NEBOSH NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Unit ED1: Controlling Environmental Aspects - Part 2

 NEBOSH DIPLOMA IN
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
UNIT ED1: CONTROLLING ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

Element 7: Waste Management

Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere

Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment

Element 10: Control of Environmental Noise

Element 11: Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land

Element 12: Energy Use

Contributors
John Binns, BSc (Hons), MSc, MSc, MIEMA
Richard Dalley, PhD, CBiol

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RRC: ED1.5
Fourth edition Spring 2019 Whilst the information in this book is believed to be true and accurate
at the date of going to press, neither the author nor the publisher can
accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions
that may be made.
 Contents

Element 7: Waste Management

Responsible Waste Management 7-3
Principles of Waste Minimisation and the Waste Hierarchy 7-3
Hazardous and Non-Hazardous Landfill 7-6
Importance of Responsible Waste Management 7-6
The Circular Economy 7-7
Role of Design in Reducing Waste 7-7
Steps to Responsible Waste Management 7-8
Study Questions 7-10

Benefits of Waste Management 7-11

Economic Reasons for Waste Management 7-11
Setting of Waste Aims and Objectives 7-12
Education and Training of Workers 7-12
Engagement of Authorised Waste Contractors 7-12
Study Questions 7-13

Monitoring Waste 7-14

Purpose and Benefits of Waste Monitoring 7-14
Sampling and Analysis of Solid Waste 7-14
Waste Reporting 7-15
Waste Audits 7-16
Study Questions 7-17

Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7-18

Engineering Control Measures for Solid Wastes 7-18
Landfill 7-24
Study Questions 7-29

Summary 7-30
Exam Skills 7-31
 Contents

Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere

Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-3
Types of Emission 8-3
Pollutant Impacts 8-4
Key Air Pollution Issues 8-6
National Emission Ceiling Levels 8-12
Study Questions 8-13

Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8-14

Purpose of Air Monitoring 8-14
Principles of a Monitoring Strategy 8-14
Remote Sensing 8-19
Study Questions 8-19

Control Strategies and Measures 8-20

Air Pollution Control 8-20
Particle Arrestment Devices 8-22
Gas and Vapour Devices 8-33
Study Questions 8-44

Summary 8-45
Appendix 8-46
Exam Skills 8-48
 Contents

Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water

Environment
Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9-3
Introduction 9-3
Water Pollution 9-3
Point and Diffuse Sources of Pollution 9-5
Causes and Effects of Eutrophication 9-6
Pollution Prevention 9-6
Study Questions 9-15

Monitoring of Effluent Discharges 9-16

Purpose of Effluent and Water Monitoring 9-16
Environmental Practitioner’s Role in Water Pollution Monitoring 9-17
Biotic Index 9-18
Key Monitoring Parameters 9-18
Study Questions 9-20

Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9-21

Reasons for Effluent Treatment 9-21
Sewage Treatment Works 9-22
Treating and Distributing Water 9-25
Effluent Treatment 9-27
Desalination 9-33
Study Questions 9-33

Abstraction from the Water Environment 9-34

Need for Sustainable Water Abstraction 9-34
Water Neutrality 9-34
Ways to Reduce Water Consumption 9-37
Water Stress 9-37
Study Questions 9-38

Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and Control Measures for Flooding 9-39
Consequences of Flooding 9-39
Factors when Assessing Flood Risk 9-40
Control and Mitigation of Flooding 9-40
Study Questions 9-42

Summary 9-43
Exam Skills 9-44

2-5
 Contents

Element 10: Control of Environmental Noise

Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10-3
Sources of Environmental Noise 10-3
Basic Acoustics 10-5
Measurement of Environmental Noise 10-10
Study Questions 10-12

The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise 10-13

Effects of Noise on Human Health, Local Communities and Wildlife 10-13
The Need to Control Noise from Industry and Construction 10-14
Engineering and Procedural Control Measures and Strategies 10-14
Study Questions 10-19

Summary 10-20
Exam Skills 10-21

Element 11: Hazardous Substances and Contaminated

Land
Supply, Storage and Use of Hazardous Substances 11-3
Need for Safe Supply, Storage, Use and Transportation of Hazardous Substances 11-3
Study Questions 11-6

Use of Pesticides 11-7

Pesticides and Biocides 11-7
The WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) 11-8
Study Questions 11-8

Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11-9

Definition of Contaminated Land 11-9
Environmental Aspects and Impacts Associated with Contaminated Land 11-9
The Risk to Groundwater 11-11
Land Contamination Mechanisms 11-13
Methods of Investigating Contaminated Land and Groundwater 11-14
Remediation Methods 11-20
Study Questions 11-21

Summary 11-22
Exam Skills 11-23
 Contents

Element 12: Energy Use

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12-3
Sources of Energy 12-3
Study Questions 12-12

The Need for Energy Efficiency 12-13

Carbon Footprint 12-13
Energy Efficiency: Relationship to Cost and Profit 12-14
Provision of Information Regarding Energy Efficiency 12-15
Building Design and Assessment 12-17
Product Design and Assessment 12-18
Benefits of Managing Energy Use 12-19
Barriers to Good Energy Management 12-19
Measures to Reduce Energy Consumption 12-20
Study Questions 12-25

Energy Auditing and Monitoring 12-26

Energy Auditing 12-26
Energy Monitoring 12-28
Benefits and Limitations of Energy Monitoring/Auditing 12-28
Study Questions 12-29

Summary 12-30
Exam Skills 12-31

Revision and Examination

Suggested Answers

2-7
 Introduction

Course Structure
This textbook has been designed to provide the reader with the core knowledge needed to successfully complete the
NEBOSH Diploma in Environmental Management. It follows the structure and content of the NEBOSH syllabus.

