT a sextant altitude of 18’59’ is obtained. Applying a known
index correction of -3‘, the corrected sextant altitude is 18’56‘.
From the curve of figure 85 the altitude of the moon for 3’30m is read
as 18’43’. Since the observed altitude is 13’ greater, the position at
the time of observation is 13’ closer to the moon. At 3’30” the dead
reckoning position of the plane is halfway between positions 5 and 6;
the approxlmate azimuth of the moon is laid off through that point, as
 P
3

7 51 12 37 51 4 15 208 39 15 49 15 0

8 51 24 35 42 4 45 217 12 12 25 11 36
 May 14. 1938 sh
85.-Precomputed altitude curve for the moon.
FIGURE
144 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

indicated by the light broken line, and the line of position LP is

drawn, 13’ toward the body from the dead reckoning position.
A curve of altitudes can also be precomputed and plotted for some
other celestial body, differing from the moon in azimuth by about 90’
if ossible. The intersection of a line of position from the moon with
a {ne from this second body, obtained as described above,’ fixes the
position of the plane.
For other examples in celestial navigation, see pages 83 to 96.
Additional examples, involving time-speed-distance relations,
and simpler methods of correcting for the effixt of wind, are included
in the Appendix which follows.
1 With due regard to the course and distance made good between observations.
 APPENDIX
I n the preceding examples all problems pertaining to wind effect
have been solved graphically, by metbns of a triangle of velocities.
This principle is essential to a clear understanding of the factors
involved; however, the construction of such a triangle in flight is often
impractical, and may be considered laborious even on the ground.
Many pages of tables and computations have been reduced to form
the following simple graphs, by means of which pilots may read a t
a glance the answer to any problem involving the effect of wind, or
time-speed-distance relations. Each graph has its own special use and
is easy to interpret, with the aid of the simple examples given. It is
believed that pilots will be well repaid for the little time required to
become thoroughly familiar with their special uses.
I n order to make the graphs useful for planes of all cruising speeds,
it is necessary to arrange some of them for wind velocities and ground
speeds in terms of percent of air speed. The first of the graphs which
follow, therefore, is for the conversion of percentage velocities into
miles per hour, and vice versa.
In all the graphs it is immaterial whether statute miles or nautical
miles are used; the answers will be obtained from the graphs in the
same terms with which they are entered.
145
146 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

CONVERSION OF PERCENTAGE VELOCITIES AND MILES-PER-HOUR

VELOCITIES
[See flg. 861

This graph is intended to facilitate the conversion from miles per

hour to percentage velocities, as well as the reverse process. It needs
no explanation other than the following examples.
Example 1.-A wind velocity of 20 m. p. h. is reported. What
percent is this of an air speed of 120 m. p. h.?
Follow the curve for 20 m. p. h. across to its intersection with the
vertical line for 120 m. p. h.; opposite this point at the left read the
percentage velocity of 17. That is, 20 m. p. h. is 17 percent of the
air speed of 120 m. p. h.
Example 2.-From figure 89 it is found that a ground speed equal
to 116 percent of the air speed of 140 m. p. h. will be made good along
the intended track. What is the ground speed in m. p. h.?
Follow the horizontal line corresponding to 116 percent across to
the vertical line for an air speed of 140 m. p. h., and read 162 m. p. h.
(interpolating between the curves for 160 and 165 m. p. h.).
148 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

FINDING THE TRUE AIR SPEED

[See flg. 8‘11
For many problems of piloting and dead reckoning a knowledge of
the true air speed is essential. The air speed meter records the pres-
sure of the air against the pressure chamber of the instrument, in terms
of speed. Pressure varies with altitude and with the temperature of
the air, and the indicated air speed must therefore be corrected for
these factors in order to obtain the true air speed. This correction
may be found from figure 87.
In using the graph it is assumed that the air speed meter has pre-
viously been corrected or calibrated for any instrumental or mstalla-
tion errqrs. Perhaps the most satisfactory method of calibration is
to fly a measured course under no-wind (or known wind) conditions,
noting the time with a stop watch. The “pressure altitude” with
which the graph is entered is the reading of the altimeter when set for
the standard barometric pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury. (and cor-
rected for instrumental and insta.llation errors). The followmg exam-
ple illustrates the use of the graph.
Example 1.-A pilot flying a t an altitude of 5,000 feet, at an indi-
cated air speed of 135 m. p. h., wishes to determine his true air speed.
The temperature, read from a wing strut thermometer at the time,
is 50’ F.
Follow the horizontal line corresponding to an altitude of 5,000 feet
across to its intersection with the vertical line for a temperature of
50°, and read the true air speed from the nearest curve-a httle more
than 108 percent of the indicated air speed.
Referring to figure 86, it is seen that 108 percent of the kdicated
air speed of 135 m. p. h. is 146 m. p. h., which is the true a n speed
requlred .
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 149

TEMPERATURE-- IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

100 80 60 40 20 0 - 20 - 40

0
FIGUBE 87.-Graph for flnding the true air speed.
150 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

TIMESPEED-DISTANCE PROBLEMS
[See flg. 881

Example 1.-A prominent charted landmark, along the desired

route and 6 miles from the starting point, is passed in 3 minutes of
flight. What is the ground speed being made good?
Using the inner scales (see note below graph), follow the vertical
line corresponding to 6 miles down to its intersection with the hori-
zontal line for 3 minutes. The diagonal line passing through the
intersection, 120 m. p. h., is the ground speed required.
Example 2.--With a ground speed of 120 m. p. h., how many
minutes will be required to reach a town 95 miles distant?
Using the outer scales (see note below graph), follow the vertical
Line corresponding to 95 miles down to its intersection with the ground
speed line for 120 m. p. h., then follow the horizontal line across to
read the required time of 47.5 minutes.
Example 3.-A plane is making good a ground speed of 150 m. p. h.
and it is desired to divide the route into time intervals of 10 minutes
each. Find the number of miles that will be made good for each 10
minutes.
Follow the horizontal line for 10 minutes across to the ground speed
line for 150 m. p. h., and above this point read 25 miles, the distance
to be made good for each 10 minutes of flight.
Example 4.-A flight of 850 miles is to be made, and a ground speed
of about 140 m. p. h. is expected. Find the total flying time required.
For the infrequent cases involving distnnces in excess of lo0 miles,
multiply the two outer scales by 10. Follow the vertical lmr corre-
sponding to 850 miles (85 miles) down to its intersection with the
ground speed line for 140 m. p. h., then across to read the time mterval
of 365 minutes (36.5), or 6 hours 5 minutes, whch is the time required.
Example 5.-Find the ground speed corresponding to a distance of
10.5 miles made good in 4.5 minutes. See example 1, page 160.
For distances over 10 miles and time less than 6 minutes, the graph
is not directly useful, since the ground speed lines are too close to-
gether to be read easily and many of them must be omitted. This
portion of the graph should seldom be used, as results obtained from
high speeds and short distances (or time) are not likely to be very
de endable.
brhen such a problem arises, multiply both time and distance by
an convenient number, as 2. I n this case the distance becomes 21
P
mi es and the time 9 minutes, and the ground speed of 140 m. p. h. is
easily read from the corresponding point on the graph.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 151
DISTANCE IN MILES

60

50

40

20

10

0
FIGURE se.-Time-Speed-Distance graph.
For distances Ilndor 10 rniles or time under 6 rniiiutes use the inner Scales.
I k distances over 10 nliles or time over 6 minutes use the outer scsles.
152 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

CORRECTION TO COURSE FOR WIND AND DETERMINATION OF

GROUND SPEED
[See fig. 891

This graph is intended for use when the wind direction and velocity
are definitely known. It would ordinarily be used to determine the
correct compass heading from weather reports before taking off, as well
as the ground speed that will be made good along the intended track
while flying the correct compass heading.
As explained on page 41, the correction to the course that is read
from the graph is also the drift angle that will be observed in flight, as
long as the correct compass heading is maintained and there is little
change in wind. This provides a very definite check, then, as to
whether the conditions encountered in the air are as predicted. If
a t any time an appreciably different drift angle is observed, corrections
based on the new wind conditions should be determined as outlined
in connection with figure 92 or fi ure 94.
P
To use this graph, the wind ve ocity in miles per hqur must first be
converted into percent of air speed; the ground speed 1s read from the
raph in percent of air speed and must be converted into miles per hour.
8his is done most readily by reference to figure 86.
The "angle between wind and true course" is reckoned from dead
ahead, i. e., looking toward the destination, from 0' to 180' on either
side.
Example 1.-The cruising speed of lane is 160 m. p. h.; true course,
85'; wind, 25 m. p. h., from 45'. Fp ind the correction to the course
for wind, and the ground speed thab will be made good along the in-
tended track while flying the corrected course (compass heading).
The angle between the wind and the true course is 85'-45O, or 40'.
By reference to figure 86 it is seen that the wind velocity of 25 m. p. h.
is 16 percent of the cruising speed of 160 m. p. h. Now, in figure 89,
follow the vertical line corresponding to a wind velocity pf 16 percent
down to its intersection with the horizontal line for 40' wind angle and
read from the red curve the correction to the course, which is 6'; by
interpolation between the black curves, the ground speed that will be
made good along the intended track is found to be 87 percent of the air
speed of 160 m. p. h., or 140 m. p. h. This is the ground speed that will
be made good along the intended track. Since the wind is from the
left, the correction of 6' must be subtracted from,$;shetrue course.
Example 2.-The cruising speed of plane is m. p. h.; true course,
270'; wind, 32 m. p. h., from 30'. Find the correction to the course
for wind, and the ground speed that will be made good along the
intended track.
The angle between the wind and the true course is 120'. If this
factor is not entirely clear at any time, a crude sketch similar to figure
90 will guard against errors.
From figure 86 it is seen that the wind velocity of 32 m. p. h. is
24 percent of the cruising speed of 135 m. p. h. Now, in figure 89 fol-
low the vertical line for 24 percent down to its intersection with the
horizontal line for 120' and read the correction to the course, which is
12'. Since the wind is from the right, this correction must be added
to the true course. A t the same point in the graph, a ground speed
equal t o 110 percent of the air speed is indicated; referring again to
figure 86 it is seen that 110 ercent of 135 m. p. h.= 148 m. p. h., which
P
is the ground speed that wil be made good along the intended track.
I-
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 153
Example 3.-A pilot flying the radio range course has been able to
determine his ground speed as 90 percent of the air speed, and finds
that he has to head 10' to the right of the magnetic course on the chart
in order to keep along the right side of the equisignal zone, because of
strong cross winds. Find the direction and velocity of the wind.
The 10' which the pilot must head into the wind is the wind correc-
tion angle. I n figure 89, locate the point where the black curve cor-
responding to a ground speed of 90 percent intersects the red curve for a
wind correction angle of 10'; directly above this point find the wind

FIGURE
QO.-Determiuiug the wind nngle.

velocity, which is 19 percent of the air speed, and a t the left find the
wind angle, which is about 63' to the right of the true course.
If preferred, table 4 can be usod for these problems, instead of figure
80. The table ail'ords the same information as the graph, but in some
respects is less exact nnd requires mental interpolations. For example,
for a wind velocity equal to 28 percent of the air speed the corrections
must be interpolated betwoen the values given in the column for 25
percont and the column for 30 percent. If the wind of 28 percent is a t
a n angle of 80° from the head of the plane, the correction to the course
for wind is 16', and the ground speed that will be made good along the
intended track is 91 percent of the air speed.
154 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC S U R V E Y

Table 4.-Correction t o course for wind, and determination of ground

speed
["Corr." is the correction to the course for wind: to be ADDED for wind from the RIGHT, subtracted for
wind from the left].
["G. S." is the ground sneed that will he made good along the intended trark: it is expressed in percent of
air speed!
-
Wind velocity-in percent of air speed

Wind s n g k I d
- -
10
- -
15
_-
I 20
- -
25
- - - - - -
30 35 40
-
l-
A L. m
$
LI
A $ A A A
$ v; 5 u3
ti s- -
.8
d d -
0 '-0 - ti u d u ti V ti
- - _ V
- -- --- -
% % % " % % % % %
95 0 YO 0 85 0 80 0 75 0 70 0 65 0 60'
95
95 2
1 90
90
1
3
85
ne
2
4
80
81
2
5
75
76
3
6
70
71
; 65
All
4
8
60
61
96 3 91 4 87 G 82 7 78 9 73 10 68 12 63
96 4 92 6 88 7 84 9 80 11 75 13 71 15 66
97 4 93 7 90 9 86 11 82 13 78 I6 74 18 e's
97 6 95 7 92 10 88 13 85 15 82 18 78 20 74
98 5 96 R 94 11 91 14 n9 16 86 19 R2 22 79
99 6 98 8 96 11 95 14 93 17 90 20 88 23 85
100 6 99 9 99 12 98 14 97 17 95 20 94 24 92
101 6 101 8 102 11 102 14 101 17 101 20 ion 23 99
102 5 103 8 104 11 105 14 106 16 106 19 106 22 106
102 5 105 7 107 10 108 13 110 15 112 18 113 20 114
103 4 lot, 7 109 9 112 11 114 13 117 16 119 18 121
104 4 107 6 111 i 114 9 118 11 121 13 124 15 127
104 3 109 4 113 6 117 7 121 9 125 10 1% 12 133
105 2 109 3 114 4 119 5 123 6 128 7 132 8 137
105 1 110 1 115 2 120 2 124 3 129 3 134 4 139
0 0 0 125 0 130 0 135 0 140
-- ---
105 0 110 115 120
- - - - - - --
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 155
CORRECTION TO COURSE AND DETERMINATION OF GROUND
SPEED BY THE DOUBLE DRIFT METHOD
[See 5g. 921

Figure 89 and table 4 are intended chiefly for determining the

round speed and the correction to course before beginning a flight,
from predicted wind velocities and directions. Their use is subject
to the disadvantage that winds vary with time, place, and altitude,
and the conditions actually experienced in flight may differ appreci-
ably from those predicted.
By the use of figure 92, the pilot needs only to make two drift,
observations, and may read directly the correction to the course and
the resultant ground speed. The results are precise and are based
on conditions existing a t the moment, rather than on predicted!
conditions.
Without the graph, this could be accomplished by plotting the two
drift angles in a combined figure from which the wind direction and
velocity could be scaled, and then applying a correction for the wind
so determined. By the use of this graph the plotting is eliminated
altogether and the desired corrections are read opposite the observed
drift angles. The procedure is as follows:
1. Fly a compass course at a n angle of 4 5 O t o t h e right of t h e intended t r a c k
a n d observe t h e drift angle (defined on pp. 40 a n d 41)-say, 10' t o t h e right.
2. While returning t o t h e intended track and a t a n angle of 45' t o t h e left
thereof, observe a second drift angle-say, 5" t o t h e right.
3. With these two values enter t h e graph a n d read the correction t o t h e course
as 1 1 O (turn 11" toward t h e left), a n d t h e ground speed t h a t will be made good
along t h e intended track a s 90 percent of t h e air speed.
N

0
0

m
2
I-

10' to the right

Ol.-Measuring the two drlft angles.

FIGURE

Figure 91 further illustrates the procedure. The compass course

from A to a distant point D (not allowing for wind) is 60'. Upon
reaching the point B, it is decided to determine definitely the correc-
tion to coume and ground speed by this method. A compass COUWB
of 105' (45O to the right) is therefore flown until the drift angle is
156 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

determined; the ship is then turned through 90°, returning to the

plotted route on a compass course of 15' (45' to the left), and the
second drift angle is determined. Under average conditions, the
plane should be approximately over the intended track when the
second drift angle is obtained, and the data read from the graph
supply the pilot with the exact compass heading and ground speed
toward his destination.
As previously stated, the "correction to the course" is also the drift
angle that will be observed as long as the plane is kept on the cor-
rected compass heading and the wind remains unchanged. If at any
time an appreciably different drift angle is observed, it is notice of
chan ed wind conditions, and new corrections to courso and ground
%
spee should be determined as before.
In flying the two courses at 45' to the plotted route, it is not nec-
essary to consider differences of compass deviation unless they are
excessively large. Minor differences such as would ordinarily be
present, would not affect the results.
In the above process the pilot does not learn-in fact, does not
need to know-the direction and velocity of the wind. Instead,
these values have been previously computed and incorporated in the
raph, and the pilot reads from it only the corrections therefor. If,
P or any special purpose, the pilot should wish to know the wind
direction and velocity, he can obtain them from the corrections read
from the gra h, as explained in example 3, p. 157.
P
This detai ed explanation of the graph and of the method involved
may sound complicated. As a matter of fact, it is very simple and
one of the most accurate methods devised to date. The simplicity
is shown by the following examples.
Example 1.-A pilot desiring to make good a compass couree of
78', flies first on a compass course of 123' (45' to the right), then on
a course of 33' (45' to the left), observing the drift angle on each
course. On the first course a drift angle of 15' to the right was
obtained; on the second a drift angle of 5' to the left. Find the
correction to the course, and the ground speed that will be niade good,
1 At the top of the graph are shown the drift angles for the course 4 5 O
to the right of the intended track; follow the vcrtical line correspond-
ing to a drift angle of 15' to the right down to its intersection with the
horizontal line for a drift of 5' to the left, and read 7' correction to
be subtracted from the courpe, and a ground speed of 77 percent.
The compass heading to be flown, then, is 78'-7'=71', and the
ground speed will be 77 percent of the air speed of the plane.
Example 2.-The compass course from A to 13 is 225'; observed
drift angle on compass course of 270' (45' to the right), 20' to thc
left; drift angle on compass course of 180' (45' to the left), 5 O to the
right. Find the correction to the course and the ground speed that
mll be made good.
From the top of the graph, follow the vertical line for B drift of 20°
to the left down to its mtersection with the horizontal line for a drift
of 5' to the right, and read 12' correction to be added to the course,
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 157
and a ground speed of 136 percent. The com ass heading to be flown
is 225O+12'=237', 1
and the ground speed w' 1 be 136 percent of the
air speed.
As long as the compass heading of 237' is maintained and there is
no appreciable change in wind, a drift angle of 12' to the left will be
observed. If any great change from this value is noted, the correc-
tions to course and ground speed should be redetermined.

FIGURE
03.-Finding the wind direction and velocity from flgure 92.

Example 3.-A pilot, having obtained from figure 92 a correction

to the course of 10' to the left and a round speed of 85 percent,
7
wishes to determine the direction and ve ocity of the wind.
At the meridian AN (fig. 93) lay off tho true course AB and plot
the correction to the course. The air speed is in the direction of the
compass heading AC, which is therefore plotted=lOO percent; the
ground speed is in the direction of AB, which is plotted=85 percent.
CB then represents the wind velocit in percent of air speed, and its
K
direction, with respect to true nort or to the true course, may be
measured from the drawing with a protractor. Wind direction and
velocit may also be obtained readily by the use of figure 85; see
T
exnmp e 3, page 159.
158 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

FINDING WIND CORRECTION AND GROUND SPEED IN FLIGHT

FROM ONE OBSERVATION WITH A DRIFT INDICATOR
[See fig. 941

As with the preceding figure, the corrections obtained from this

graph are based upon conditions actually being experienced in flight,
rather than upon redicted conditions which may or may not hold
B
good. The proce ure is as follows:
1. Head the plane along the no-wind compass course to the destination.
2. Note the drift angle and the ground speed being made good.
3. With these data read directly from the graph the correction to the course
a n d the ground speed that will be made good, in percent of air speed.
This method is the simplest possible, and its precision is limited
only by the accuracy with which the ground speed can be determined.
With some drift indicators fairly good determinations of ground speed
are possible; a t other times this factor can be definitely known by
reference to landmarks, radio marker beacons, etc. Whenever the
ground speed can be satisfactorily determined, this method is the
quickest and most satisfactory. It should be noted that with this
method no departure from the course is necessary in order to make the
drif t-and-ground speed observations.
As with the preceding graph, the correction to the course will be
the drift angle that will be observed as long as the corrected compass
heading is maintained and wind conditions do not change. If a t any
time during flight an appreciable difference is noted, it is only neces-
sary to head the plane once more on the no-wind compass course,
observe the new drift angle and ground speed, and read the desired
corrections from the graph.
Example 1.-A plane flying at an air speed of 140 m. p. h. is headed
on the no-wind compass course when a drift angle of 11' to the right
and a ground speed of 153 m. p. h. are observed wlth a drift indicator.
Find the correction to the course and the ground speed that will be
made good along the intended track.
By reference to figure 86 it is seen that 153 m. p. h. is 109 percent
of the air speed of 140 m. p. h. Follow the vertical line corresponding
to an 11' drift angle down to the (interpolated) horizontal line for
109 percent and read, from the nearest red curve, 1 2 O , the correction
to the course for wind; the nearest black curve, 105 percent, indicates
that a ground speed e ual to 105 percent of the air speed will be made
1
good along the inten ed track. Referring again to figure 86, it is
seen that 105 percent of 140 m. p. h.=147 m. p. h. Since the drift is
to the right, the wind is from the left, and the 12' must be subtracted
from the compass course.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 159
RECTIFYING THE HEADING AND GROUND SPEED FOR THE
EFFECT OF WIND
[See 5g. 951
This graph is intended chiefly for rectifying the heading and ground
speed for the effect of known wind, in order to plot on the chart tlie
true course and distance made good (case I1 of dead reckoning; p. 44).
It may also be used to determine wind direction and velocity. As in
the prcceding figures, wind velocities and ground speeds are indicated
in percent of air speed.
I n eBect, figure 95 contnins all possible combinations of the triangle
of velocities, It consists of a red wind compass superimposed on a
series of black drift angles and ground speeds.
The red wind compnss is graduated to show wind direction a t 10'
intervals, and concentric red circles for reading wind velocities are
drawn from the center a t intcrvals corresponding to 5 percent of the
air speed of the plane.
The black drift angles are a t intervals of 2', and tlie central line
marked 0' may be considered either as true north or as the heading of
the plane, according to the problem. The black arcs are spaced a t
intervals of 5 percent of the air speed, and provide a convenient scale
for rending ground s eeds.
P
Example 1.-A pi ot flying in fog a t 100 m. p. h. on a true heading
of 270' is advised by radio that the wind is 20 m. p. h. from 45'. Find
tlie track (or true course) being made good and the ground speed.
It is seen that the wind is from the right of the plane and 135' from
the plane's head, and the wind velocity of 20 m. p. h. is 20 percent of
the air speed of the plane. Following the (interpolated) red line for
135' toward the left from the center, to its intersection with the circle
for 20 percent, it is seen that the ground speed is 115 percent of the air
speed, or 115 m. p. h., and the drift angle is 7' to the left. 270°-7'=
263', which is the track, or true course, desired.
Example 2.-A pilot flying over broken clouds a t an air speed of
120 m. p. h. and on a true heading of 90' was able to determine a drift
angle of 10' to the right; a t the same time he noted that smoke from a
chimney was practically a t right angles to his heading. Find the
wind direction and velocity, the track, and the ground speed.
Following the red line a t right angles to the center line out to its
intersection with the black line representing a 10' drift to the right,
we find a wind velocity equal to 17.5 perccnt of the air speed, or 21
m. p. h. The wind is from the left and 90' from the plane's head, or
from true north.
Since the wind is from the left, the drift angle of 10' must be added:
SOo+lOo=lOOo, the track made good. The ground speed is also
read from the graph as 101 percent of the plane's air specd, or 121
m. p. h.
Example 3.-A plane cruising a t a speed of 90 m. p. h. is headed
true north, and, by means of a drift indicator, a drift angle of 10' to
the right and a ground speed of 103 m. p. 11. are observed. Find the
wind direction and velocity.
The ground speed of 103 m. p. h. is 114 percent of the plane's air
speed. Follow the black drift line marked 10' (to the right of 0') out
to its intersection with the (interpolated) black ground speed arc rcpre-
senting 114 percent. The position of this intersection between the
160 U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

red circles for 20 and 25 percent indicates the velocity of the wind
which is 23 percent of the air speed, or 21 m. p. h., and the nearest
radial red line from the center, 120°, indicates the direction of the wind
with reference to the plane's head. Since the heading of the plane in
this case is true north, or 360', the wind is from 360'-120°, or from
240' true.
DRIFT DETERMINATION WITHOUT A DRIFT INDICATOR
[See 5g. MI
Most texts on air navigation include a "table of course errors,"
showing the angular errors corresponding to the miles off-course for
any distance flown. It is usually stated that, in any given case, if
the tabulated error is applied to the compass heading the plane will
then parallel the original intended track; or that if double the error
is applied the plane will return to the original track in the same
distance. Such statements are mathcma ticnlly incorrect when the
de arture from the course is due to wind, as is most often the case.
h g u r e 96 shows the course errors for any departure from the track
and any distance flown. As already pointed out, this error applied
to the compass heading will not give the correct heading to steer.
The graph serves just one useful purpose: When the error is due
to wind drift (and not to erroneous measurement of the course on
the chart, or compass errors) the course error indicated on the graph
is the drift angle.
I n the absence of a drift indicator, then, the drift angle can be
obtained by means of this graph. The ground speed can be obtained
from figure 88 from the elapsed time and distance flown. With the
drift angle and ground speed known, the correction to the course
and the ground speed that will be made good along the intended
track can be obtained a t a glance from figure 94. Or if wind direc-
tion and velocity are required, these may be obtained from figure 95
with the same data.
Example 1.-In flying from Cedar Lawn Airport, near Kenton,
Ohio, to Springfield Airport (pl. I), on a true heading of 189' and a t
an air speed of 120 m. p. h., a pilot passes directly over the town of
Rushsylvania just 4.5 minutes after taking off. Knowing that this
town is west of his intended track, he wishes to find the correction
to be made to his course, and the ground speed that will be made
good.
From the chart he finds that Rushsylvania is 10.5 miles from Cedar
Lawn Airport and 2 miles west of the intended track. He notes,
from figure 96, that this corresponds to R drift angle of 1l0,and from
fi ure 88 that the ground speed is 140 m. p. h., which is 117 percent
B
o the plane's air spoed. (See example 5 , p. 150.) Referring to figure
94 with these data he reads the correction to his course as 13', and
the ground speed that will be made good along the intended track as
112 percent of the air speed, or 134 m. p. h . Since the wind is from
the left, the correction of 13' must be subtracted from the heading:
189'-13'=176', the true heading to bo steered.
If he should wish to know the direction and velocity of the wind,
he may enter figure 95 with a drift angle of 11' to the right and a
ground speed of 117 percent, and read the wind velocity as 27 percent
of the air speed, or 32 m. p. h., snd the wind direction as 125' from
the heading of the plane, or 189'-125'=64' true.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 161

MILES OFF COURSE

0 10 20 30 40 50
0 1 2 3 4 5

FIGURE
DB.--Qraph for flnding the drift angle
162 U. S. COAST AKD GEODETIC SURVEY

RADIUS OF ACTION
Radius of action ‘problems are treated on pages 47 to 51. The
solutions offered there are precise, and should be followed whenever
exact data are essential. Often the approximate radius of action is
all that is required, and for quick convenience the following approxi-
mate table is given. It tabulates the distance a plane may fly under
given wind conditions and still return to the point of departure.
Table 5.-Approximate radius o f action for each hour of flying time
available

Wind velocity-in m. p. h.
Air speed of plane I , -

75 ______
80.................
-_-
- .------
IM- 37
39
10

36
39
15

36
38
20

34
37
25

33
36
30

.___._
34
35

_____
40

.......
50

.- .- - - -
.- - - -
.- - - - - -
~

85................. 42 41 41 40 38 37 ___._
90- - - - - - - - - -.
---- -- 44 44 43 42 41 40 38 .- - - - - -
__
95- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47 47 46 45 44 42 41 - - - - - -. .......
.......
100. ................ 49 49 48 48 46 45 43 42
105................. 52 52 51 50 49 48 46 44 .- - - - - -
110................. 54 54 54 53 52 50 49 47 .......
115................. 57 57 56 55 54 53 52 50 .......
I20 ................. 59 59 s9 58 57 56 54 53 .- - -. --
12s................. 82 62 61 60 60 58 57 56 52
130................. 64 64 64 63 62 61 60 58 55
135................. 67 67 66 66 65 64 62 61 58
140................. 69 69 69 68 67 66 65 64 61
145---.-.----------- 72 72 71 71 70 69 68 66 63
- -
150.-. - - - - - - - - - - - - 74 74 74 73 72 72 70 69 66
155 ................. 77 77 76 76 75 74 73 72 69
160.-. .............. 79 79 79 78 78 77 76 75 72
165.. ............... 82 82 81 ni 80 79 78 77 74
170................. 84 84 84 83 83 82 81 80 77
175................. 87 87 86 BG 85 n4 84 n2 no
180.. ............... 89 89 89 nn n8 87 86 85 83
185.---------------- 92 92 91 91 90 90 89 88 86
190................. 94 94 94 93 93 92 91 90 88
195................. 97 97 96 96 95 95 94 93 91
200.. _-_ - - - -_
- - .- -_- 99 99 99 99 08 97 96 96 93
205 ................. 102 102 101 101 100 100 99 98 96
_ _ __________
210 _ _ _ _ . 104 104 104 104 103 102 102 101 98
220. _- -_- - -_ __ __
215.................
-- --
225.................
107
100
112
107
109
112
106
109
112
106
109
111
106
108
111
105
107
110
104
106
109
103
lo6
108
101
104
106
230.-. .............. 114 114 114 114 113 113 112 111 109
235................. 117 117 117 116 116 115 114 114 112
240 ................. 119 119 119 119 118 118 117 116 114
245... .............. 129 122 122 121 121 120 120 119 117
250. - -__ - - - - - - - -
- -- - 124 174 124 124 17.3 123 122 121 120
__ - __

Minimum radius of action exists with the wind parallel to the

route (head or tail winds); maximum radius occurs wit,h the wind a t
right angles thereto. The difference between maximum and minimum
is surprisingly small, amounting to only :
10% for a 40% wind (wind 40% of plane’s air speed)
5y0 for a 30% wind
3y0 for a 25% wind, and
2y0 for a 20% wind.
The values given in table 5 are for wind parallel to the route, and
therefore represent minimum radius of action. For other conditions
slightly greater radius is possible.
Tho radius of action indicated in the table is the radius for one
hour’s flight, and should bo multipliod by the number of hours of
flying time available. Thus, for a plane with an air speed of 120
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 163
m. p. h. and a wind of 25 m. p. h., the radius of action indicated in
the table is 56 miles for each hour’s flight. Fuel for 3 hours and 3 0
minutes is available; therefore the radius of action is 3 . 5 X 5 6 , or 196
miles.
THE BEAUFORT SCALE
In the proceding page,s various methods have been given for cor-
recting the course of a plane for the effect of wind. For dependable
navigation it is desirable to obtain wind data as accurately as possible;
however, in the absence of better facilities the following table may
be of some assistance in estimating wind velocities. It is c,ommonly
known as the Beaufort scale.
Table B.-Beaufort scale for e s t i m a t i n g wind uelocitierr
-
Miles per Terms used in
Heaufort Specificat,ionsfor use on land hour U. S. Weather
number (statutc) Bureau fore-
casts 1

I
Calm; smoke rises vertically- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Less
than 1.
Direction of wind shown by smoke drift, but 1-3
not by wind vanes. Light.
Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary vane 4-7
moved by wind.
Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; 8-12 Gentle.
wind extends light flag.
Raises dust and loose paper; small branches 13-18 Moderate.
are moved.
Small trees in leaf begin t o sway; crested wave- 19-24 Fresh.
lets form on inland waters.
Large branches in motion; whistling heard in 25-31
telegraph wires; umbrellas used with diffi-
culty.
Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt in
walking against wind.
32-38
t Strong.

t
Breaks twigs off trees; generally impedes 39-46
progress. Gale.
Slight structural damage occurs (chimney pots 47-54
and slate removed).
Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted;

t
55-63
considerable structural damage occurs.
Very rarely experienced; accompanied by wide- 64-75 Whole gale.
spread damage.
.......................................... Above 75 H 11rrican e.

1 Except for the word calm,” these terms are not ordlnaril!: used in aeronautical weather reports ana
forecasts.

The Beaufort numbers are represented on weather maps by the

number and length of the barbs on the wind arrows (see p. 120), and
indicate tho approximate wind velocities a t the various reportin
stations. They are seldom used for an other purpose, and shoul
%
not be confused with wind velocities in eatlner Bureau reports and
i
forecasts, which are always given in miles per hour.
 164 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC SURVEY

Table ?.-Code adopted for airway w e

-,0
l.--
z..-
3...-
4....
5.-.
6-.-
7-..
.a.,
Q--.

Location Name I( Location I Name

_ _ _ _ _ _.________
_ _____ ___ Albany
Akron, Ohio. Municipal Airport. Nogales International Air-
A 0. Ariz Do. port.
~

Albany, N. Y . - - - -
Brownsville, Tex
_ _ _ __ __ Brownsville
_____
Airport.
- Pan Ameri-
Oedenshurc IIarbor.
F;rt P e m h h Airport.
can Airport. Portal Airport.
Buffalo, N. Y - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Buffalo Airport. Port Angeles Airport.
Caribou, Maine-. ______ Municipal Airport. Port Townsend Airport.
Cleveland. Ohio ________ Do. Put-in-Bay, Ohio ...... Eric Isle Airways Airport.
Detroit, Mich ______ ____ Do. Itouws Point, N. Y---- Rouses Point Seaplane
Do ---------__--_---Ford Airport.
Douglas, Ariz
____ _ _ _ __ __
Do . _ _ _ _ _ .Wayne
________ _ County Airport.
D o u g 1 a s International Seattle, Wash
Base.
San Diego, Calif------- I h d b W p h Field.
_____ ____
Boeing Field.
Eagle Pass, Tex..
Airpnrt.
____ __
Eagle Pass Airport.
Do .__...-.----
Skagway, Alaska ..___._
_____
~

LakeUuion Sear)laneBase.
Skagway Mrinicir)sl Air-
Fairbanks, Alaska----. Weeks Municipal Airport. nort.
Juneau, Alaska . _ _ _
Ketchikan, Alaska-..-.
__
Juneau
_ _Airport.
_
Ketchikan Airport.
Chnde.
Missisquoi Airport.
Key West, Fla _________
Mearham Airport. ltoosevelt Flying Service
Laredo, Tex.--.
Miami, Fla.-. ___________
Laredo Airdrome.
____ __
Dinner KeySeaplane Base.
Baso (Currio Common
Park).'
Do-_-_-_---- - ___-- - Pan American Airways
Airport (or 36th 6t.
Airport).
W r a n ~ e l l Alaskn
El Paso. Ten
,
_____________
Wrangell Seaplane Base.
____
E l Paso Airport. ~

Location Name nated

Bangor, Maine. _________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ Bangor Airport _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _June

Bellinghani, Wash _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C h l i a m Airport ____.._. ______ _ _26,_,1927 _ __ __ __ __
___-__

_ ___________
_______ Apr._18,
___.__
Buffalo, N. Y _ . _ _ _ _ _~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
_- BulFalo
_ ._ _ Marine
__ Base
_ ._ ________ July
_29._____
Burlington Vt -... ______
__ _ _ __ __ _____ Burlington Airport _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ June
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______ I
.__ 20,
_ _ _ _ ______
~ ~

Calexico. dalif _ _ ._ __. Calexico Airport.. _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ ____Jan.

___ _10._
__ __. .. . _ _
Cape Vinrent, N. Y ~ Cape Vincent IIarbor _____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~ -
~

Apr. 26,
Crosby. N. Ilak _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Croshy Airport. _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _June _ _29, _1037
Duluth, Minn __________ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~ Williamson-Johnson Airport. - -
- ._
_____
_____ Seyt.
__
._ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Do.
__
_____
4, 1937
__.__
Do. . _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _
Oreat Falls, Mont _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Havre, Mont . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
._ ~ __

________
_1)nluth
___
Oreat
_
__
IIavre
__
Ihmt
_-_
Falls
_
_ Cluh
_
__
Airport.
_Soap
Airport
__
._
__
ane
_
--
_
Base
_ _. ___
_ _ _
._
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______________
________
__ __ __June
_ _2,
3)O.
_ ___
1937
____
~

dalone, N . Y. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Malone
__
~

Airport . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~

____________
_______________ ~ Apr.
__ 18,_1937_ _ _ _
diami, FIR_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Chalks
_ _Flying
___ Bervico
__ _.______
Airport __
_ ._ _
Sept. 17,_1937
_
_ _ _ _ _ _______
Plattshurg, N. Y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Plnttsbnrg Airport _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
.._.___ June
__ 2. _ _ _ _ _
Rochester, N. Y - - - _ _ . . .__________________
................. Itochaster Airport . _ _ _ _
Sault Ste. Marie Airport
- _
_________________________ Nov. 7,
8ault Ste. Marie, Mich Aug. 4,
Scobev.
. . Mont _______________ .__________
8 kane, Wash _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Felts
Scohey
_
___________ _ _ ____ _____ _ __ __ __ _ __ __ ________________
Airport . _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ Field.
June
_ _ ____________
~ _ _2,
DO.
___

98"
atertown, N . Y _______________________ Wnt.ertown Airport
~

. . . . . . ._ ._ ._ ._._._._._. _. _. _. _. _. _
~

Do.
Warroad, Minn. _____ __________________
~ Warroad Seaplane Base..-..
~

Sept. 2. 1937
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 165
PRICE LIST OF AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
All aeronautical charts of the Department of Commerce may be ordered from
the Director, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., or from the field
stations of the Bureau at the following places:
808 Customhouse, Boston, Mass.
915 Federal Office Building, New Pork, N. Y.
423 Carla1 Street, New Orleans, La.
307 Customhouse, San Francisco, Calif.
601 Federal Office Building, Seattle, Wash.
Prices of charts per @inglecopy are as follows:
Sectional aeronautical charts (1 : 500,000), 40 cents.
Regional aeronautical charts (1 : 1,000,000): Day flying, 75 cents; day and
night flying, $1.20.
Aeronautical radio direction finding charts (1 : 2,000,000),75 cents.
3060a, Aeronautical planning chart, United States, Lambert projection
(1 : 5,000,000); shows principal airports and broadcasting stations, index t o
sectional charts, and lines of equal magnetic variation at 5" intervals; 4 0
cents.
3074, Great-circle chart, United States, Gnomonic projection; shows principal.
airports; 40 cents.
3077, Magnetic chart of the United States, showing the lines of equal magnetic
variation (declination) a t 1" intervals, and of eqnal annual change, for t h e
year 1935. This chart is issued a t intervals of 5 years, the lines of annual
change providing means of estimating variation for intervening years; 20
cents.
A discount of 3345 percent from full published prices is allowed on orders for
aeronautical and auxiliary charts and books amounting t o $10 (gross value) made
in one shipment to one address. They are not returnable.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AIR COMMERCE

The Bureau of Air Commerce, under its obligations to promote and
regulate air commerce, publishes pam hlets and bulletins of general
and specific intcrest to the aircraft in(Pustr , airmen, and the public.
One of its publications, the Air Cqmmerce d h e t i n , is issued monthly.
The others are nonperiodic bulletins on special phases of aeronautics,
both technical and nontechnical in character, and are known as Aero-
nautics Bulletins. I n addition to these publications, airway bulletins
and reports of committees and conferences are published. Requests
for publications should be addressed to the Bureau of Air Commerce of
the Department of Commerce.
A description of the printed publications follows:
AIR COMMERCE BULLETIN, issucd the 15th of each month and distributed free.
CIVILAIR REGULATIONS.-AI~ index to the chaptcrs of the Civil Air Regulations
is available upoil request from the Bureau of Air Commerce.
AIR COMMERCE MANUALS.-InterpretatiOnS of the airworthiness requirements in
the Civil Air Regulations.
AERONAUTICSBDLLETINS.-
No. 1. Civil Aeronautics in the United States, August 1, 1937. 58 pp.,7 illus.
No. 8. Airway Map of the United States. December 1, 1937.
No. 18. Statc Aeronautical Legislation Digest and Uniform State Laws.
January 1 , 1936. 94 pp.
No. 19. Aviation Training. July 1, 1936. 86 pp., 19 illus.
No. 24. The Federal Airway System. July 1, 1936. 25 pp., 14 illus.
No. 27. Aeronautic Radio. July 1, 1937. 43 pp., 20 illus.
AIRPORTBULLETINS.-NO. 1. Airport Grading and Drainage. June 1, 1935. 42
pp., 11 illus.
AIRWAYBULLETINS.-NO.2. Descriptions of Airports and Landing Fields in t h e
United States. January 1, 1938.
MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS.-
Tabulation of Air Navigation Radio Aids. November 1, 1937. 18 pp.
The Airway Radio Range. A description of the use of the Bureau of Air
Commerce radio range stations. 31 pp., 14 illus.
166 U. S. COAST A S D GEODETIC S U R V E Y

First Report of Liaison Committee on Aeronautic Radio Research. June 1,

1930. 14 pp.
Second Report of Liaison Committee on Aeronautic Radio Research. October
15, 1931. 35 pp.
Proceedings of the National Conferencc on Uniform Aeronautic Regulatory
Laws. December 16 and 17, 1930. 2d ed., rev., 128 pp.
Report of Committee on Airport Zoning and Eminent Domain. December
18, 1930. 16 pp.
Report of Committee on Airport Drainage and Surfacing. December 1, 1931.
40. pp., 7 illus.
Report of Committee on Airport Traffic Control. February 15, 1933. 51
pp., 13 illus.
CONVENIENT ABBREVIATIONS
I n the solution of navigational problems and the tabulation of data,
the use of suitable abbreviations saves time and affords greater clarity.
T h e following abbreviations are often used and will be found very
convenient Gpractice
a = Altitude difference (intercept). Long= Longitude.
AP= Airport. LP= Line of position.
AS= Air Speed. M = Meridian of observer.
Bn = Beacon. MC= Magnetic course.
CC= Compass course. MH = Magnetic heading.
CH = Compass heading. mph= Miles per hour.
Corr
- . .=~Correction. NA= Nautical Almanac.
D = Drift angle. O=Origin, or starting point.
D/F= Direction finding. Par = Parallax.
-
D R = Dead reckoning.
Dee = Declination.
RA= Right ascension.
R/A=Radius of action.
+ =north dec.
- =south dec.
RBn= Marine radiobeacon.
RC=Radio compass (naval radio
Dev= Deviation. direction finder station).
ETA= Estimated time of arrival. Ref = Refraction.
G = Greenwich. RM = Radio marker beacon.
GCT= Greenwich civil time. RRa-Radio range station.
GHA= Greenwich hour angle. RS =R a d i o s t a t ion (commercial
GS= Ground speed. broadcast).
GST= Greenwich sidereal time. SD =Semidiameter.
Ha= Computed altitude (from as- SP=Seaplane port.
sumed or D R position). TC=True course.
HD=Hourly difference. T H = True heading.
HE=Height of eye. Var =Variation.
H.=Observed altitude (sextant alti- W= Wind (direction and velocity).
tude corrected for refraction, WC= Wind correction angle.
etc.). Z= Azimuth or bearing:
HP=Horizontal parallax. 3 =Moon.
H,= Sextant altitude (uncorrected). *=Star.
IC = Index correction. 0 =Sun.
Lat =Latitude. T =Vernal equinox (first point of
LHA= Local hour angle. Aries).

THE LINE OF POSITION TABLE

The Line of Position Table is an abridged form of the Dead Reckon-
ing Altitude and Azimuth Table, prepared by Lt. Arthur A. Ageton,
United States Navy, and published by the United States Hydrographic
Office as IT. 0. No. 211. It is reproduced here by the courtesy of that
Bureau. Those desiring further information as to the deriyation and
other uses of the table are referred to the original publication.
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATIOX 167
Table 9.-Line of position table

-
WHEN LHA (E OR W) IS GREATER THAN 90". TAKE "K" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
-
__
0000'
-
1000'
-
2°00' I 3'00' 4OOO'
~
5'00'
__
A n A B A A n A n A n
- -~ __ __ __ -
0 -
.. -.
-. 0.0 175814 6.6 45718 t6.5 izaizn 59.6 15641 05.9 150iO 65.6 io
175097 6.8 45358 !6. 9 127880 60.2 15461 06. X l5S26, 66.7 i0
1 353627 0.0 )5683 67.8 i8
923524 0.0 174391 7.1 45000 !7.3 127640 GO. 9 15282 07.7
2
3 305915 0.0 173696 7.3 44646 17. a 127403 61.6 15103 OR. 6 6539 168.9 i7
173012 7.5 44295 18.3 127166 62.2 14025 09.5 15397 170.0 j6
4 293421 0.0 15254 171.1 55
283730 0.0 172330 7. 8 ,43946 a. 7 126031 62.9 14747 10.4
5
171076 8.0 I4360 19.2 26097 63.6 14571 11.3 15113 172.3 54
6 275812 0.1 14971 173.4 53
269118 0.1 171023 8.2 143257 19.6 26465 64.3 14395 12.2
7 65.0 14220 13.1 )4830 174.5 52
S 283318 0.1 170370 R. 5 142916 30. I 26,233
169745 8.7 I42579 30.6 I 26003 65.7 14045 14.0 14690 176. 7 51
9 258203 0.1 14.9 I4550 176.8 50
10 253627 0.2 169121 9.0 112243 31.1 I25774 66.4 13871

1685CL5 9.3 I41911 31.5 125546 67.1 13006 15.9 I4411 178.0 29
11 240488 0.2 I4272 179.1 18
245708 0.3 167807 9.5 141.581 92.0 1253x1 67.8 135LF 16.8
12 69.5 13354 17.7 I4133 180.3 47
13 242233 0.3 167298 9.8 I41253 32.5 125094
0.4 168708 10.1 140028 33.0 124x70 69.2 113185 18.7 33095 181.4 46
14 230015 19.6 33857 182.6 45
230018 0.4 166125 10.3 140605 33.5 I24647 69.9 11301:
15
0.5 165550 10.6 140285 34.0 124425 70.6 112R4: 20.5 D37M 184 7 44
16 233215 121.5 n3w 1X4.9 43
230583 0.5 IfrlOX2 10.9 1399f37 34.5 124204 71.3 I12674
17 72.1 11250I 122.4 03447 186.1 42
18 228100 0.6 164422 11.2 139F51 35.0 123085
225752 0.7 163868 11.5 139338 35.5 127760 72.8 I12331 123.4 0331 1 187.2 41
10 11217 124.3 03175 188.4 40
x) 223525 0.7 163322 11.8 139027 36.0 123540 73.5

~21406 0.8 162788 12.1 138718 36. 5 123332 74.3 112001 125.3 03040 189.6 30
21 11183' 126.2 02005 190.8 38
22 219385 0.9 l6225C 12.4 138411 37.1 123117 75.0
217455 1.0 361724 12.7 138106 37.6 122903 75.8 11167 127.2 02771 192.0 37
23 111511 128. 2 02637 193.2 36
24 2151107 1.1 161204 13.0 137804 38.1 1~2690 76.5
213834 1.1 16069C 13.3 137504 38.6 122474 77.3 111341 129.2 02504 194.4 35
25
1.2 18018: 13.6 i37znl: 39.2 322267 78.0 11118 130.1 02371 195.6 34
26 212130 n2238 196. P 33
210491 1.3 i59m( 13.9 1369% 39.7 122057 78. 8 111021 131.1
27 13661: 40.3 79.5 11085 132.1 02106 198.0 32
28 208012 1.4 159181 14.2 12184E
15860: 14.6 13632: 40.8 iaa3~ 80.3 11069 133.1 01974 199.2 31
20 207388 I. 5 11053 134.1 01843 200.4 30
30 205916 1.7 1.58206 14.9 13GO3: 41.4 12143: 81.1

157721 15.2 135741 41.9 12122f 81.9 11037 135.1 01712 201. e 29
31 204402 1.9 136.1 015R1 202. e 28
82 203113 1.3 1572,V 15.6 13MS 42.5 121021 82.6 11021
1567% 15.9 13517: 43.0 12081i 83.4 11005 137.1 01451 204.1 27
33 201777 2. 6 01321 205. : 26
m8
0 2.1 15632I 16.2 134RN 43.6 120614 84.2 10089 139.1
34 10074 139.1 ,0110: 206. 25
35 100221 2.3 15586 16. G 1346M 41.2 12041: 85.0

10709P 1554Ci 16. 9 13433( 44.7 120211 85.8 10~58 140. I inioRC 207. f 24
a0 2.4 141.1 100034 209. ( 23
37 10080g 2.6 3.54851 17.3 13405: 46.3 12001( 86. 6 10922
i0565r 2.1 15451 17.6 13377' 45.9 11981: 87.4 in027 142.2 1008Ot 210. : 22
38 10011 143.2 10067' 211.l 21
30 104521 2. f 1.54071 18.0 1335% 46.5 11961: 88.2
2. I 15363: 18.4 13323 47.1 11041! 89.0 10806 144.2 10055( 212. f 20
40 103421
I ~ O18.7 13296 47.6 110211 89.8 in8-u 145.2 10042: 214. I 10
41 19235C 3.1 146.3 1029f 215.: 18
42 101303 3. i 15277. 19.1 13200: 48.2 I 1002: 90.6 10865
1R2351 19.5 13242. 48.8 11882 91.4 10849 147.3 10017( 216. ! 17
43 1902% 3.4 148.4 10004d 217. ' 16
44 IPOZQ? 3. c 15193 19.9 132151 49.4 11863: 92.3 10x34
3. i 15151 20.3 131891 50. n 11844 93.1 30818 149.4 99911 219. 15
45 188305
18736': 3.5 15110. 20.6 13163 50.7 118241 93.9 10804 150.5 9979: 220. : 14
46 1078s 151.6 99668 221.: 13
17 18641I 4. I 150F91 21.0 13137. 51.3 118051 94.7
4. : i5nm 21.4 13111. 51.9 117801 95. G in773 152.6 0954' 222 * 12
48 18550! 153.6 0942( 224. 11
49 1R40M 4.1 14089 21. e 130851 52.5 117671 96.4 10758
14049 22.2 13nm 53.1 11748' 97.3 10743 151.7 09291 225.1 10
50 18373: 4. (
14010 22.6 i3n341 63.7 11720! 98.1 i07x 155.8 9q17: 226. I 0
51 18287: 4. I 228. 8
18202( 5. ( 14871 23. I 1::009, 54.4 11711: 99.0 10714 156. 9 99041
52 99.8 157.9 98921 229. 7
53 181201 5. : 14832 23. I 12981 55.0 11692, 106% J

6
14 704 23. E 12950 K6. 7 11673' 100.7 100x4 169.0 9RRO. 230. '
54 180.?0( 5.1
0868: 232. I 5
17959: 5.1 14766 21.2 12034 56. 3 11655, 101.6 1066C 160.1
6E
17881( 5. I 14710 24.5 i29no 56.9 116371 102.4 10651 161.2 nH5(i( 213. I 4
6€ 103.3 1064 162.3 9843! 234. j 3
6: 17804: 6.1 14W1 25.2 19891 57.6 11618
14644 25. f 128m 58.2 11600 1114. I 1062t 163.4 98311 235. 2
65 17728' 6. 0810 237. 1
6C 17654' 6. * 14008 26. ( 12R% 58.9 11582 105. G 10011 164.5
08071 238.1 0
o(
-
17581'
__ -
6.1 14571
__
26. I 12812 59.6
--
11564 105. E
~
1059; 165.6
__ -
A n A B A I) A n A n A B
, - - _.

178'00' 176'00' 175'00' 174'00'

179'00'
168 1:. S. COAST A S P GEODETIC SCRYEY

Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued

ALWAYS TAKE “2” FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE, EXCEPT WHEN “K” IS SAME NAME A N D

- GREATER THAN LATITUDE, IN WHICH CASE TAKE “Z” FROM T m F TABLE

-
6O00’ 7000’ 8000‘ 9000’ 10000’ 11~00‘
/ - - - ~ ___ - ,
A B A n A B A B A n A n
- - - - - ~
-
a 9S07f 239 91411 325 85644 425 80567 538 76033 665 71940 805 6@
1 9795; 240 91308 326 85555 426 80487 640 75961 667 71875 808 59
2 97x3; 241 91205 328 8,5465 428 80407 542 75880 669 71810 810 58
3 9771; 243 91103 330 85376 430 80328 544 75x19 672 71746 813 5T
4 8759t 244 91001 331 852% 432 R0249 546 76747 674 71691 815 56
5 974x 245 90899 333 85197 434 801iO 548 75676 676 71616 818 55
6 97361 247 90798 334 85 I OR 435 ROO91 550 76fi06 678 71552 820 54
7 97243 248 90696 336 8M)ZO 437 ROO12 652 75534 MI0 7 14R8 823 $3
8 971x 249 90595 337 ~4931 439 79933 554 75464 683 71423 825 52
9 97006 251 90494 339 81843 44 1 19x55 556 75x93 685 71359 nza 51
10 90891 252 90394 34 1 84755 443 19777 558 75322 687 71295 830 50
11 96774 253 90293 342 84667 444 79698 560 75252 690 71231 833 40
12 966% 255 901 93 341 84579 446 78(i20 562 751x2 692 71167 835 48
13 96542 256 90093 345 R4492 448 79542 564 75112 694 71104 838 47
14 96.126 257 88994 347 R4404 450 79465 566 7,5042 696 pl40 840 46
15 96310 259 89x94 349 n43 I 7 452 793Xi 568 74972 699 ,0976 843 45
16 !%I95 260 89795 350 84230 454 79309 570 74902 701 70013 845 44
17 96080 262 nsm 352 84 I43 455 7932 573 74832 703 70x50 848 43
18 95966 263 UW7 353 84056 457 79155 575 74703 706 70786 850 42
19 95x51 264 89499 355 83970 459 78078 577 74603 708 70723 853 41
20 95737 266 89401 357 838114 461 79001 579 74624 710 70660 855 40
21 95624 267 n9:103 358 83797 463 78924 581 74555 712 70597 858 30
22 95510 269 mo:, 360 P371 I 465 78x47 5X:J 74486 715 70534 860 38
23 95797 270 89107 362 83026 467 7n771 585 74417 717 70471 863 37
24 952% 271 89010 363 ~3,540 468 7R694 587 14348 719 70409 865 36
25 95172 273 88013 365 83455 470 78618 MI9 ,4279 722 70346 868 35
26 95060 274 RRRl6 366 R3:W 472 78542 591 74210 724 70284 R70 34
27 94948 276 nx710 36H 83284 474 78400 593 74142 726 70221 873 33
28 948% 277 U8fi2X 370 x3 1 476 78390 595 74073 729 70169 876 32
29 94725 279 RHAZO 371 88114 47x 78315 598 74005 731 70007 878 31
30 94614 280 88430 373 83030 4x0 7mn 600 73937 733 70034 881 30
31 94503 281 RRR34 375 82945 482 78164 602 73x69 736 699i2 883 29
32 84393 283 m239 376 82861 483 7x088 604 73x01 738 awm 886 28
33 942x3 2R4 HR143 378 82777 485 78013 606 737.333 740 69849 888 27
34 92173 286 88049 3x0 82693 487 778% 6OH 73665 743 697R7 891 28
35 940fi3 287 87858 38 1 82608 4x9 77863 610 73587 745 69725 894 25
36 93954 289 8 7 ~ 5 ~ 383 R262R 491 777RR 612 73530 747 69864 896 24
37 93x45 290 87764 385 R2442 493 77714 615 73482 750 69602 899 23
38 93730 292 87669 3Ri R2359 495 77639 617 73395 752 6951 I 901 22
39 9362R 293 87675 388 n22m 497 77586 619 73328 7.55 09479 904 21
40 93519 295 xi481 390 82193 499 77491 621 73260 757 69418 907 20.
41 934 11 296 873x7 392 nzi i o 501 77417 623 73193 759 69357 909 19
42 93304 298 RTB4 393 82027 503 77343 625 73127 762 692M 912 18
43 93196 299 x7mi 395 819G 504 77269 627 730fi0 764 69235 914 17
44 93oR9 301 87107 397 81x63 506 77195 630 72v9:3 766 69174 917 16
45 92882 302 m i 5 399 8 I 780 508 77122 632 72926 769 69113 920 1b
4e 92R7B 304 R6922 400 81698 510 77048 634 72660 771 69053 922 14
47 92769 305 ~0x29 402 R1817 512 76975 636 72784 774 08992 925 13
48 92663 307 m737 404 81535 814 76902 638 72727 776 68931 928 12
49 92658 308 86645 405 81453 516 7682R 641 72661 779 REX71 930 11
M) 92452 310 n 6 ~ 3 407 81372 518 70756 643 72595 781 68811 933 10
61 92347 311 86461 409 81291 520 766H.1 645 72629 783 68750 935 D
82 92242 313 86370 411 81210 522 76610 647 72403 786 68690 938 8
53 92137 314 86278 412 81129 524 76537 649 72397 788 68330 941 7
54 92032 316 86187 414 81MX 526 7 6 4 ~ 652 72332 791 68670 943 6
66 91928 317 86086 416 80967 628 76393 654 72266 793 88510 946 5
68 91824 319 n
w 418 m 7 630 76320 656 72201 796 684m 949 4
61 91720 320 85915 419 80807 532 70248 658 72135 798 88391 961 3
68 91617 322 8.5825 421 80727 534 76176 660 72070 800 88331 964 2
60 91514 323 85734 4 2. 80847 536 76106 663 72005 803 88272 967 1
Bo 81411 325 85044 425 80567 538 76033 665 71940 805 88212 960 0
- - - - - - -
A B A B A B A B A B A B
/ - - - - - - - - ~ - --
- 173OW 172°W 171°00’ 170°00’ 169’00‘ 168000’
-
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 169
Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued
WHEN LHA ( E OR W) IS GREATER THAN 90". TAKE "K" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
-
12~00' 13'00' 14'00' 15O00' 16'00'
, ----I- - __ ___ -
A B A B A B A B A B
- - __ - - - -
n 6821 2 900 64791 112R 61632 I310 58700 1506 55966 1716 53406 1940 I0
1 68153 962 04736 1130 01582 1313 58653 1509 55922 1719 53365 1944 D9
2 68093 965 64082 1133 61531 1316 58606 1612 55878 1723 63324 1948 I8
3 88034 9M 64627 1136 61481 1319 58559 1516 5,5834 1727 53283 1952 17
4 67975 970 64573 1139 61430 1322 58512 1519 55790 1730 53241 10.56 IO
5 67916 973 64518 1142 61380 1325 58465 1523 55746 1734 53200 1960 15
6 67857 976 04464 1145 ~133n 1329 58418 1526 55703 1738 53159 1964 14
7 67798 97R 04410 1148 61279 1332 58372 1529 556.59 1741 53118 1967 13
8 67739 981 64356 1151 61229 1335 5H325 1533 55615 174s 55077 1971 I2
9 67081 984 04302 1154 61178 1338 58278 1.536 h5572 1749 53036 1975 \I
in 67622 987 64248 1157 61129 1341 58232 1540 55528 1752 52995 1979 BO
11 67563 9R9 64194 1160 61079 1314 58185 1543 55484 1758 52954 19x3 19
12 67505 992 64140 1163 61029 1348 58138 1546 5544 1 1760 52914 1987 18
13 67447 995 64P86 I166 6W79 1351 58082 1550 55397 I763 52873 1991 17
14 6738X 997 6.1032 1169 60929 1354 58046 1553 55354 1767 52S2 1995 io
15 67330 1000 63978 1172 60879 1357 57w9 1557 55311 1771 52791 1999 15
16 67272 1003 03925 1175 w8ao 1360 57953 1560 55267 1774 527.51 2003 14
17 67214 1006 63871 1178 607~0 1361 5i907 1564 5,5224 1778 52710 2007 13
18 671.56 1008 68818 11x1 00730 1367 578ffi 1567 55181 i7n2 52670 2010 I2
19 67098 1011 fa784 11x4 BO681 1370 57814 1571 55138 1785 52tX29 2014 i1
20 67040 1014 63711 1187 60631 1373 57768 1571 55095 1789 52588 2018 IO
21 06932 1017 63658 1190 60582 1377 57722 1578 55051 1793 52548 2022 19
22 64025 1020 63605 1193 60533 1380 57670 1581 55008 1796 52508 2026 I8
23 86x67 1022 63551 1196 00483 1383 57630 1584 54365 IROO ,52467 2030 I7
24 6mtn 1025 63498 1199 60434 1396 57584 1588 54929 lRO4 52427 203 i I6
25 66752 1028 63445 1202 611385 1390 57538 1591 5.2880 1808 523x7 2038 15
26 66095 1031 63392 1205 ~ n m 1393 57493 1595 54837 1811 52116 2042 I4
27 66F38 1033 83340 1208 1~287 1396 57447 I588 54794 1x1s 52306 2046 13
2s 66580 1036 83287 1211 fiO238 1399 57401 1602 ,54751 1819 52200 20.50 12
29 66523 1039 63134 1214 I30189 1403 57350 I605 Mi08 1823 52226 2054 I1
30 66466 1042 U3181 1217 60140 1406 67310 1609 54666 1826 62188 2058 10
31 06408 104.5 63129 1220 60091 1409 57265 1612 54623 1830 52146 2062 ?€I
32 66352 1047 63070 1223 60042 1412 57219 lFlF 54581 1x31 52106 2066 38
33 66206 1050 63024 1226 59994 1416 57174 I619 51615 1837 szn61i 2070 37
34 66239 1053 02971 1229 59945 1419 57128 1628 54496 1841 52026 2074 26
35 66182 1056 02919 1232 59896 1422 57083 1627 54453 1845 51086 2078 15
36 66126 1059 6?867 1235 59848 1425 570.78 ima 54411 1849 51948 2052 14
37 66069 III 62815 1238 59R00 1429 56W' 1634 ,54308 18.53 51001; 2086 13
38 66013 lotid 62763 1211 59751 1432 56947 1637 54328 1856 51nv 2090 22
39 65057 1067 62711 1244 ,59703 1435 56002 1641 54284 1x60 51827 2094 21
40 65900 1070 62059 1217 59G64 1439 56857 1644 54242 1864 51787 2098 10
41 65844 1073 82607 1250 59006 1442 56812 1648 64199 1868 51747 2102 18
42 65788 1076 62555 1253 59558 1445 56787 1651 54157 1871 5liOR 2106 18
43 65732 1078 62503 1257 59510 1449 56722 1695 54115 1875 51668 21 10 17
44 05676 1081 62451 1200 59462 1452 56A7i 1658 54073 1x79 51629 2114 16
45 056M 1084 62400 1263 58414 1455 56632 1662 54031 3883 51589 2118 15
46 65564 1087 62348 1266 59366 1459 51i5xa l66E 63989 I887 515.50 2122 14
47 05500 1090 02!6 1269 59318 1462 56.543 1669 6:i047 1890 51,510 2126 I3
48 65463 1093 62245 1272 50270 1465 6M9R 1673 53905 1394 51471 2130 12
49 65398 1096 62194 1275 59222 1469 56454 I676 S3P64 1898 51432 2134 I1
50 65342 1099 62142 1278 59175 1472 5R109 1680 h3822 1902 51392 2138 IO
51 65287 1101 62091 1281 59127 1475 60365 1693 53780 1906 51353 214.1 9
52 65281 1104 02040 1284 59079 1479 5632~1 1687 5373R 1910 51314 2147 8
53 65176 1107 61939 1288 50032 14R2 50270 1691 68687 1913 51275 2151 7
54 65121 1110 61958 1291 68984 1485 56231 1691 53056 1917 5 1236 2155 6
h5 65066 1113 61887 1294 68937 1489 56187 1698 53614 1921 51197 2150 6
56 65011 1116 01836 1297 68889 1492 56143 1701 53572 1925 5115X 2163 1
b7 84856 1119 01785 I300 6x842 1495 M109g 1705 53531 1929 51119 2167 3
68 61901 1122 61734 1303 68795 1499 56054 1709 53489 1933 51080 2171 2
b9 M846 1126 61683 1306 68748 1602 ,mi0 1712 hZ448 1936 51041 2175 1
Bo 84791 1128 61632 1310 587M) 1506 554M 1716 .%400 1940 51002 2179 0
- - -- - - _. - - - - - -
A B A B A B A B A B A B
-I- - -
- 167°00' I 166'00' 166000' 164"OO' 169000' 169"OO'

33673-38-12
 170 U. S. COAST AXD GEODETIC SURVEY

Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued

ALWAYS TAKE "Z" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE, EXCEPT WHEN "K" IS E
= NAME AND
GREATER THAN LATITUDE, IN WHICH CASE TAKE "Z" FROM TOP OF TABLE
-
18'00' 19"OO' 20~00' 2i0on' 22000' 23"OO'
__ ~
__ - -

A B A B A B A B A B
- - - - -
0 51002 2179 48736 2433 46595 2701 44567 2985 42642 3283 40812 3597 0
1 5063 2183 4X6!lY 2437 46560 2706 41534 2990 42filI 3288 40782 3603 9
2 50924 21xx 48662 2442 46525 2711 44501 2994 42580 3294 40753 3608 8
3 508x5 2192 4 ~ ~ 2 62416 46491 2715 44468 2999 42549 3299 40723 3613 7
4 503116 2196 485x9 2450 4645ti 2720 41436 3004 42518 3304 40693 3619 6
5 50808 2200 4x553 2455 46 122 2724 44403 3009 42486 3309 40664 3624 5

6 50769 2204 48516 2459 46387 2729 44370 3014 42455 3314 4063 4 3630 84
7 50730 2208 4 ~ 4 x 0 2463 46353 2734 44337 3019 42424 3319 40604 3635 83
8 50602 2212 4n443 2468 46318 2738 44305 3024 42393 3324 40675 3640 12
9 50653 2216 48407 2472 46284 2743 44272 3029 42362 3329 40545 3646 11
10 50615 2221 48371 2477 46249 2748 44939 3033 42331 3335 40516 3651 0

11 50576 2225 48334 2481 46215 2752 44207 3038 42300 3340 40486 3857 9
12 50538 2229 4~208 2185 46181 2757 44174 3043 42269 3345 40457 3662 8
13 50499 2233 48202 2490 46146 2761 44142 3048 42238 3350 40427 3667 17
14 50461 2237 431225 2494 46112 2766 44109 3053 42207 3355 40398 3763 t6
15 50423 2241 4~189 2499 46078 2771 44077 3058 42176 3360 403G8 3678 15

16 50385 2246 48153 2503 46043 2775 44044 3063 42145 3366 40339 3684 14
17 50346 2250 48117 2507 46009 2780 44012 3068 42115 3371 403 10 3689 13
IR 5030H 2251 480~1 2512 45975 27x5 43979 3073 420x4 3376 40280 3695 12
19 :om 2258 48015 2516 451141 2789 43947 3078 42058 3381 40251 3700 11
20 50232 2262 4mw3 2521 15907 2794 439 I4 3083 42022 3386 40222 3705 10

21 50194 2266 47973 2525 45R73 2799 43882 3088 41991 3391 40192 3711 19
22 50156 2271 47937 2530 45839 2804 43850 3092 41961 3397 40163 3716 in
23 50117 2275 47W1 2514 45805 2808 43x18 3097 41930 3402 40134 3722 17
24 50080 2279 47865 2539 45771 2813 43785 3102 41899 3407 40105 3727 16
25 50042 2283 47829 2543 45737 2818 43753 3107 41869 3412 40076 3733 15

5ooo4 2287 47793 2547 45703 2822 43721 3112 4 1838 3418 40046 3738 14
26 3744 13
27 49966 2292 47758 2552 45669 2827 43689 3117 4180~ 3423 40017
28 49928 2296 47122 2556 45c35 2832 43657 3122 41777 3428 399x8 3749 12
29 49890 2300 47686 2561 45601 2836 43024 3127 41746 3433 39959 3755 11
30 49852 2304 47650 2565 45567 2841 43592 3132 41716 3438 39930 3760 10
31 49R 15 2309 47615 2570 45534 2846 43560 3137 41685 3444 39901 3768 29
" 32 49777 2313 47579 2574 45500 2851 43528 3142 41655 3449 39872 3771 28
33 49739 2317 47544 2579 45466 2855 43496 3147 41625 3454 39843 3771 27
34 49702 2321 47508 2583 45433 2860 43464 3152 41594 3459 39814 3782 26
35 49664 2325 47472 2588 45399 2865 43432 3157 415fA 3465 39785 3788 25
36 49626 2330 47437 2592 45365 2870 43400 3162 41533 3470 39756 3793 24
37 49589 2334 47402 2597 45332 2874 43369 3167 41503 3475 39727 3799 23
38 49561 2338 47366 2601 45298 2879 43337 3172 41473 348fl 39698 31104 22
39 49514 2343 47331 2606 45265 2884 43305 3177 41443 3486 306(i9 381fl 21
40 49477 2347 47295 2610 45231 2889 43273 3182 41412 3491 39641 3815 20
41 49439 2351 47280 2615 45198 2893 43241 3187 41382 3496 39612 3821 19
42 49402 2355 47225 2619 45104 2898 43210 3192 41352 3502 39583 3826 18
43 49365 2360 47189 2624 45131 2903 43178 3197 41322 3501 39554 3832 17
44 493327 2364 47154 21528 4,5097 2908 43146 3202 41291 3512 39526 383t 16
45 49290 2368 47119 2633 45064 2913 43114 3207 41261 35.17 39407 3849 15
40 49253 2372 47084 2637 45031 2917 43083 3212 41231 3523 39464 3841 14
47 49216 2377 47049 2642 44997 2922 43051 3217 41201 352E 39439 3854 13
4R 49179 2381 47014 2646 44964 2927 43020 3222 41171 353: 39411 386( 12
49 49141 2385 46978 2651 44931 2932 429x8 3227 41141 3531 39dRZ 386E 11
50 491 04 2390 46943 265f 4489@ 2936 42956 3233 41111 3544 39353 3871 10
51 40067 2394 4690R 2660 44864 2941 42925 3238 41081 354s 39321 387f 9
52 4W30 2398 40873 2665 44831 2946 42x93 3243 41051 3556 3939e 3882 8
53 431993 2403 46839 26ti9 44798 2951 42862 3248 41021 356( 39268 388s 7
54 4'5957 2407 46804 2674 44766 2956 42H3C 3255 40991 356: 39231: 389: 6
55 48920 2411 46769 2676 44731 2961 42799 3258 40961 3571 39211 389% 5
48883 2416 4673.1 2683 44699 2965 4276' 3263 40031 3576 39185 3904 4
56 391( 3
57 4x846 2420 46fi'J'J 2681 446fi6 2970 4273fi 3268 40905 3581 39154
4xx09 2424 46664 2691 44033 2975 42701 3273 40x72 358i 3912 391( 2
58 3921 1
69 48772 2429 46630 2697 4460C 2980 42671 3278 40x45 359: 39091
GO 48736 2433 46595 2701 44567 2985 42642 3283 40x1 2 359i 39065 392i 0
- -- - __ - - - -
A A B A B A B A B A u
I ___ - - -
161'00' 160°00' 159"OO' i5n000'
-
 PRACTICAL AIR KAVIGATIO3- 171
Table 9.--Line of position table--Continued

-
WHEN LHA (E OR W) IS GREATER THAN 90°. TAKE "H" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
__ -
24'00' 25"OO' 26'00' 27"OO' 28000' 29'00'
__ - __ __ - - __ -
A n A n A A 13 n A 13
- - __ - __ ~ - -
0 39069 3927 37405 4272 35816 4634 34295 5012 32R39 5406 31443 5818 io
1 30040 3932 37378 4278 35790 4640 34270 5018 32815 6413 31420 5825 59
2 39012 3938 37351 4284 35764 4646 34246 5025 32742 6420 3 I397 5832 58
3 38984 3944 37324 4290 35738 4F51 34221 503 I 32768 5426 31J7.5 5839 57
4 38955 3949 37297 4296 36712 4659 34 196 5038 32744 5433 31352 5846 56
5 38927 3955 37270 4302 36686 4666 34172 5044 32720 6440 31329 5853 55

6 3RR99 3961 37243 4308 36661 4671 34147 5051 32697 5447 31306 5860 54
7 38871 3966 37216 4314 35635 4677 341 22 5067 32673 545J 31284 5867 53
8 38842 3972 37189 4320 35609 4683 34097 6064 32649 5460 31261 5874 52
0 38814 3978 37162 4326 35583 4690 34073 5070 92625 6467 31238 5R81 51
10 38786 3983 37135 4332 35558 4696 34048 5076 32Ffl2 6474 31216 6888 50
11 38758 3989 37108 4337 35532 4702 34024 6083 3?579 5481 31193 5R95 49
12 38730 3995 37081 4343 35506 4708 339119 5089 32555 5487 31170 5902 48
13 38702 4000 37055 4349 35481 4714 33974 5096 32532 5494 31148 5909 47
14 38674 4006 37028 4355 35456 4721 33960 5102 32308 5601 31125 6917 46
15 38645 4012 37001 4361 35429 4727 38925 6109 32484 6508 31103 6924 45

16 38617 4017 30974 4367 35404 4733 33901 5115 32401 6515 31080 5931 44
17 38569 4023 36948 4373 35378 4739 33876 5122 32438 5521 31058 5938 43
18 38561 4029 36921 4379 35353 4746 33852 5128 32414 5525 31035 594.5 42
19 3x533 4036 36x94 4385 35327 4752 33827 5135 32301 6535 31013 5962 41
20 38506 4040 36867 4391 35302 4758 33803 5142 32307 5542 30990 6969 40

21 38478 4046 36841 4397 35276 4764 33779 5148 32344 6549 30968 6966 39
22 38450 4052 36814 4403 35251 4771 33754 5155 32310 5555 3oR45 5973 38
23 38422 40W 36787 4409 35225 4777 33730 5161 32297 5562 30923 5980 37
24 38394 4063 30761 4415 35200 4783 33705 5168 3am 5669 30800 5988 36
25 38366 4069 36734 4421 35174 4789 33681 5174 32250 5576 30878 6996 35

26 38338 4075 36708 4427 35148 4796 33867 5181 32227 5583 30856 6002 34
27 38311 4080 36681 4433 35123 4802 83632 5187 32201 5590 30893 DOO~ 33
28 3H'fRd 4086 36655 4439 3500b 4808 33608 5194 321x0 5696 3onii 6016 32
29 38255 4092 36628 4446 35073 4815 33584 520C 32157 BGOS 30788 6023 31
30 38227 4098 36W2 4451 35047 4821 33559 5207 32134 6610 30766 6830 30
31 38200 4103 36575 4457 35022 4827 33536 5214 32110 6617 30744 6038 29
32 38172 410s 30649 4463 34997 4833 33511 622E 32087 5624 30721 6045 28
33 38144 4116 36522 4469 34971 4840 33457 6221 32064 5631 30699 0052 27
34 38117 4121 36498 4475 34946 4846 33462 623: 32041 6638 30677 6059 26
35 38089 4127 36409 4481 34921 4852 33438 5241 320H 6646 30655 6066 25
36 38061 4132 36443 4487 34896 4869 33414 524i 31994 5661 30632 6073 24
37 38034 4138 3641 7 4493 34870 4865 33390 625: 31071 565a 30610 6080 23
38 38006 4144 36x10 4499 34845 4871 33366 526( 3194E 6666 30588 GO88 22
39 37979 4150 36364 4506 34820 4878 33342 626f 31926 6672 30566 6096 21
40 37951 4155 36338 4512 34795 4884 33318 6271 31902 6679 30644 6102 20
41 37924 4161 36311 4518 34770 4890 33293 528( 31878 5686 30521 6109 19
42 37896 4167 36285 4524 34744 4897 33269 628; 31851 5693 304911 6116 18
43 37809 4173 36259 4530 34719 4903 33245 629: 31833 570c 30477 6124 17
44 37841 4179 30233 4536 34fM 4910 33221 530( 31x0s 5707 30455 6131 16
46 37814 4185 36206 4642 34069 4916 33107 630f 3178t 5714 30433 6138 15
46 37786 4190 36180 4648 34644 4922 33173 531: 317W3 672C 3b411 6146 14
47 37759 4196 30154 4554 34619 4929 33149 632( 3174r 5721 30368 6153 13
48 37732 4202 36128 4560 34594 4936 33125 532f 31717 5734 30367 m a 12
49 37704 4208 30102 4566 34569 4941 33101 533: 3 I 694 5741 3034C 6167 11
50 37677 4214 30076 4573 34544 4948 33077 534( 3167: 674t 303% 6174 10
51 37650 4220 36050 4679 34510 4954 33054 534f 31611. 575I 30300 6181 8
62 37623 4226 300'24 4685 34494 4961 33030 535: 3162C 576:: 30278 6189 8
53 37595 4231 35998 4591 34469 4967 33006 536( 31603 576s J025F 6196 7
54 37508 4237 35972 4597 34445 4973 32982 536f 3isxc 5771 30235 ~x03 6
65 37541 4243 35940 4603 34420 4980 32968 537: 31555 578: 30216 621C 5
56 37514 4249 35920 4609 34306 4986 32934 538( 31534 579( 30191 6218 4
57 374x0 4255 35894 4615 34370 4993 32910 5381 3,511 579; 30168 F22t 3
58 37459 4261 35868 4622 31345 4999 32887 539: 31441. 5804 YO147 6232 2
59 37432 4266 35842 4628 31320 5005 32863 540( 3146f 5811 3012E 624C 1
60 37405 4272 35nu.z 4634 34295 5012 32839 540t 3144: 5818 30103 6247 l
l
- - __ - - - -
A I1 A n A n A 11 A n A I3
- __ - __ - - I

152°00' 151°00' 15Cc00'

155"OO' 154'00' 153'00'
-
172 U. S. COAST AXD GEODETIC SURVEY

Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued

ALWAYS TAKE "Z" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE, EXCEPT WHEN "K" IS SAME NAME A N D
GREATER THAN LATITUDE. IN WHICH CASE TAKE "Z" FROM T m F TABLE
- -
1
3OOOO'
--
31'00' 32'00'
__
33"OO' I 34'00' I 35'00'

- A B A
- __
B A B A
__ __
TIT TIT
-- --
B
-
c 30103 6247 28816 6693 27579 i158 26389 7641 25244 8143 24141 R663 80
I 30081 6254 28795 6701 27559 7166 26370 7649 25225 8151 24123 8672 59
' 30059 6262 28774 6709 27539 7174 26350 7657 25204 8160 24105 8681 58
2 30037 6269 28753 6716 27518 7182 26331 7665 25188 8168 24087 8690 57
30016 6276 28732 7190 28311
j 29994 6284 28711
6724
6731
27498
27478 7197 26292
7674
7682
25169
25150
8177
8185
24069
24051
8699
8708
56
55
e 29972 6291 28890 6739 27458 7205 26273 7690 2 5 1 ~ 8194 24C33 R717 54
5 29950 6298 28669 6747 27438 7213 26253 7698 25113 8202 24015 8726 53
E 29928 6305 28648 6754 274 I8 7221 26234 7707 25094 8211 27997 8734 52
s 2WO7 6313 28627 6762 27398 7229 26214 7715 25076 8219 23079 8743 51
11 29885 6320 28606 6770 27377 7237 26195 7723 25057 8228 23961 8752 50
11 29883 6328 2858R 6777 27357 7245 26 176 7731 25038 8237 23043 8761 49
11 29841 6335 28565 6785 27337 7253 2R157 7740 25020 8245 23925 8770 48
13 29320 6342 2R5l.I 6791 27317 7261 20137 7748 25001 8254 23907 8779 47
14 29798 6350 28523 6800 27297 7269 26118 7756 24983 8262 23889 8788 46
15 29776 6 3.57 28502 6808 27277 7277 26099 7764 24984 8271 21871 8797 45
18 29755 6364 28481 6815 27257 7285 28079 7773 24946 8280 23854 8RO6 44
17 29733 6372 28401 6823 27237 7293 26060 7781 24927 82RR 23536 8815 43
1s 29711 6379 28440 6831 27217 7301 2w1 1789 24909 8297 23838 8824 42
19 29090 6386 28419 6839 27197 7309 26022 T798 24890 8305 B800 un33 41
20 296i3n 6394 28398 6846 27177 7317 20002 7806 24872 8314 23762 8842 40
21 29647 6401 28378 6854 27157 7325 25983 7814 24853 8323 23764 snso 39
22 m25 6409 28357 6862 27137 7333 25984 7823 24835 8331 23747 8869 38
23 28604 6416 28336 6869 27117 7341 25945 7R31 241316, 8340 23729 8868 37
24 29582 6423 28315 6877 27008 7349 25926 7839 24798 8349 23711 8877 36
25 29580 6431 28295 6885 27078 7357 25907 7848 24770 8357 23693 8886 35
26 29539 6438 28274 6893 27058 7365 25@37 7856 24761 8366 23675 8895 34
27 295 17 6146 2x223 6900 27038 7373 25ROR 7864 24742 8375 23658 8904 33
28 29406 6453 28233 m0n 27018 7381 25849 7873 24724 8383 23640 ~913 32
28 29475 6461 28212 6916 2699~ 7389 25830 78R1 24706 8392 %A22 8922 31
30 29453 6468 28191 6923 26878 7397 2581 1 7889 246R7 8401 23605 8931 30
31 29432 6475 28171 6931 26958 7405 25702 7898 24660 n409 23587 8940 29
32 20410 6483 28150 6939 2603n 7413 25773 7906 24650 8418 23569 8949 28
33 29389 6490 28130 6947 26919 7421 25754 7914 24632 8427 235.51 8958 27
34 29367 6498 2.9109 6954 26Y99 7429 25735 7923 24614 8435 21534 8967 26
35 29346 6505 28089 6962 26R79 7437 25716 7931 24595 8144 235iG 8976 25
36 29325 6513 2x068 6970 28X60 7445 25697 7940 24577 8453 234118 8986 24
37 29303 6520 2x047 6978 26x40 7453 25678 7948 24559 8461 23481 8995 23
38 28282 6528 28027 69n5 26820 7462 25659 7956 24540 8470 23463 9004 22
39 29261 6535 28006 6993 26504 7470 25fi40 7965 24522 8479 Zi446 9013 21
40 29239 6543 27986 7001 28781 7478 25621 7973 24504 8488 23428 9022 20
41 29218 6550 27965 7009 26761 7486 25602 7982 24486 8496 23410 9031 19
42 29 I97 6558 27945 7017 26i41 7494 25683 7990 24487 8505 23393 9040 18
43 29175 6565 27925 7024 26722 7502 25564 7998 24449 8514 21376 9049 17
44 29164 6573 27904 7032 28702 7510 25545 8007 24431 8523 23358 90511 16
45 29133 6580 27884 7040 266X2 7518 25.526 8015 24413 8531 23340 9067 15
46 29112 6588 278fi3 7048 20683 7526 25507 8024 243!)5 8540 23323 9076 14
47 29001 6595 27843 7056 26643 7535 25488 8032 24376 8549 23305 gon5 13
48 2WB9 6603 27x23 7064 26623 7543 25469 8041 24358 855R 232138 9094 12
49 28048 6610 27x02 7071 26004 75.51 25451 8049 24340 8567 23270 9104 11
50 29027 6618 27782 7079 26584 7559 2,5432 8058 24322 8575 23252 9113 10
51 2WH)G 6625 27761 7OR7 265R5 7567 25413 8066 24304 8584 23235 9122 9
52 28985 6633 27741 7095 26545 7575 25394 8075 24286 8593 23218 9131 8
53 28981 6640 27721 7103 26520 7584 25375 8083 24267 8602 23200 9140 7
54 28942 6648 27701 7111 28508 7592 25356 8091 24249 8611 23183 9149 6
55 28921 8655 27otiO 7118 28486 7600 25338 8100 24231 8619 23165 9158 6
56 28900 6663 27660 7126 7.6467 7608 25319 R108 24213 86% 23148 9168 4
57 28879 6671 27640 7134 26447 7616 25300
58
58
28858
an37
6678
6686
27619
27589
7142
7150
28428
26409
7625
7633
2.5281
25263
8117
8125
8134
24185
24177
24159
8637
8646
8655
23130
23113
23005
9177
9186
9195
21
Bo 28816 6693 27579 7158 26389 7641 25244 8143 24141 8663 23078 9204 0.
- -- __ -__ __- -
A B A B A B A B A B A B
!
- - - - -I I
I I
~

149'00'
- 148'00' 147'00' 146'00' 145'00' 144OOO'
-.
 PRACTICAL AIR PU'AVIGATION 173
Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued
WHEN LHA (E OR W) 19 GREATER THAN 90". TAKE "K" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
-
I - - - _. -- - ,
A B A n A B A
-~ -
0 23078 9204 22054 21060 10950 19193 11575 18306 12222 60
I 23001 9213 22037 21050 10960 19178 I1585 18281 I2233 69
2 23043 9223 22020 21033 10970 19163 11596 18277 12244 58
3 23020 9232 22M)R 21017 10980 19148 11606 in282 12255 57
4 2mo9 9241 21987 21001 in991 19133 11617 1x249 12266 56
5 22991 9250 21970 209x5 iinni 19118 11628 18233 12277 55
6 22971 9269 21953 20969 11011 19103 man 18219 12288 54
7 22957 9269 21937 20953 iin21 19088 11649 1x201 12299 58
R 22P39 92~1 21920 ~0937 11032 irmn 11660 18190 min .52
9 22'122 9287 21903 20921 11042 imx 11670 19175 12321 51
IO Z?OOF, 9296 21RXi 20906 11052 19045 11681 lBl6l 12332 50
11 228117 9305 21870 20RRR 11063 19024 11692 1R1.10 12343 49
12 22870 9315 21853 20472 11073 1w13 11702 1X1%2 12354 48
13 22~53 8324 21837 2085Ii lion3 iwyn 11713 18117 12365 47
14 22836 9333 21r20 20x40 11094 inw 11724 1x103 12376 46
15 22818 9342 21803 211824 11 104 18968 11734 18089 I2387 45
16 22901 9352 21787 2oxnx 11114 1x953 11745 18074 12398 44
17 22784 9361 21770 2oi92 11124 18939 11756 18060 n ~ i n 43
18 227fii 9370 21764 20776 11135 1x024 11766 18045 12421 42
19 22760 93HO 2173i 20760 11145 1xs09 11777 ixo31 12432 41
20 22732 9389 21720 20744 11156 1sh94 117nn I8017 12443 40
21 22715 93911 21704 20728 11166 IS879 11799 1 PO02 12454 39
22 22698 9407 21(iXi 20712 11176 inm I 1808 1 iOX8 12465 38
23 220x1 9417 21871 znm iun7 ixnw iixzn 17!474 I2476 37
24 22004 9426 21654 2nn~0 lllY7 18834 11831 I ;!I50 12487 36
25 ?2fili 9435 21638 20(365 I I 207 is820 lit142 179-16 12499 35
26 22n30 9445 21021 zn04~ 11218 14x05 11x52 17iI3l 12510 34
27 222(i12 9154 2lfiO5 20633 11228 lXi(30 11Xli3 li!llf! 12521 33
28 22595 9463 215x8 ?lllil7 11239 19775 11871 i:wz I2532 32
20 2257X 9473 21572 LOGOI 11249 1 Xi60 11885 1 iXX6 12643 3 1
30 22561 9482 21555 20585 11259 18740 11895 1iXi3 12554 30
31 22544 9492 21539 20660 1127n 18771 11906 17 x 5 12566 2Il
32 22527 9501 21m 20553 mxn 1x716 11917 lixlr 12577 2R
33 ~2510 9510 215n(i 2n~v 11291 inioi imx lis31 I::5nR 27
34 224W 9.m 214x9 20,522 11301 188Xf1 11939 liXlC 12599 28
35 22476 9529 21473 20506 ll3ll Ixoi2 11949 I is02 min 25
36 22450 9538 21457 20190 11322 18057 11960 1774F 12622 24
37 22442 954n 21440 20474 11332 lHfr42 11971 l7i74 12633 21
3n 22425 9557 21424 20458 11343 18li27 11982 ,
I-- 8 (IC
' 12644 22
39 22408 9566 21407 20-142 11353 IH(i13 11993 li74i 12655 21
40 ZBOI 9576 21391 2042: 11364 1859'4 i2nn.i li731 12667 20
41 22374 9585 21x75 204 1I 11174 1x5113 1201 1 IXi 12678 19
42 22357 9595 2lB38 20x95 ll3R5 1H569 12025 1i i 0 . 7 126139 in
43 22340 96n4 21342 2nm 11395 111554 12113fi 17(iXI 127no 17
44 22323 9614 21S26 PO364 11405 18531) 12047 17fii4 12711 16
45 22306 9b23 213lJY 20318 11416 in525 12058 lili0( 12723 15
40 222h9 9632 21293 20332 11427 lf3lO 12069 I7fi4f 12734 14
47 22272 9642 21277 203 I6 11437 in49r3 120x0 liK3> 127.15 13
;In 22256 9651 2i2m 2u:w 11448 1~4x1 12091 17RI$ 12757 12
40 22230 9661 21244 202x5 11458 1 ~4613 12102 17004 12768 11
50 22222 9670 21228 znm 11469 18451 12112 1759( 1277!l in
61 2!?0R 96x0 21212 20254 11479 lhl37 12123 1757t 12790 9
52 22188 96x9 ziior, 2n2:1x 11490 18422 12134 17561 12x02 8
53 22171 9699 21179 20222 11501 1 x40x 12145 1754i 12X19 7
64 22154 9708 ziim 2020; 11511 183!13 12156 1 is31 12824 0
55 zua 9718 21147 20101 11522 18378 12167 li51I 12036 5
58 22121 9727 21131 20175 11532 lS3li4 12178 1T50: 12857 4
A7 22104 9737 21114 20 IA0 11543 1R34$1 121x9 1 7401 I2859 3
K8 22087 9746 zioox 20144 11553 1x33s nznn 174;; 12070 2
GQ 22070 9756 210x2 20128 11664 im2n 12211 1 illil Ian1 1
60 22054 9766 21066 211113 11576 18306 12222 17411 12893 0
-__ -
. __ _. -
I -
A T IT-
-___
n A 13 A B A n

141"OO' I 140°00' 139°00' 138'00'

-
174 .'1 S. COAST A S D GEODE'rIC STRVEY

Table 9.-Line of position table-- Continued

ALWAYS TAKE "Z" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE, EXCEPT WHEN "K" IS SAME NAME AND
GREATER THAN LATITUDE. IN WHICH CASE TAKE "Z" FROM L m F TABLE

,
I 42'00'
~ ~
44OOO'
~
45'00' 46000'
__ __ - -
47'00'

A B A B A I3 A A n A B
- -___ ~ ___ __ -
0 li449 1893 16622 13587 15RZ 14307 16051 150.51 14307 1.5823 13587 16622 io
1 17435 12904 16608 13599 15810 14319 15039 15064 14294 15836 13575 16635 59
2 17421 12915 16595 13611 15797 14331 15026 15077 14282 15849 18564 16649 58
3 17407 12927 16581 13623 35784 14343 15014 150Y9 14270 15862 13552 16662 57
4 17393 12938 16567 13634 15771 14355 15001 15102 14258 35875 13540 16676 56
5 17379 12950 16554 13646 15758 14368 14988 15115 14246 15888 13528 16689 55
6 17365 12961 16540 13658 15744 143110 14976 15127 14233 15901 13517 16703 54
7 17351 12972 16527 13670 15731 14392 140li3 151411 14221 15915 13505 16717 53
n 17337 129x4 16513 13682 15715 14404 14951 15153 14209 1598 13403 16730 52
9 173523 I2995 16500 1369t 16705 14417 14W 15165 14197 15941 13481 16744 11
in 17309 13007 16497 13705 15FD2 14429 14925 15178 14185 15954 13470 16757 50
II 17205 13018 10473 13717 15679 14441 14913 15191 14173 15967 134.5R Ifi771 19
12 17281 13030 16460 13729 15086 14453 14900 1.5204 14161 159RO 13446 16785 18
13 17267 13041 16446 13741 15653 14466 14888 15216 14149 15994 13435 16798 17
14 17253 13053 1643'3 13753 IS640 14478 14875 15229 141x0 16007 13423 16812 16
15 17239 13064 16419 13765 15627 14490 14863 15212 14124 16020 13411 16826 15

16 17225 13075 16406 13777 15614 14503 14850 15255 14112 16033 13400 ifin39 14
17 17212 13087 lfi302 13789 i5fim 14515 14838 1.5267 14100 16016 13388 16853 13
18 17198 13098 16379 13800 18689 14527 14825 15280 1408~ 16060 13376 16867 12
I9 17184 13110 16366 13812 15576 14540 14813 15293 14076 16073 13365 16880 11
20 17170 13121 16352 13824 15563 14552 14800 15306 14oF4 16086 13353 16894 10
21 171.56 13113 16339 13836 15550 14.561 14788 15318 14052 16099 13341 1690R 39
22 17142 13144 16325 13848 15537 14577 14775 15331 11040 16112 13330 16922 34
23 17128 13156 16312 1%60 15524 14589 14763 15344 14028 16126 13318 16935 37
24 17114 13168 16299 13872 15511 14601 14750 15357 14016 16139 13306 16949 36
25 lilOl 13179 1K.285 13884 15498 14614 14738 15370 14004 16152 13295 16963 35
26 17087 13191 16272 13R96 15445 14626 14725 15382 13992 16166 13283 16977 34
27 17073 13202 16259 13908 1,5472 14639 14713 15395 13980 16179 13272 16990 33
28 17059 13214 16245 13920 154.59 14651 14701 15409 13968 16192 13260 17004 32
28 17N6 13225 16232 13932 15147 14663 14688 15421 13956 16205 13244 17018 31
30 17032 13237 18219 13944 15434 14676 14676 15434 13944 16219 13237 17032 30
31 1 7 0 1 ~ 13248 16205 13956 15421 14689 14663 15447 13932 16232 13226 17045 29
32 l70(14 13260 16192 1396R 15408 14701 14651 15459 189T 16245 13214 17059 28
33 IfiW 13272 16179 13980 15395 14713 14639 1.5472 13908 16259 13202 17073 27
34 18977 13283 16366 13992 1,53R2 14726 14626 1.5485 13896 16272 13191 17097 26
35 16963 13295 16152 14004 15370 14738 14014 15498 13R84 16285 13179 17101 25
36 10949 13306 16139 14016 15357 14750 14fini 15511 13872 16299 13188 17114 24
37 16935 13318 16126 14028 15344 14763 14589 15524 i3nm 16312 13156 17128 23
38 16922 13330 16112 14040 15331 11775 14577 15537 13848 16325 13144 17112 22
39 16908 13341 16009 14052 15318 14788 14,564 15550 13836 16.139 13133 17156 21
40 16894 13353 16086 14064 15306 14800 14552 15563 13824 16352 13121 17170 20
41 16880 133fi5 16073 14076 1,5293 14813 14540 15576 13812 16366 13110 171x4 19
42 16467 13376 16ofin 14088 ixzm 14825 14627 15589 13800 16379 13098 17198 in
43 16853 1 33~8 16046 14100 162137 1 4 ~ 3 8 14615 15602 13788 16192 w n i 17212 17
44 16839 13400 16033 14112 15255 14x50 14503 15614 13777 I6406 i3n75 1722.5 16
45 16826 13411 16020 14124 15242 14P63 14490 15627 13765 16419 13064 17239 15
46 16812 13423 16007 14136 15229 1487.5 1447R 15640 13753 16433 13053 17253 14
47 16798 13435 15994 14149 15216 14888 14486 15653 13741 16446 13041 17267 13
48 1 6 7 ~ 5 11446 15980 14161 15204 14900 14453 15666 13720 16460 13030 17281 12
49 16771 13458 15067 14173 15191 14910 14441 15679 13717 16470 1 3 0 1 ~ 17295 11
50 16757 13470 16954 14185 15178 11925 1442'J 15692 13705 16487 13007 17309 10
51 16744 134x1 15941 14197 15165 1493R 14417 1570.5 13694 16500 12995 17323 9
52 18710 13493 l5D28 14209 15153 14951 14404 15718 136W2 16513 120x4 17337 n
53 16717 13505 15915 14221 1.5140 14963 14392 15731 min 16527 12972 17351 7
54 1670.3 13517 15901 14233 1.5127 14976 14380 15744 13858 16540 12061 17365 6
55 16689 1351 15888 14246 15115 14988 14368 1575R 13646 16554 12950 17379 5
56 16676 13540 15875 11258 151f12 15001 14355 1.5771 13634 16567 I 2938 17393 4
57 16662 13552 15562 14270 150x9 15014 14343 15784 13623 16.581 12027 17407 3
58 16f349 13564 15x4') 142S2 15077 15026 l4:Ul 15797 1.Xil 1 16595 12915 17421 2
59 16635 13.575 15Y3i 14294 150ci4 15039 14:319 15810 1359O 1660~ 12904 17435 1
60 14622 13m7 15x23 14307 1505I 15051 14307 15H23 13587 16622 12893 17449 0
-__ __ ___ _ _ ___ __ -
A n A n A 13 A B A I3 A
, - __ __
I 137°00' 136000' 135"OO' 134°00'
--
133'00' 152000'
-
 PRACTICAL ATR SAVIGATION 175
Table 9.--Line of position table-Continued
WHEN LHA (E OR w) IS GREATER T H A N 900. T A K E *'K" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
-
I - __ ~

A n A n A n B A B
-- ~ __ __ .- -
n IZROX 17449 12222 ian6 11575 19193 21066 9i05 22054 iw
1 12881 17463 12211 1x320 1150% 19208 zina 97.56 220711 59
2 1287n 17177 12m 18335 11653 19223 ziw8 9746 220x7 5a
3 12859 17491 12189 18349 11543 19238 21114 937 22104 57
4 12947 17505 12178 l83C4 11.532 10253 21131 9i2i 22121 56
5 12836 17519 12167 18378 11522 19269 21147 9718 22138 55

fi 12824 17533 12156 18393 llhll 19284 21163 9708 22154 54

7 12813 17547 12145 1 8 4 ~ mni 19299 21179 909!) 22171 53
8 12802 17561 12134 18422 11490 19314 21195 90x9 22188 52
9 12i90 17576 12123 18437 11479 19329 21212 9680 22205 51
10 12779 176911 12112 18451 11469 19344 2122R 96i0 22222 50
11 127fi8 17604 iziw 18466 114.58 19359 21244 9001 22239 49
12 12767 17618 l2091 in481 11448 19375 21260 9651 222.56 48
13 12745 15632 12080 18495 11437 19390 21277 9642 22272 47
14 12734 17616 lZ009 ism 11427 19405 21293 9632 22289 46
15 12723 17660 12058 18525 11416 19420 213ns 9623 22306 45

10 12711 17674 12n47 18.539 11406 19436 21126 9614 22323 44

17 12700 17689 120136 18554 11395 194iin 21342 9604 22340 43
18 lSfiR9 17703 12025 18569 11385 19466 213.58 9595 22357 42
I9 12678 17i17 12014 18583 11374 19181 21375 95x5 22374 41
2n 12600 17731 12004 18598 11364 19496 21391 9576 22391 40

21 12655 17745 11993 1x613 1I353 19511 21407 9566 2zina 39

22 12644 177611 119x2 18627 11343 19527 21424 9557 22425 3R
23 12633 17774 11071 18642 11332 19542 21440 9648 22442 3i
24 12022 17788 11900 1x657 11322 19557 21457 9538 22459 an
25 12fi10 17802 11919 18672 11311 19572 21473 9529 22476 35
26 12599 17816 11939 18686 mni 196P8 21489 wan 22 I93 34
27 125fi8 17831 11028 imni 11291 19603 21506 9510 22510 33
28 32577 17845 11917 18716 imn 19619 21522 9501 22527 32
29 12.566 17859 11906 18731 11270 19634 21539 9491 22544 31
30 12m 17873 11895 18746 11269 19649 21555 9482 22561 30
31 12543 1788R llRR.5 18760 11249 19664 21572 9473 22678 29
32 12532 17902 11Pi4 111775 11239 19680 21688 9463 22.595 28
33 12521 17916 11803 1x790 11228 19695 21605 9454 22812 27
34 12510 17931 11852 18805 1121.9 19710 21621 9445 22630 20
35 12499 17945 11842 18820 1120; 19726 21638 9435 226 17 25

36 12487 17959 11831 18834 11197 19741 21654 942G 22664 24

37 12476 17974 11820 lRR49 11187 19756 21671 9417 226x1 23
38 12465 17988 iium 18864 11176 19772 21687 0407 22698 22
39 12454 iannz 11799 18879 lllG0 19787 21704 9398 22715 21
40 12443 18017 11788 18894 11156 19~03 21720 9349 22732 20
41 12432 ran31 11777 18909 11145 19818 21737 9380 22750 I9
42 12421 18045 11766 18924 11135 19834 21754 9370 22767 18
43 12410 18060 11756 18939 11I24 19849 21770 936 1 22784 17
44 12398 18074 11745 189.53 11114 19864 217x7 9352 zwni 10
45 123Y7 18089 lli34 18968 11104 1se.m 21803 9342 2281s 15
46 12376 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 3 11724 18983 11094 19895 21~20 0333 22836 14
47 123fi5 18117 11713 18998 11043 19911 21837 9324 22853 13
48 12364 MI32 1li(l2 19013 11073 199% 21853 $1315 22x70 12
49 12343 18146 11692 19029 II 19912 21n711 9305 22887 11
50 12332 18161 11681 19043 11052 19957 21887 9296 ~29115 in
51 12321 18175 11~70 190KR 11042 19973 21903 9287 22922 9
62 12310 1x190 I 16(iO 19073 110:12 19988 21920 02i8 22939 8
63 12299 18204 11649 190RX 11021 20004 21937 9209 22957 7
54 12288 18219 11038 19103 11011 zoo19 21953 92.59 2971 A
56 12277 18233 11628 19118 iioni 20035 21970 9250 22991 6
66 12206 I8218 11617 10133 10991 zoo50 21987 9241 23009 4
57 12255 18262 ll(iO6 19148 loow 20066 22003 9232 23026 3
58 12241 1x277 11500 l!ll63 10970 zona zznzn 9223 2:wi 2
59 122:33 18291 IlT.85 19178 10960 20097 221137 9213 23061 1
60 12222 1x306 11575 1!3193 loo50 20113 22054 9214 23078 0
.- -
. - __ ._
A R A A u A n
, __ __ __I__ __
126000'
-
 176 U. S. COAST A N D GEODETIC S U R V E Y

Table 9.-Line of position table--Continued

ALWAYS TAKE "Z" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE. EXCEPT WHEN "K" IS SAME NAME AND
GREATER THAN LATITUDE. IN WHICH CASE TAKE "Z" FROM TABLE
- -
54o00' 55~00' 56'00' 57'00' 68000' 59000'
- - - __ __ _. __
B .4 B A B A B A B
- __ ~ ~ ~ -
n 23078 RE63 24141 8143 25244 7641 ,26389
26409
27579
27599
6603
MU8
ZRU16
28837
in
,AI
1 21095 8655 24159 8134 25263 7fi33
2 21113 8646 24177 8125 25281 7624 26128 27619 6678 28858 18
3 23130 8837 24195 8117 25300 7816 26447 276411 6671 28879 17
4 23148 862X 24213 sin8 25319 76011 26467 27660 6663 289110 16
6 23165 8619 24231 nioo 25:13n 7600 26486 271ixo 6855 28921 15

6 23183 861 1 24249 8092 25356 7592 26506 27701 6648 28942 A
7 23200 8fi02 24267 8083 25375 75X4 2lih2li 27721 6640 28964 13
8 23218 85Y7 242x6 9075 25391 7675 26515 27741 6033 28985 12
9 23235 X5H4 24304 XOCX 25413 75ri7 26565 27761 6026 290111; il
in 23252 8575 24322 8058 25432 7569 26584 277x2 CGl8 29027 10

11 23270 8.507 24340 8049 25451 7551 2Mi04 27x02 Trc,in 29na 19
12 23288 n m 2mn RIM 25469 7.543 2liC23 27823 66O:I
659.5
29069
290!J1
19
17
13 23305 854') 24376 ~032 2.5~4 753.5 26ti43 27x43
14 23323 x540 24395 8024 25iin'i 7526 26663 27863 fi5XX 2!l112 16
15 23340 863 I 2.1413 nois 2552fi nix 26682 27118 4 G580 29133 15

16 2335R 8523 24431 xn07 25545 7510 26702 27904 6,573 29154 14
17 23375 x514 24449 7!JYX 25584 7502 26722 27925 B5G 29175 13
18 23393 x505 24467 79710 255R3 749.1 26741 27945 Gt53 20197 12
19 234111 8496 2 4 4 ~ 79n2 25602 7486 26761 27965 65W 29218 11
20 23428 x488 24504 7973 25621 7178 267x1 279~1; 6543 29239 to
21 23446 84 79 24522 7965 25640 7470 26x110 2nom 6535 29261 39
22 23l!i3 8470 24540 7!W 25659 7.10'2 26820 wn27 O52X 29282 in
23 234x1 84tiI 24559 7!W 25678 7453 21ix10 2x0~7 0520 99303 37
24 23 JOY 8451 24577 7246 25W7 7445 26x60 2xn1;n 66 1.3 29325 16
25 23516 8444 24595 793 I 25716 7437 26879 280x9 8505 29346 35

26 235'14 8135 24614 7023 25735 742Y 21ix99 28109 0498 29367 34
27 235.51 8427 24fi32 7014 25754 7,421 26919 2X130 6490 29389 33
28 23Sli9 H4l8 24GSO i9Of 25773 7413 2(i93!l 2815C 6489 29410 32
29 231587 n409 24659 78YF 25792 74OE 26!J5R 281il 6475 29432 31
30 23605 x4n I 24687 78x5 25x i 1 73!li 26978 28191 61CP 29853 30
31 23622 8392 24701; 78Xl 26830 73xc 2mn 2821: WiC 29475 29
' 32 23640 8383 24724 7nz 25R4!J 7:ISl 27018 2x23: 6453 204!lli 28
33 2365R 8175 24742 7Rfi.I 25XIiX 737:i 270:'~ 2825: 044c 29517 27
34 23675 h366 24761 7X5I z5nx7 $36: 27058 2x271 64% 29539 2G
35 236!J3 8357 24779 7x4 25907 7355 27078 2n29t 6431 29560 25
36 23711 8349 24mn 78% 25926 731$ 270!JM 2x311: 642l 295R2 24
37 23i29 83.20 24x16 7~31 25945 7341 27117 2na:ji 641f z~ti114 23
38 23747 xx31 24x35 78% 25Y64 733:' 27137 2n35: (mi 29625 22
39 2'3764 u323 24x63 7814 25983 7321 27157 243172 040 I 29647 21
40 237nz 8311 24872 7rOf 26002 731; 27177 28:l91 63% 29(icn 2n
41 23x00 ~30.5 24890 7791 2(;022 7.m 27197 2X4l! G.?X( 29690 19
42 23~18 H2U7 2.1909 iiX! 26041 7x01 27217 28441 697! 29711 18
43 23nx mxn 24927 77x1 ziin(io 7!!!1.' 27237 2b4li! 637;
630
29733 17
29755 16
44 23x54 x2yn 21946 7771 26079 72X! 27257 2x4~:
45 23x7 1 827 I 24964 77Gd 26099 727; 27277 2x50: 636; 29776 15
41; 2 3 ~ ~ 9 R262 249x3 775f 2fillR 72(i! 27257 2852: 8341 2979R 14
47 2.1907 X254 25001 7742 26137 T!1
il 27317 2x54' 1i.34: 2 9 x m 13
4n 23925 ~245 250211 774( 26157 725: 27337 2X51i! fix%! 29n t 1 12
49 2J943 nzv z5n~n 773 I 26176 724! 27157 zn58i 632; 29863 11
50 2.1961 uan 25057 77'2: 28l!l5 723: 27377 2860' G32( 298x5 i n
61 23979 R219 25076 771i 2c214 722! 2739~ 2UIi2' 631: ~59117 9
52 2.'1997 x211 250114 770: 26234 7221 274lU 2R641 630: 2!)!J2!J 8
53 24015 n"02 25113 76!ll 26253 721.' 2743X ZXCIi! 8291 29950 7
54 24nm 8194 251.12 769( 2627.1 720! 2715U 28691 62!J 29972 6
55 24051 81x5 251511 7DX: 26292 719' 27178 2871 62% 29994 5
66 2 . m ~ 8177 2.5169 767' 26311 7 I!)( 27198 2873: 8271 30015 4
57 24087 8IAR 25188 7fifil 26331 71% 2751~ 2875 620l 30037 3
58 24105 816L 252Uli 7G5' 26350 71 7 27539 2877, G20 30059 2
59 24123 8151 25225 764! 2~370 7101 27559 2~79, 625' 3nmi 1
ljn 21141 8143 25244 764 263189 7151 27579 u(xi8 624' 30103 n
- - __ ~ __ -
A B A B A ri A I3 A n A 11
--
125'00' 124°00' 122000' 121000~ 120~00'
- -
 PRACTICAL A I R NAVIGATION 177
Table B.-Line of position table-Continued
WHEN LHA (E OR W) IS GREATER THAN Wo.TAKE "K" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
- -
60'00' 62000'
I __ - - - ___
A n A n A B A B A B A D
- ___ _. __ - - __ - __ ___ ~ -
0 6247 30103 6818 31443 5400 32839 5012 34295 4634 35816 4?72 37405 60
1 8240 30125 5811 31466 5400 32.463 5005 34320 4628 35842 4266 37432 59
2 6232 30147 5804 31488 5303 32887 4999 34345 4622 35RG8 4201 37459 58
3 6225 30169 57117 31511 R386 329111 4903 34370 4615 35894 4255 37487 57
4 6218 30191 5790 31534 53530 32934 4986 34395 4609 35920 4248 37514 56
5 6210 30213 5783 31557 5373 32968 4980 94420 4603 35946 4243 37541 55
6 6203 30236 5776 31680 5300 329R2 4973 34444 4697 35972 4237 37568 54
7 0108 30256 5769 31603 5360 33006 4967 34469 4591 35998 4231 37595 53
8 6189 30278 5762 31626 5353 33030 4061 34494 4585 36024 4'25 37623 52
9 GI81 30300 5755 31649 5346 33054 4954 34519 4579 36050 &ZLO 37650 51
10 6174 30322 5748 31672 5340 33077 4948 34644 4573 361176 4214 3i677 50
11 6167 30345 5741 31694 5333 33101 4941 34569 4506 3c 102 4204 37704 49
12 til60 30367 5734 31717 5320 33125 4035 34594 4560 36128 4202 37732 48
13 6152 30389 5727 31740 5320 33149 49ZJ 34619 4554 36154 411)O 377.59 47
14 8145 30411 5720 31763 5313 33173 4822 34644 4548 31ilXO 4190 377x6 46
15 6138 3043i1 5714 31786 5306 33197 4916 34669 4542 36206 4185 37814 45
16 6131 30455 5707 3180s 5300 33221 4910 34694 4536 36130 4179 37R41 44
17 6124 30477 5i00 31833 5293 33U5 4903 34719 4530 36259 41i3 37869 43
18 6116 30499 5693 31R56 mxo 33269 4x97 34744 4521 36285 4167 37R96 42
19 6100 30521 5GXG 81879 mu 33293 48!ffl 34770 4518 86311 4161 37924 41
20 8102 30544 5670 31902 5273 33318 4884 34795 4512 36.138 4155 37951 40
21 6095 30566 5672 31925 5266 33342 4878 34~211 4500 36364 4150 37979 39
22 6088 30588 5065 31948 5200 33366 4871 34845 4500 36390 4144 38006 38
23 GO80 3n~in 5658 31971 5253 33390 4885 34870 4403 364 17 4 138 ann34 37
24 6073 30632 5G51 31994 5247 33414 4859 34896 4487 36443 4132 3x061 36
25 60C6 30655 5F44 3201s 5240 33438 4852 34921 4481 36469 4127 38089 35
20 605') 30677 5638 32041 5233 33462 4846 34946 4475 36496 4121 3R117 34
27 0052 30699 6fi31 32064 5227 33487 4840 34971 4469 36522 4115 38144 33
28 6045 30721 5624 321187 5220 33511 4833 34997 4463 36549 4100 38172 32
29 6037 30744 Xi17 32110 5214 33635 4827 36022 4457 36575 4103 moo 31
30 6030 30766 5810 32134 5207 33559 4821 36047 4451 36602 40'311 38227 30
31 6023 30788 5603 32157 5200 33584 4816 35073 4445 36628 4002 38255 29
32 6010 3nm 5590 321x0 51Q1 3 3 6 0 ~ 4nnn 35098 4439 36665 4086 3R2R3 23
33 6000 30833 5590 32204 5187 33632 4802 36125 4433 36681 4080 :wi 27
34 6002 30856 5513 32227 5181 33657 4796 35149 4427 36708 4075 38338 26
35 5995 30878 5575 32250 5174 33681 4789 35174 4421 36734 4060 38366 25
36 5987 30900 5560 32274 5168 33705 4783 35200 4415 36761 4063 33.194 24
37 h980 30923 6562 32297 5161 33730 4777 36225 4400 96787 40'57 3R422 23
38 5073 30945 5555 32320 5155 33754 4771 36251 4403 3.sni4 4052 3x450 22
30 5966 3096R 5549 32344 5148 33779 4704 35276 4397 36841 4040 38478 21
40 5959 30990 6542 32367 6142 33R03 4758 35302 4391 96867 4040 38506 20
41 5052 31013 8535 32391 5135 33827 4752 35327 4385 36894 4085 385.33 19
42 5945 31035 5528 32414 5128 33852 4740 3535s 4370 36921 4020 38561 18
43 5938 3105~ 5521 32438 5122 33876 4730 35878 4373 36948 4023 38%9 17
44 593 1 310x0 5516 32461 5115 33901 4733 38404 4367 36974 4017 38617 16
45 5924 31103 5508 32484 5109 33925 4727 35429 4381 37001 4012 38645 15
46 5017 31125 5501 32508 5102 33950 4721 35456 4355 370% 4000 3R674 14
4i 59011 31148 5404 32532 5096 33!174 4714 36481 4340 37055 4000 38702 13
48 5902 311711 54x7 32.555 50811 33999 4708 36606 4343 370x1 3995 m:{n 12
40 5x95 31193 54x1 32579 508.7 34024 4702 36532 4337 37108 3089 38758 11
50 5888 31216 5474 32602 507G 34048 4696 35658 4332 37135 3083 38786 10
51 5881 31238 5467 32625 no70 34073 4690 355R3 4326 37162 3078 38R14 9
52 5874 31261 54m 32649 5064 34097 4683 366119 4320 371R9 3972 3RR42 8
53 5x67 31284 5454 32673 5057 34122 4677 35635 4314 37216 31166 aR71 7
64 5x60 31306 5447 32fi97 5ORl 34147 4671 36661 43m 37243 JUO I 3R899 6
55 58.53 31329 5440 32720 5044 34172 4665 35686 4302 97270 3055 38927 5
56 h846 31352 5433 32744 5038 34196 4660 35712 4296 97297 3049 38955 4
57 5839 31375 6427 3276R 503 I 34221 4652 35738 4290 37324 3944 38984 3
58 5x32 31397 5420 32792 5026 34246 46415 35764 4284 97351 30353 39012 2
59 5x25 31420 5413 32R15 5019 34270 4640 35790 4278 3737R 31133 39040 1
60 5818 31443 5406 32839 5012 34295 4634 35816 4272 37405 3v27 ~YOGY 0
- __ ___ __ - __ - __ __ -
A n A n A 11 A B A B A n

115'00'
- -
178 U. S . COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued

ALWAYS TAKE "Z" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE, EXCEPT WHEN "K" IS SAME NAME AND
GREATER THAN LATITUDE. IN WHICH CASE TAKE "2" FROM L m F TABLE
-
66"OO' 67'00' 68'00'
- - - - - - - - - __
A B A B A B A B A B A B
- __ - ~ - - - ~ -
n 3927 39069 3597 40~12 3283 42642 3985 44567 2701 46595 2433 48736 n
1 3021 39097 3502 40842 3278 42674 mn 44600 2697 466x1 2429 48772 9
2 3916 39125 3587 4OR72 3273 42705 1'475 44633 2692 46664 2424 48x09 8
3 3910 39154 3581 40902 3268 44736 1970 44666 2088 46699 2420 48846 7
4 3904 391R2 3576 40931 3263 42768 1005 44699 TI83 46734 2416 48883 6
5 3899 39211 3571 40961 3258 42799 2961 44732 2078 46769 2111 489.20 5

6 3x93 39239 3,565 40991 3253 42830 1056 44765 2874 46804 2407 48957 4
7 3nRX 39268 3560 41021 3248 42862 2951 44798 20F9 46839 2403 48993 :3
8 :i8n2 39296 3555 41051 3243 42893 1946 44831 2665 46x73 2398 49030 2
9 3x76 39325 3549 41081 .XU7 42!)25 2941 44864 2mn 41x108 2304 49067 81
in 3871 39353 3544 41111 32'33 42956 2Vd6 44898 2656 46943 2390 49104 80

11 3865 39382 3539 41141 3227 42988 2912 44931 2051 46978 23R5 49141 9
12 3860 39411 3533 41171 3222 43020 B27 44964 2846 47014 23x1 49179 8
13 3854 39439 3528 41201 3217 43051 2922 44997 2642 47049 2377 49216 7
14 3R49 39468 3A23 41231 3212 43O83 2917 45031 2637 47084 2372 49253 6
15 3843 39497 3517 41261 3207 43114 2913 45064 2r33 47119 2368 49290 5

18 3838 39525 3512 41291 3202 43146 2908 45097 2628 47154 2364 49327 14
17 3832 39554 3507 41322 3197 43178 2903 45131 2624 47189 nfin 49365 13
18 3826 39583 3502 41352 3192 432111 2wn 45164 2019 47225 2355 49402 12
19 3821 39612 3496 41382 31x7 43241 2893 45198 2615 47260 2351 49439 il
20 3815 39641 3491 41412 3182 43273 2889 45231 2610 47295 2347 49477 in
21 3810 39669 3486 41443 3177 43305 2884 45265 2606 47331 2143 49514 19
22 31304 39698 34x0 41473 3172 43337 2879 45298 ?fa1 47366 2338 49551 in
23 3799 39727 3475 41503 3167 43369 21174 45332 2537 47402 2334 495R9 17
24 3793 39756 3470 41533 3162 43400 2870 45365 2592 47437 2330 49626 18
25 37x8 397x5 3465 41564 3157 43432 2n65 45399 2508 47472 2325 49664 15
26 3782 39814 3459 41594 31hZ 43464 m a 45433 2583 47508 2721 49702 14
27 3777 39843 3454 41625 3147 43496 21355 45466 2579 47544 2317 49739 13
28 3771 39872 3449 41655 3142 435% 2P51 45500 2574 47579 2313 49777 32
29 3766 39901 3444 41685 3137 43560 2846 45534 2570 47615 23w 49815 11
30 37ffi 3993a 3438 41716 3132 43592 2841 45567 2565 47650 2304 49853 30
31 3755 39959 3433 41746 3127 43624 2R3f 45601 2501 47686 23w 49x90 39
-32 3740 3998f 3421 41777 3122 43657 2835 45635 rmr 47722 229F 49928 28
33 3714 40017 3423 41808 3117 43689 2827 45669 255: 47758 2292 49966 27
34 3738 4004~ 3418 41838 3112 43721 2825 45703 2547 477!)3 22x7 50004 28
35 3733 4007~ 3412 41869 3107 43753 2XIF 45737 2543 47829 228:' 50042 25
36 3727 40105 3407 41899 3105 43785 2x13 45771 263C 47865 227s snnxn 24
37 3722 40134 340: 41930 30% 43~18 2x01. 45x05 2534 4m0i 2271 50117 23
39 3716 4016: 3307 41961 30KJ' 43x511 2x04 45839 2R3( 47987 227 I 50156 22
39 3711 401% 3391 41991 30xt 438nz 270' 45873 252: 47978 2m 50194 21
40 3705 4022; 33Rt 42022 308: 43914 2794 45907 2521 48009 220: ~0232 20
41 3700 40251 3381 4205~ 3071 43947 27x5 45941 251f 4x045 225: 50270 19
42 3605 402R( 337( 42084 307: 43979 27+! 45975 251: 48081 2254 snm in
43 36139 403U 3371 42115 3Mjt 44012 27X( 46009 mi 48117 225( 5034~ 17
44 3684 4033: 33M 42145 3m: 44044 277! 46043 250: 48153 224t 503115 16
45 3678 4036t 336( 42176 3056 44077 2771 46078 249c 48189 224 I ~0423 15
46 3673 40391 335t 42207 305: 44109 276t 46119 2494 48221 223; 504fii 14
47 3667 4042: 33M 42236 3n4f 44142 2701 4614f 249( 48262 223: 50498 13
48 3862 4045; 334: 42269 304: 44174 27<5; 46181 24X! 4x29: 2221 505s 12
49 3657 404M 334: 42300 3nv 44207 ,.,
Li5' I
46215 24x I 4x334 222! 5057~ 11
50 3651 40511 333, 42331 303: 44234 271t 46241 247; 48373 222' 50611 10
51 3048 40.541 33% 42362 302s 44271 274: 46284 247: 4840; 221( 51x5: 9
52 3640 40571 3324 42398 302' 4430: 2731 463If 2401 48443 221: 5069: 8
53 3635 40604 331! 42424 :in15 44331 27 1z 46355 240: 4X4M zm 5073 7
54 3630 40631 3314 42455 3011 4437( 272' 4fi185 245! 48.511 220. 5076: 8
55 3824 40664 330( 424~ 300( 4440: 272 4642: 215! 4855: 22m ~ORIIL 6
56 3619 4069: 3304 42518 ROO1 4443 2721 4645t 245( 4858! 2191 50841 4
57 3613 4072: 329! 42544 2RU' 44461 271i 46491 244( 48621 210: m8! 3
58 3608 4075: !29d 4258C 2992 44501 27 I 46521 242' 4866: 21x5 50921 2
59 3603 4078: %JZXI 42611 2991 44534 27nI 4fi56t 24.3' 4X69! 21% 5096: 1
60 3597 4081: 328: 4264; 298! 4456; 270 46591 213 48731 217! 5100: 0
- ~ - - - - - - ._ -
A n A A n A n A n A n
-. ~-

- 113000' 112'00'
-
 PRACTICAL AIR N A V I G A T I O F 179
Table 9.-Line of position table--Continued
WHEN LHA (E OR W) IS GREATER THAN 90”. TAKE “K” FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
- -
73000’ 74000‘
~ ~ __
A n A B A B A n
- __ - -
u 2179 51002 1940 53406 lil6 55966 I506 58700 1310 64791 on
1 2175 51041 1936 5344~ 1712 ,56010 1.502 513748 1:ioti 64846 59
2 2171 51080 1033 53489 ling 56054 1499 58795 1303 ~4901 58
3 2167 51119 1929 53531 iin5 56099 1495 58x42 i:m 6495G 57
4 21F3 51158 1925 53572 1i01 56143 1492 588R9 1297 65011 56
6 2159 51197 1021 53614 1698 56187 1489 58937 1294 65066 55

8 2155 51236 1917 53655 1694 66271 14x5 58984 1291 65121 54
7 2151 51275 1013 53697 1691 56276 14x2 59032 12x8 6517ti 53
e 2147 51314 i9in 53738 1087 563211 1479 59079 12.54 65231 52
0 2143 51353 1’1nii 537x0 10x3 56385 1475 50127 12x1 65287 51
1c 2138 61392 1002 53h22 1RXU 56409 1472 59175 1278 65312 50
11 2134 51432 IPSR 53864 1676 56454 1409 59222 1275 65398 49
11 2130 51411 le04 53905 11173 56498 1465 592711 1272 65453 48
13 2126 51510 ixsn 53947 lfi69 56543 1462 59318 1269 65509 47
14 2122 51550 1x8: ran9 in05 5658I1 1459 59366 1266 65564 40
15 2118 51589 18x3 54031 lli62 56632 1455 59414 1283 65620 45
18 2114 51629 1879 54073 1658 56677 1452 59462 1260 65fi76 44
17 2110 51668 1875 54115 1065 56722 1449 59510 1257 65732 43
18 2106 51708 1x71 54157 1051 56767 1445 59558 1253 65788 42
19 2102 51747 IF68 54199 1648 56812 1442 59606 1250 65x44 41
20 m n 51787 1884 64242 1044 56857 1439 59654 1247 ~59011 40
21 2094 51827 1800 54284 1641 56902 1435 59703 1244 65957 39
22 2n9n 51867 IF50 54326 1637 56947 1432 59751 1241 66013 38
23 2086 51906 1853 54x8 1634 56992 1453 59800 1238 66069 37
24 2na 51946 1x49 54411 io3n 57038 1425 59848 1235 66126 30
25 2078 5 1986 1x45 54453 1627 67083 1422 59896 1232 66182 35

28 2074 52026 1x41 64496 1623 rim 1419 59945 1229 66239 34
27 znin 5206~ 1P37 54538 1619 57174 1416 59994 1226 66296 33
28 2000 ti2106 1x34 545x1 1616 57219 1412 60042 1223 66352 32
28 2062 52146 1830 54623 1612 57265 1409 60091 mn 66409 31
30 2058 62186 IF20 54666 1009 57310 1406 60140 1217 66466 30

31 2054 62226 1823 5470~ 1605 67356 1403 60189 1214 66523 28
32 2n5o 52266 ixio 54751 ion2 57401 1399 60238 1211 665~11 28
33 2046 52306 1x15 54794 1.598 57447 1396 60287 1208 66638 27
34 2042 62346 lRll 54837 1.505 57493 1393 60336 1205 66695 26
36 a338 mn7 1x08 ~ n 8 0 1691 57538 1380 60385 no2 66752 25
36 2034 52427 1804 51922 It88 575x4 13% 60434 1199 66810 24
37 2030 52467 1800 64965 15x4 57630 1383 604x3 1106 66867 23
38 2026 52508 1700 66W 1881 57676 1380 60533 1193 66915 22
39 2n22 52548 1793 65051 ism 57722 1377 60582 11!H) 66982 21
40 mix mix8 1789 55119s 1574 57768 1373 60631 1187 67040 zn
41 2014 52629 17x5 55138 1571 57814 1370 60681 1184 6 7 0 9 ~ 19
42 zn1n 52670 17P2 55181 1507 57860 1307 60730 1181 67156 1x
43 2007 52710 i77n 55224 1564 57907 1364 60780 1178 67214 17
44 2003 52751 1774 65267 1560 57953 im 60x30 117~ 67272 16
45 199Y 52791 1771 55311 1557 57999 1357 60879 1172 67330 15
46 1995 52R32 1767 55354 1553 6~046 1354 60929 lice 6 7 3 ~ 14~
47 I991 52873 1763 55397 i65n 5x092 1351 60979 1166 67447 13
48 19x7 62914 17G0 55441 1R46 6x13~ 1348 61029 1103 67505 12
49 1983 52954 173; 55484 1543 ix1185 1344 61079 llR0 67,563 11
60 1978 52995 1752 55528 1640 58232 1341 61129 1157 67622 i n
51 1975 53036 1749 55572 1536 5827R 1338 6117!1 1154 676x1 9
52 1971 53077 1745 55615 1533 5x325 1335 61229 1151 67739 8
53 IWi7 5mn 1741 65659 1620 58372 1332 61279 Il4X 67798 7
64 1964 53159 inn 56703 1526 5x418 132‘1 61330 1145 67x57 0
56 1mo 632011 1734 5,5746 1523 5x465 1325 81380 1142 67916 5
56 1956 53241 I 730 55790 1519 5R512 1322 614311 1130 67975 4
67 1952 532x3 1727 65834 1616 5x559 1319 61481 1130 68034 3
5n 1948 53324 1723 55x7~ 1512 5 ~ ~ 0 61310 61551 1133 6H093 2
59 1944 53366 1719 55!)22 1509 6x653 1313 61582 11:iO 68153 1
Go 1840 53406 1716 55966 1506 5x700 1310 61632 1128 6x212 n
-- ___ ~ __ _. __ -
A A 11 A 11 .z n
~

106°00’
- -
180 U. S. COAST Ah’D GEODETIC SURVEY

Table 9.--Line of position table-Continued

AWAYS TAKE *‘Z” FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE, EXCEPT WHEN “K” IS SAME NAME AND

-
GREATER THAN LATITUDE, IN WHICH CASE TAKE “Z” FROM L m F TABLE
-
78000‘ noonoi 81000‘ 82000‘
~ __ ~ - ~ __
A B A B A B A A B A
- - - - - -
0 960 68212 a05 71940 06.5 76033 53R 80567 425 85644 325 91411 30
1 957 68272 803 72005 663 76105 536 80647 423 85734 323 91514 59
2 954 68331 noo 72070 680 76176 534 80727 421 X582S 322 91617 58
3 951 68391 798 72136 058 76248 532 X0807 410 85915 320 91720 57
4 949 68450 796 722111 650 763211 530 x 0 ~ 7 418 x(inn6 319 91824 56
5 948 68510 793 72266 654 76393 528 81~967 416 86096 317 91928 55

043 68570 79 1 72332 652 7646.5 526 nirm 414 96187 310 92032 54
6 941 1x630 788 72397 649 76537 ,524 ~112s 412 ~6278 314 92137 53
Q9 938
935
fAfiSO
68750
780
783
72463
72529
647
645
76610
76683
522
F20
81210
81291
411
409
86370
86461
313
31 1
92242
92347
52
51
10 933 68811 78 1 72595 643 76756 518 81372 407 86553 310 92452 50

11 930 68871 779 72661 64 1 76828 51fi 81453 405 86645 308 92558 19
12 928 6x931 776 72727 638 mn2 514 m:~, 404 86737 307 92663 48
13 Y25 68992 574 72794 03fi 76975 512 81617 402 86829 305 92769 47
14 922 69053 771 7 ~ 6 0 634 77018 510 nifis9 41x) 86922 304 9W76 46
15 020 69113 769 72926 632 77122 508 81780 399 87015 302 929112 45

16 917 69174 767 72993 630 77195 506 81863 397 ~71117 301 93089 44
17 914 69235 764 73060 627 77269 504 81946 395 87201 299 93196 43
18 912 69296 782 73127 625 77343 503 82027 303 87294 298 93304 42
19 909 69357 759 73193 628 77417 501 82110 392 87387 200 93411 41
20 907 69418 757 732611 621 77491 409 82193 300 87481 205 93519 40

21 904 69479 755 73328 619 77565 497 82276 388 87575 293 93628 39
22 901 69541 752 73395 617 77639 495 rims 387 ~7669 202 93736 38
23 RY9 69602 750 73462 615 77714 403 82442 385 8776.2 290 93845 37
24 896 69664 747 73530 612 77788 401 82526 3x3 137858 289 93954 36
25 394 69725 74 5 73597 010 71863 489 82609 381 87953 287 94063 35

26 891 69787 743 736E5 60R 77938 487 82693 390 88048 286 91173 34
27 888 69x49 740 73733 60e 7x013 485 82777 37n 88143 284 94283 33
w 886 69910 738 73801 604 780x8 483 82861 376 88239 2233 94393 32
2% 883 69972 736 73869 602 78164 4x2 ~2945 375 88334 281 91503 31
30 881 70034 733 73937 600 78239 480 83030 373 88430 280 94614 30
31 R7R 70097 731 74005 598 78315 478 83114 371 88526 279 94725 29
32 nifi 70159 729 74073 595 7x390 47fi 83199 370 n8623 277 94nx 28
33 873 70221 726 71112 593 78466 474 83284 368 88719 276 94948 27
34 870 70284 724 74210 501 78542 4i2 x3w 366 88816 274 95060 26
3: 868 70346 722 74279 589 78618 470 83455 365 83913 273 95172 25
36 na 70409 719 74349 587 78694 408 81540 363 89010 271 95295 24
37 803 70471 717 74417 58-5 78771 467 83626 362 89107 270 95397 23
3E 860 70534 715 74486 583 78847 40s ~3711 360 89206 269 95510 22
3s n5e 70597 712 74555 58 1 78924 463 113797 358 89303 267 95624 21
41 8.55 70660 710 74624 579 79001 461 83884 357 739401 2GR 95737 20
41 853 70723 708 74693 577 79078 450 83970 3.55 89499 264 95851 19
42 8x1 70786 704 74763 575 79155 457 n4mi 353 89597 263 95966 in
42 848 70850 703 74832 573 79232 456 n4iu 3.52 89696 262 96080 17
44 845 70913 701 74902 570 79309 454 842?0 350 89795 26C 96195 16
4: 843 70976 699 74972 508 79387 452 84317 3411 89894 256 96310 15
4( n4c 71040 BOB 761142 56fi 79466 450 A4404 347 99994 2.57 96426 14
4; 838 71104 694 .75112 564 79542 448 84492 345 90093 250 96542 13
48 83f 71167 692 751x2 562 79620 440 84579 344 90193 25F 96668 12
46 a33 71211 690 7.5252 560 79fi9X 444 81667 342 90290 253 96774 11
5( 83C 71295 687 75322 558 79777 443 84755 341 90394 252 96891 10
51 82F 71359 6x5 75393 554 79855 441 $4843 336 90494 251 97008 9
5: 82: 71423 683 75464 554 79933 43s 84931 337 90595 24E 97126 8
c% 823 71488 680 75534 552 80012 437 85020 33F 9069C 248 97213 7
54 nx 71552 678 75605 55c 80091 4RE ~5100 334 90798 24i 97361 6
5: 81$ 71616 676 75676 5411 nono 434 86197 333 snw 24: 97480 6
5f 8lF 71681 674 75747 51fi PO249 432 ~ 5 2 ~ 6 331 ginni 244 9759P 4
5i 813 71746 R72 75819 544 mw 43( 85376 33( 93103 24: 97717 3
5z nic 71~111 662 y m 54 2 804117 42f 85165 a21 91205 241 97F37 2
5c 8nE 7187.5 667 ,5961 54( xnnw 421 85555 32f 9130F 34 97957 1
F( 80: 71940 665 76033 63 80567 42: 85644 32! 91411 23! 9807f 0
- __ - - - -
A B A B A B A B A n A B
- - - __

-
100000’ 99000’ 98000’ 97OOO’
-
 PRACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION 181
Table 9.-Line of position table-Continued
WHEN LHA ( E OR W) IS GREATER THAN 90'. TAKE "K" FROM BOTTOM OF TABLE
- -
I_ __ - - - -_ - I - __
A B A n A A 13 A A n
-- - __ __ - - - - -
n 23s. I 165 105970 ins. I 11564' 59. I 128121 26. ! 145711 0. f 175814 GO
1 237. ; 164 106115 105. I 115~2: m. I 12n3(ii 26. ( 14fin81 9. 176514 59
2 235. ! 103 106260 104.: llli00 58. , 12860: 25. I 146448 6.L 177297 5R
3 234. f 1112 10~406 ins. : 1161% 57. I 12894t 25. L 146817 0. c 178042 57
4 233. : 161 106552 1112. 2 llfi37l 50. ! 12909: 24.; 147190 A. 8 17'4810 56
5 272. I 160 106698 101. I 116551 56. : 12934: 21.: 147566 6. E 179593 55
6 230. : 150 106846 loo. 11673 55. : 129591 23. I 147945 5. 4 1R0390 54
7 220.4 157 1ww3 !)9, I 11692: 56. ( 129841 23. t 14x327 5. 2 181201 53
8 22R. I 15R 107141 09. I 11711; 54.1 130093 23. 1 148714 .5, c 1R2029 52
9 226. I 155 107290 9M. 117291 53. i 130346 22. $ 149103 4. F 1~2x72 51
10 225. ! 154 107439 97. : 117481 53. 1 ROC 22. 1 1.19495 4. E 183732 50
11 224. : 153 107589 96.1 117671 52. ! 130856 21. E im92 4. 4 i~4fin9 49
12 222. I 1A2 107739 85. ! ii"16t 51. ! 131114 21. 4 150292 4. 2 1x5505 48
13 221. f 151 107~90 94. I 11805~ 51. I 131373 21. C 150696 4. 1 in6419 47
14 220. z 150 ion041 93. $ iimf 50. : 1316.13 20. f 151104 3. n 187353 46
15 219. I 149 108193 93. 1 11844C 50. ( 131896 20. 3 151515 3. 7 i8n307 45
10 217.6 148 ion345 92. i iin638 40. 4 132159 10. k 1.51931 3. fi 189283 44
17 216. E 147 ion49n 91. r 118827 48. I 132425 19. ! 152350 3. 4 1902x2 43
18 215.3 140. 108651 00. 1 1I 9022 4%. 2 132692 19. 1 152774 3. 3 1!Il.'JO3 42
19 214. C 145. itm05 89. E 119218 47. f 132961 18. 7 I ~ ~ O I3 1 1923511 41
20 212. E 144 10~1960 89. ( 119415 47.1 133231 13. 4 153633 2.9 193422 40
21 211.: 113. 109115 u8.z 119612 46. ! 133503 18. a 15tn70 2. 8 194522 39
22 zin. 3 142. 109270 87. 4 119811 45. s 133777 17.6 151511 2. 7 195650 34
23 209. a 141. 109426 80. ( izooia 45. P 134052 17. 8 154956 2. 5 i96m 37
24 207. R 140. 1095x3 R5. t 120211 44. 5 1343x0 16.9 155406 2. 4 397991 36
25 zn(i. 5 139. 109740 85. c 120412 44. 2 134609 16. R 155861 2. 3 199221 35
26 m.3 13% in9m 84. i 120614 42. n ia4n9n 16. 2 156320 2. 1 20nm 34
27 204. I 137. 1100.57 83,1 120x17 43. c I35173 15. 9 1567x4 2. 0 201777 33
28 202. 8 13B. 110216 n2. o 121021 42. 5 I35457 15.6 157254 1.9 203113 32
29 201. fi 135. 110175 R1.S 121226 41.9 13574 I 15. 2 157m 1. x 201492 31
30 200.4 13+. 110536 81.1 121432 41. 4 138032 14.0 158208 1. 7 205916 3n
31 199.2 133. 110696 80. 3 I21639 40. R 1.36322 14. 6 I58693 1. 5 20738R 29
32 ion. n 132. iinn58 79. 5 121848 40.3 136615 14. 2 159184 1. 4 znn912 28
33 190.8 131. 111020 78.8 122~7 39.7 136909 13. 9 159MO 1. 3 210,191 27
34 105.6 130. llllR3 In.o 122267 3!l, 2 i~zn5 13. B 1601x2 1.2 212130 20
35 194.4 120. 111346 17. 3 122478 38. 0 137503 13. 3 160690 1. 1 213834 25
36 303.2 128. I11510 70. 5 1226911 38. 1 137804 13. n 1fii2ni 1. 1 2156117 24
37 1".: 0 127. 111074 75.8 122903 37. 0 inn106 12. 7 'fiI72f 1. 0 217455 23
38 ion. 8 126. 111839 75. 0 121117 37. 1 138411 12. 4 102m n. $1 219385 22
39 189.6 125. I12005 74. 3 I23332 36. 5 138718 12. 1 lfi27XJ 0. 8 22140(i 21
40 188.4 124. 112171 73. 5 123549 36. 0 1x1027 11.8 163322 0. 7 223525 10
41 187.2 123. 1 1 2 ~ 72. 8 123766 35. 5 1393.38 11. 5 mnm 0. 7 225752 19
42 186. 1 122. 112506 72. 1 123985 35. 0 139651 11.2 64 122 0. 0 22aino 18
43 184. 121. I12674 71. 3 124204 34. 5 'a9967 10. v 54982 0. 5 230583
44 183. , 120. 112843 70. 6 124425 3%0 I ~ I J ~ R S10. 6 6wn 0. 5 233215
17
16
45 182. 0 119. 113013 69.1) 124647 33. 5 I ~ O G O ~ 10. 3 65125 0. 4 Z ~ G O I ~15
40 181.4 118. I13183 69. 2 12i870 33.0 I40928 10. 1 wnn 0. 4 ~39015 14
47 180.3 117. I13.154 OH. 5 125094 32. 5 '4125.i 8. 8 67298 0. 9 2.12233 13
48 179.1 116. 113526 07. 8 125v.11 32. 0 41581 9. 5 ~ n 9 7 0. 3 z.15709 12
49 178.0 115. 113699 fj7. 1 126546 31. 6 ,11911 9.3 68505 0. 2 2.$94(18 11
50 176. n 114. 113872 60. 4 25774 31. 1 42243 Q. 0 69121 0. 2 253627 10
61 175. 7 114. 114045 65. 7 '26003 30. 6 42579 8. 7 69745 0. 1 z5nm.i 9
62 174.5 113. 1 1 4 ~ 2 0 65. n 26233 80. 1 42916 8. 5 70379 0. 1 16:WIX 8
53 173.4 112. 114395 04. 3 2f465 21). 6 43257 8.2 71023 0. I z69iin 7
54 172.3 111. 14571 63. O 26697 29. 2 moo 8. 0 71fi76 0. 1 175812 0
h6 171.1 110. 114747 02. 9 26931 28.7 43946 7. n 72339 0. 0 183304 5
h0 170.0 100. 14925 52.2 27166 25.3 44295 7. 5 731112 0.0 293421 4
87 108. 9 108. 15103 GI. 6 27403 27.8 44646 7. 3 73696 0.0 105915 3
m 167. n 107. 15282 60. 9 27640 27. 4 45000 7. 1 74391 0. 0 123524 2
h9 166.7 100. 15461 so. 2 27880 20. 9 45358 0. n 76097 0. n 153627 1
80 155.6 105. 15641 5% 0 28120 25. 5 45718 0.0 75814 0. 0 0
- - -- - - - - - __ -
A B A B A B -4 B A B A B
, - - - - - -
- 95'00' 94~00' 93000' 92'00' 91000' 9oonoi
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BAKER,ROBERTH. An Introduction to Astronomy.
BEIJ, K. HILDING. Astronomical Methods in Aerial Navigation. (Nationali
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Report No. 198.)
BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL.American Practical Navigator. (H. 0. No. 9.)
BYERS,HORACE ROBERT. Synoptic and Aeronautical Meteorology.
DEETZ,CHARLES H., and ADAMS,OSChR S. Elements of Map Projection. (U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special Publication No. 68.)
DUTTON,BENJAMIN. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy.
GREGO,WILLISR. Aeronautical Meteorology.
JOHNSON, WILLIAME. Astronomy Made Easy.
KEEN,RONALD. Direction and Position Finding by Wireless.
MCKREADY, KELVIN. A Beginner’s Star Book.
OLCOTT,WILLIAMTYLER. Field Book of the Skies.
PICK,W. H. A Short Course in Elementary Meteorology.
REDPATH,PETERH., and COBURN, JAMES M. Airline Navigation.
WEEMS,P. V. H. Air Navigation.
Star Altitude Curves.
WEIGHTMAN, RICHARDHANSON. Forecasting From Synoptic Weather Charb.
(U. S. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication No. 236.)
182
 INDEX

Page :elestial navigation-Continued. Pago

Ahhreviations, conrenicnt .................... 106 semidiameter ............................. 80. 83
Adiebatic.. .................................. 128 sextant ohservetion.. .................. 72.7'9-81
Aeronautical data: sidereal time ........................... !10,94-98
chnngrs ................................... 12,13 star altitude curves....................... 90
date of revision ........................... 13 usefulness .... ... .. ... . .... ..... ..... .... . 71
sources ................................... 13,15 zenith.. .................................. 72
Agcton, Lt. Arthur A ....................... Si, 166 2 harts, aeronautical :
Agonic line ................................... 34.60 classes of information ..................... 8
Air Conrinorcc Act of 1926.................... 1.213 cornparison with maps .................... 1.2
Air Commerco Bulletin ...................13,15,165 comparison with nautical charts .-.-. .--.. 1
Air Commerce, Bureau of.. 55,57,R1, F2, 113, 115, 185 corrections to ...................... 1,2.12,13,57
Air massps .................................. 121-126 date of publication ....................... 13
Airports: definition ................................. 6
classification . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . ...... ... . . . ... 13 develovment .. ... . ... .. ... .... .... ... ... . 1.2
p<icilitirs.................................. 13 foltlinK- .................................. 23-28
of entry- ................................ 13, 184 great-circle..........................2.17.2R. 29
Air speed .............................. 39,40,41,148 indexes ................................ 3,4. A, 28
Airway nullrtin No. 2 ....................... 13,165 inforiiiation on ........................ 1,2.6-18
Alphabet, Greek. ............................ 97 joining-. ................................. 23-26
AItiinetrr ................................... 121,127 mticnet~ic..
~~~~,. ......... ..... .............. 2.17.33
Altitude (celrstial navigation). .............. 72-75, necessity for..........................1,2,19,57
78--80.83,88-00, 140-144 new editions ............................. 12,18
Altitude, safe.............................. 11,56,59 new prints ................................ 13
Altitude diffcrrnce. .............. 74.75, 79,83,88,R9 night flying ........................._12,17.18 .
Anticyclone. .................................
Arirs, first point of............................
127
76.77 price list .
....... ..... ..
.. .
.~
nlanninr chart ....................... 2.23.28.31
................ 165
Ascmsion, right .............................. 78. 77 projections ......................... 17,18.75,78
Astronomical triitnglr ......................... 77-79 radio direction finding.................. 2,85,66
Atmosphcric pressurr ....................... 121,127 reading ...................................6-20
Azimuth ..................... 29,30,74,75,83,88,141 regional.. ................................. 2,18
route books ..____ .-- _._ 25,26_____________ ____ ~

Barometer.................................... 121 sectional- ........................... 1.2.6.18.23

%eacon: small-scale control ...................2,23, 2H,31
lipht ...................................... 12-14 strip .................................... 1,24.26
radio- ............................. 15,18, 81, GZ symhols. ................................. 6-20
Bearing: Circle of posidion ............................. 72-75
deflnition of. ............................. 28.30 Civil Air Regulations ..................... 57,61,165
measurement ............................. 29 Civil time, Ureenwlch _ _ _ . _____ ___ ______
83,84.94,96
not a course. ............................. 3C Clouds:
plotting ................................. 29,137 formation........................... 122.128.12Q
reciprocal ______ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
.-
Beaufort scale ..............................
30,135 typw ...................................
120.1% Code adopted for airway use .............. 14.104
119.129
Bihliography ...........................165,106,18; Compass course. .. ... .. .. ... .... .... .... .. 29.36-34
Bowditch, Nathaniel ........................ 80,18: Compass deviation ..................29,3&38,42,43
Compass heading .......................... 29,38.42
Celestial globe ................................ 9t Compass rose:
Celestial navigation: magnetic. ..... .
.. ...... .................. 17
........................................
acchracv ~~~~~~ 71 reciprocal. ................................ 17
altitude.. ....................... 72-75,78-80, R: true. ................ ..... ................ 18,17
altitude difference ............74,75,79,83,%3,8( Condensation ...................... 122,125,128,129
astronomical trianglc - - -.
_ _ ____ -_ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
. - - - - - - -. 77-71 ~
Contours ..................................... 9-12
astronomy, general. - .--. 94-91 Convergence- ....................... 16,30-32,65,66
basic prinriplcs ........................... 72-7! Course:
_________ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ ____
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _
civil time . . .Q!
83.84.94.
~
compass.. -. .- .-.-- ~. 29,3>38,42
coordinates 76,T
~ deflnition .............................. 29.30,42
declination ............................ 76,78,8' departure from.. ...................... 29.30,35
examples. -._-- - _ _ _-_ 83-88,91-93,96,88,140-14~
~ magnetic ........................... 29.33-35,42
Ax ........................................ 73,7. measurement............................. 2s33
forms.............................. 72,81-84,9: not a bearing .......................... 29,30,44
Greenwich civil time .................. 81-85,9, not the heading ........................... 29
height of eye.............................. 81 plotting. - - --. _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
.__._
true ...................................
44.46 ~

hour angle .................... 77,78,83-87,9441 29,30.42

identification of stars and planets- 79,91-94,9&-9: Cro,ss-country flyinp .......................... 19-23
index error. .............................. 81 Crossties, spacing of .......................... 7
line of position ................ 71-77,83 89 90-9 Culture- ..................................... 7-9
...... .
... ...............
...
line of position table.- 72,74,79,83-883d3,1b7-18
Nautical Almanac.-.. ............. 73.78.98-11
Customs
Cyclone-. - -
airports
- - - -.- - ~. __ - __ ~
13,164
127 ~ _____________
parallax ............................... 80,81,8
precomputed altitudes ____________
89,W.141-14 Dead reckoning:
procedure--. _--------- _ - _ - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - 7_ - _ advantages _ _. __ _ ______
._ _ _ ~
27 ~ _____________
refraction .......................... 80,81,83.14 basic problems- ....................... 27,29,43
right ascension ........................... 76.7 combined with radio navigation .......... 87
selection of stars .......................... 79,9 practical examples ................... 46.133-137
183
 184 INDEX
Dead reckoning-Continued. Pal Line of Dosition: I Page
procedure. -.-. -. - . _ _ _.___.
radius of action . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _._
.
__
__
-.29,43-!
47-<
_ _
1
_ _ _ from
~ _____
from Polaris _ _ _ _ . _ . _ _ _ _
_ _unidcntifled
_.___ _ __ _ _ _ _ _
star.
~
~ O ,_
81-94
Q I_____
___..__ __ ____
relation to projection. - - ._ ~ ___.__ Z _ _Roncral.
__._ __ _ __ _ .___ 66,67,71-79,83-91
____ ~ __ ____ _______
returning to intended track _ _ _ _ _ _ 45.4_ _ _ value _ _ of _single
.__ Iinc . _ _ . _ _ __ __ __ _75.78
___ ___._
Declination: Line or position table:
magnetic ......-_ _ _ __ __ __ __
~ ._ __ 3 __ table
._ _ .. _
~ __.___._
._ _ __ _____...._____.__ 107-181 ~ ~

of a celestial body- -..- .__ _ 78,78,8 US6 _ . . _ _ _ _ ._ __ ._ _ 72,74,75,79,87,88,93

___ __ _ _ _
__._.__._-.
__ _ _ __ __ ___ ______
~
~

Depression ___.._.._____.___.___________ 123-128,13 Line squall-. - .-_ __._ ___._ .-. 130
Deviation, compass _ . _ _ . .____..
___ 29,3%38.42,4
__ Low pressure arra _ . . _ _ _ - _ 121,123-137,
__._ 132
______
._._._..___..___.___--.---.-.---.-
~

Dew point 128,12

Dividers, spacina. . _ _ . _ _ _ _ 22,23,133,13
_____ Magnetic:
_._-___
Double drift method- _ _ _ . _ _.__._ . 155-15 course. ________
- - __._ 29,33-35 _____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
____ ______ ___ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~
~ ~

Drift. . _ _ _.- _.___ ___ _ _ .- . 38-4 declination. _ _ _ _

~ ~
____...
~
__ .~ _~_ .. ._ . 2.3
~
_ ~ ~ ~

Drift angle:
correcting for ....-_ _ _ .__._
checkinc in flight _ . _ . _ _ _ _
__ 40,42,152-15
_
41,156,15
______.___._
____
deffnitiori_._..._____.___. _ _ _ _ _ _4_ _ _ _ _ _ - _ . _
rectifying for _ _ _ _ _ _ ._.___
__._ 43,44,15
~

_ _ _ _ .compared with charts. -

weather.. .-..-- _ __
____
- .--
._ __
_.-_
_
_
___.
116,120-123.132
.__
1,2
___
____ ~ ~

__ __ _ _ __ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _____
~

Ecliptic- _ _ _.._ _.--. . _ ._ _ _ _ _ . _ Mercator

76,77,9 ._.
_ _ _ r)roiection:
Elevations ..... -.- _.__ 9-13.5 uit'asurenient of c o i t r w . . ....-..-....-.. - - 18
Equinox, vernal
.- .- __.__
_ _ _ _ _ _ ____ ____ __________ _____
76,7 measurenitmt of tlistnncvs......-........ la __
Equisignal zone. - -. - - - .--.
~. __._
Examples _ _ .20,21,23.47-51.85,86,91-96,
____
__
52-5 ___________
140-14 Me temology:
not suited for radio navigation .... .. ..___
~

18
alrway weather service. _ _ _ _ 113-119 _ _ .132 ..___
Fix .____._..__________.___________ 27,29,45,63,73-7: broadcasts __.____..._...._... 15.ll6.127.lZi~131 ~~~

Fix, running..-. .~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

64,80,9 fore
weather maps
~ ~

116,120-123,132
-119
___________ ______
Fog.. - __..__ 128,12!
~

______.__
Folding the charts
~

____
_..___ --.
.___.
____
23-21 _________ __
weather __
reports. _ _
Mileage along the plottcd route
_ _ __ __ __ __ _ ._
114,115,132
__---
._ _ _ __
21. -
___
__.___
_______
Forms for computation (celestial naviga- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _________
~

tion).---. _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _81-83,9! Morse code ...- _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _

14,164
_ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _____ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
~

_.______._-.---------
Frost 122-12: Nautical Almanac . _ _ _ _ _ _ 73,78,98-112
~ ~

__________________________
~

Globe, celestial.. . _ _ ______ ______ ____

_____ 9( _ Nautical
.___
Navigation:
mile _ _ - _ _ _ 18 ~

Onomonic projection . _ _ _ _ _ _
Gradient tints ____...___..__..____----.--..-
2,17,28,2!
_ _ _ _conditions _.._
(t12,5! Night effect.. - -.-
_____
affecting
- - _ _ _56,613
1 ______________ ________
___________________ ____ ~

Oreat-circlc chart of the United States-. 2,17,28,2! Night flying charts 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Notices to Airmen ...._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _13,15
~

Great circles: ____-____

approxirnstc...-. 27,Z
exact. -. .-- __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
- _ _.-- ._____ __ _ . _ _ _ Z _Obstructions.
_ _ _ _ _- - _ . _ 15 _________________________________
Greek alphahet
Oround speed:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - -9;
~ - - Occlusion
~
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 123,126____ ____ ~ ~

definition .__..__..._.________-----.....--- 3s Parallax . _._ _____ ___________

______ _______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ ___ __ _______________
80,81, S?
determination in Bight.
graphic determination
_______
23,01,155-16( Percentage velocities.
.-39-41
_ .-
_ __
___.. - _ 145-147 ~
~

Pilot balloons-. _ . _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _114

-.....- _______ ~ ~

Piloting:
Heading: definition _ . _ . _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ 19 _ . _ _ _ _
compass
definition _.__
______
._ ___ ____ _ _ _29,38-43,6C ____
_ _ _ _ . ~xamples....-...-..-.-...-.--------.~~~
... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
29.38.4:
. , ~ importance.-. .____ ._ -- ~ _ _ . 27
16-23
___._ ____ _ _ ___
~

magnetic-. _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ 43,44
___ procedure-
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .. -_ -- _ -. -_ -- _ ._-- _19-_ _ _ _ _
true. -.. _ _..___
_ _ _ _ ______________
____ _ _ _ _ _ _
. _ - 43,44
__. steering a r a o w -.---..--- - - - - - - - 20 _21 ____._
Hei h t of eye .____
Hi& pressure area. _ _ _ . _ _ _ _
_ _
~

_ __ __ __ _
121,126,127
___.
80_ _use ._
_ _...
Planets
of magnetic
._.-.._._--
~

_ - _compass
_
_ _ ..... _ _ _
_ _ - - - ---- --- --._
.- .. _
19,21,33:36
--
__
79,97,98
_ ._
~

__
Highways: prominent versus secondary .....-
~ ~

8 Planning chart:
Horizontal oarallax..- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ ___ ______
__. 81 See Chnrts, aeronautical.
n o n r angle! Plotting positions-.. ..--. ._- . _ _~.~ __ __ __ _. _ _
18,140
_ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
local...
Greenwich. - __ ___ ________
..-. 76,77,86,95 Position, line of .____.__.-.
76,77,85,86,93-96 Precipitation.-. . . _ _ _ _
__._
__ __
66, 67,71-79,8344
__
____
._ 122,123
__ __ _ 125
_ _ __

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ______
~ ~ ~ ~
~

Precomputed altitudes . _ _ _ . . _ 89,90,

__ 341-144
__
1r.e formation-..- ______. ~ .___ __ _ _
115 _ __
131 _Pressure,
___ _ _atmospheric.
_ ~ ..___ 121,127 ~

Identification of stars and planets ...-79,Ol-94, dB-OR Prohibited areas_ _ _ _ _ ._ _ _ _ _ _ 14,16

___.___
________ _ _ _ _ _ __
~ ~

Indrx error.. . .______ __.___ 80 _ Projections:

._ ~

Instrument flying: gnomonic ._._..___..___._ _ _ _ .2 _ 17_ 28_ 29 _ _ _ _

regulations. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______
.--
safe altitude. _ _ _ . _ . _ _ _
~.- ._.. 57,6i
_____ ____
11,12,58,59
Lambert conformal...17,2733,62,63-6k, 135, i37
Mercator
_ __ . _ _ _ . __ ~ ~__ __ ._ __ __ IS
_ __ __
___
~

Intercept _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ 74,75,70,83 _ _ _ _ Protractor _ _ _. _ _ ___ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ _18,17,32,63

_ _ _ _- _ _ _ .__-_ ~

Inversion, temperature.-. _ _ _ _ _ 128,129,131 Publications 13, f5,165,166,182

Isobars. __ _.___ ____________ ______ ____
_.__
120,121,126,127
___. __ .______ ____-_____
~

Isogonic lines--..
~

_____
. _ _ _-_ _16,17,33,34_ _ _ _Quadrant __ identification 16,5451 ______.___ ________ ~ ~

Lambert ronformal projection: Radio Aids, Tabulation of 55,166 ___________________

advantupes in dead reckoning _______
17,27,28,31 Radio navieatton:
____ ____________.____
~ ~

convergence of meridians. 16.17,31-33,65,66, 137 advantages.. _ _ . _

_ .
_ __ _ _ _ 52,71
_____
______ _____
~

further data availahle. .-.- 28 airport radio range stations .__ 65_
_.__
____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
~
~

measurement of bearines. -. - _.--

_ .29-33.63-65 bearings ..._._ 28.52,63-06,137
____ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _
~

measurement of course<-. .-'29-33

scale properties __._
the use of compass roses.
__________
17,1&28__ ____ ____
_ _ _ _ _ _______
______
16 17,139,140 _ _ :--
~

use in celestial navigation .-7.576

______.___________
~

use In radio navigation. 62-66

Landmarks :
cultural.
exaggerated scale
~.- _________________
~

_ _ ___ - - __ ___________
19-21,134
-- 9 _____ - __
___________________________
~ ~

interpretation.
natural _____________________ _________
6,20
19,20.134
___________________________ ~

_____________
steering a range 20,21
value _____________________________
topographlc _____________ _________
~
20,21
~

19,ZO
~

~
 INDEX 185
Radio navigation-Continued. Pagc Page
radio direction flnder statlons _ . _ _ _ _ 15 _Telrtypr..
_ _ _. _._ _ ._ ___-----...- 114-116
----_.~~..
16 63,64 137 13C Temperature.. ........__.-..____.__. ..__._ ..128-131
radio direction finding charts.. .- ’ 65,66,’139,’14Y Temperature inversion. __._____.__... -...-. 128-131
radio line of position ....._._.____.. 63, M,67,7.‘ Thunder storms..__.______._.-____.. 129,130
radio Varker beacon .....___ ..___. 15,&, fil, 6: Time:
~

radio range system ._____.___....__ 15,5242,13; civil .....______ .--...-._ ___.__

__ 83,84,94.95
__. ~

reciprocal bearings. ......-..17 30 65,66,139,14( sidereal ....____._......____--.----- 90,94-96

returnine to intended track _._. !--! ___.... 4fi,4( Time diagram _...__._. ..._..._.____.____. 86.93,05
~

ultra-high frequencies.._.__.._.. ....... Time intrrvals along thr plotted route ___.._._
15.56,6: 22,23
______
weather reports.._.___.._.... 15,114-116.131,13: Time-Speed-Distance problems _._ ..- 150,1.51 __
wind effect. ....__...__..._..___-----.. 55,137-X Timed flight ___... -._...__ ____
_.__.___ _._. 22,23
Radius of artion _._.....___...__....______ 47-51,16: Track:
Railroads, sparing of crossties _._.__..___...___ i comparison with course _.___
dpfinition ._...___._....__________
. _30_____
______
39,42
Ranees in piloting.._._______...__._..________ 20.21
Rectifying- drparture from cnurse .__...______._.__ 30.35.37
compass heading .._.___.___...____________ 42 plotting on the chart-. __._....._____ .... 44.45
definition- .._........._____.__-.-----.---- 42 returning to. _ _ . --.
. -. _ _ _45,46 _________
.____._
~

magnetic heading ._.______......____.--.-- 43,44 Triangle, astronomical ___. .-_ _._ .-- _..._.... 77,79
.
true heading ..___..___...___.._..--.---.-- 43,44 Triangle ot velocities. 40,41,45-51,__________
134,135
Refraction ..........__.._..._____-..-.--....-- 80-83 True course:
Regional charts .._.__..-.-----.-._ 2,4,18,23.134,137 drflnition ____
_____..______.____ 29,30,42
Relief.._...._._..___._______--.-----..------- 9-12 d(stermination from the chart.---. 29-33,133,134
Rhumh line .....__.._____._.__.___-..-------- 31 plotting on tho chart ______________
44,45,136,137
Right ascension. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7677
~ _ _ _ _ _ ______
.__ Truc
.._
~
heading
_ ._____.___.._______ 43.44
Route books .__..__..._..._.____--..---------- 25,2C Turbulence . _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ 130,131
_______

Scale: Variation, magnetic.- - _________________

16,33-37,42
control charts .___._._.____._._____________ 2 Vernal equinox _ - . _ - - - - _ ~ _ - -76.77 ---_____
__ ______ - __ - __ __ ___ ______ _____ __
exaggeration.. ....._..___. ... _.._ 1,Q
great-cirrlo charts .._......._.__ . _ _ _ _2_Water. _ _---._
__ -- -- - - - - 6.7
______ ______
~ ~ ~

radio direction finding charts ~2 Weather:

regional charts ...__....__.....____________ 2 airplane observations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 115_ _ _ _ _
rrpresentative fraction.-. -.. _ _ . _ _17,lli _.__ airway
__ weather
_ _ service
broadcasts .-.-
_ _.___ _______
113-119 132
spctional charts ...._...____........_______ 1 __.__. 15,11~116,127,128,131: 132
_______
~

cloud types.. ___.__ 117-110,129

_____..__
)hic (latitude and longitude) ..--... 18 forecasts ___._.___.__..._____- 116,119
;... __....._.-.__._...._.---. __.._- 17,18
~
interpretation of weather map. _ _ ..- _ 120-132
__.
il miles ___._.___....________ ___ 18_ . reports_ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ -_ __ _ 114,115
..._
-- _ __
___.
.. . _
____
~

- 114,115
~ ~

ststUte miles.. - ..-.-- - -...-._ .- -....- 17 upper air _ _ _ . _.__._.._----_.

_---__ ~ .__
Sectional charts ______.___.___._..._._.__ 1-3,6-18,23 weather maus-.. ___.__...______ 116.120-123.132
Semidiameter ..._........____.._._._..--.---- 80,83 Wind:
Sidereal timc, Oreenwich ..................... 94-96 Beaufort seal@- - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____.._
~ _ _ _ 120,163 ~ __
Site numbers- ..__..__......__..._____----.. 14 correction angle---_... ___ 4_ M 2_69 _
152-159
._.
Small-scalc control charts __._. .___ ~

Soaring .......................................
__2.23.28,31
____
131
~~

determination in flight ....-..- 44,69:70:

double drift method _ _ _ _ _ . _156-157
155-160
___.____
Spacing dividers_..._..___..____....__ 22,23,133,134 drift angle_ _ _ _ _ _40,41,69,70,152-159
_______._.._
Star altitude curves.. ._____.___....____.----. 80 effect ....._._._-_______.. 28.3&42.67-70.152-159
Stars:
magnitude _..___ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ ___________ _ _ _ _ _
identification.__.__ ~ 79,91-94,96-98
_._ 97
parallax. _._. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
selection_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _79,91
81
_______________________
Symbols:
- ___ __ __ ___ __
aeronautical . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 12-16
__________________
meteorological- - - - - -.- - ----
________ __________
116-1 19
topographic. - - ._______ ~ 6-12

33573-3913
 PUBLICATION N OTICES

To make immediately available the results of its various

activities to those interested, the Coast and Geodetic Survey
maintains mailing lists of persons and firms desiring to
receive notice of the issuance of charts, Coast Pilots, maps,
and other publications.
Should you desire to receive such notices, you may use
the form given below, checking the lists covering the sub-
jects in which you are interested.

(Date)- - - - - - _ _ - - _ _ _ _ _ - - - _ _ ___
_ _ -_ _ _ _
DIRECTOR, UNITEDSTATES COAST AND GEODETIC SUR~EY,
Washington, D.C.
DEARSIR:I desire that my name be placed in the mailing
lists indicated by check below, to receive notification of the
issuance of publications referring to the subjects indicated:
0 109. Astronomical work.
0 109-A. Base lines.
Y
109-B. Coast Pilots.
2 0 109-C. Currents.
m
c
.( 0 109-D. Geodesy.
6 0 109-E. Gravity.
a 0 109-F. Hydrography.
0 109-G. Levelin ,
h

0 109-1. Oceanography.
3
1 0 9 4 . Traverse.
0 109-K. Seismolo .
0 109-L. Terrestria giy magnetism.
0 109-M. Tides.
0 109-N. Topography.
0 109-0. Triangulation.
0 109-P. Cartography.
0 109-R. Aeronautical charts.
CName)-------------_----------------
(,4ddress) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
A catalog of the publications issued by all bureaus of the
Department of Commerce may b e had upon application to
the Chief, Division of Publications, Department of Com-
merce, Washington, D. C. I t also contains a list of libraries
located in various cities throu hout the United States, desig-
nated by Congress as public iepositories, where all publica-
tions printed by the Government for public distribution may
be consulted.
(7