The NEBOSH Diploma in Environmental Management consists of two units of study. ED1 is assessed by a 3-hour
written examination and N/IDEM2 by an 8,000 word project. You need to pass both units to receive the NEBOSH
Diploma in Environmental Management.

Unit ED1: Controlling Environmental Aspects (Common Unit)

Element 1 Key Environmental Cycles and the Effects of Human Activity on the Environment
Element 2 Environmental Leadership
Element 3 Environmental Management Systems and Emergency Planning
Element 4 Environmental Risk Evaluation and Control
Element 5 Environmental Performance Evaluation
Element 6 Sustainability
Element 7 Waste Management
Element 8 Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere
Element 9 Managing Emissions to the Water Environment
Element 10 Control of Environmental Noise
Element 11 Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land
Element 12 Energy Use

Unit NDEM2: Environmental Regulation

Element 1 Enforcement of Environmental Legislation
Element 2 Civil Liability
Element 3 Pollution Prevention and Control Legislation

Unit IDEM2: Environmental Regulation

Element 1 Enforcement of Environmental Legislation
Element 2 Pollution Prevention and Control Multilateral Treaties

NEBOSH
UNIT ED1 UNIT N/IDEM2 Diploma in
Controlling
Environmental Regulation Environmental
Environmental Aspects
Management
 Introduction

More Information
As you work your way through this book, always remember to relate your own experiences in the workplace to the
topics you study. An appreciation of the practical application and significance of environmental health and safety will
help you understand the topics.

Keeping Yourself Up to Date

The field of environmental health and safety is constantly evolving and, as such, it will be necessary for you to keep up
to date with changing legislation and best practice.

RRC International publishes updates to all its course materials via a quarterly e-newsletter (issued in February, May,
August and November), which alerts students to key changes in legislation, best practice and other information
pertinent to current courses.

Please visit www.rrc.co.uk/news/newsletters.aspx to access these updates.

2-9
 Element 7
Waste Management

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll

understand how to:

 Explain the need for responsible waste

management.

 Describe the benefits of waste

management.

 Outline the requirements to monitor

waste.

 Outline appropriate control strategies and

measures for solid wastes.

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 Contents

Responsible Waste Management 7-3

Principles of Waste Minimisation and the Waste Hierarchy 7-3
Hazardous and Non-Hazardous Landfill 7-6
Importance of Responsible Waste Management 7-6
The Circular Economy 7-7
Role of Design in Reducing Waste 7-7
Steps to Responsible Waste Management 7-8
Study Questions 7-10

Benefits of Waste Management 7-11

Economic Reasons for Waste Management 7-11
Setting of Waste Aims and Objectives 7-12
Education and Training of Workers 7-12
Engagement of Authorised Waste Contractors 7-12
Study Questions 7-13

Monitoring Waste 7-14

Purpose and Benefits of Waste Monitoring 7-14
Sampling and Analysis of Solid Waste 7-14
Waste Reporting 7-15
Waste Audits 7-16
Study Questions 7-17

Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7-18

Engineering Control Measures for Solid Wastes 7-18
Landfill 7-24
Study Questions 7-29

Summary 7-30
Exam Skills 7-31

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 Responsible Waste Management 7.1

Responsible Waste Management

IN THIS SECTION...
• Waste prevention is the best option for managing waste.
• If this cannot be achieved then the waste hierarchy should be followed: preparing for re-use, recycling, other
recovery and disposal.
• In the European Union, landfills are classified as being for hazardous, non- hazardous or inert wastes.
• The purpose of responsible waste management surrounds raw material reduction, improvement in corporate
image, pollution minimisation, increased morale, energy reduction, reduction in cost and employment.
• Cleaner design can be defined as the design of a product to minimise its environmental impacts over its entire life
cycle.
• Effective on-site separation and storage is required to ensure that waste is managed appropriately and does not
escape from control.
• Waste should only be transferred to a waste carrier who is registered with a competent authority.

Principles of Waste Minimisation and the Waste Hierarchy

TOPIC FOCUS
The Waste Hierarchy

Source: Government Review of Waste Policy in England 2011, DEFRA, 2011

(www.gov.uk/government/publications/government-review-of-waste-policy-in-england-2011)

(Continued)

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7.1 Responsible Waste Management

TOPIC FOCUS
Using the principles outlined in the Waste Hierarchy, the preferred waste management options should be those
that enable re-use, recycling, or a recovery process, i.e. energy recovery.

Note: recovery is not normally considered to apply to landfill, even when landfill gas is recovered.

A number of methods are available for disposal of waste. To some extent, the choice of which one to use will
depend on the form of the waste, i.e. solid or liquid; its chemical properties, i.e. acidity, alkalinity, toxicity, etc.;
its physical properties, i.e. dry, dusty, sticky, sludges, etc.; and the difficulty in finding opportunities for recovery,
recycling, etc.

Within this broad definition of disposal there are numerous options, e.g. the waste may be taken to a waste
transfer station for bulking, or taken directly to a waste management site for treatment or disposal. Disposal may
be to a landfill site, a landfill site with gas recovery systems, or to an incinerator. Treatment may take a variety of
forms, e.g. chemical treatment, or a variety of other recovery options.

So, the opportunities for reduction, re-use and recycling will vary across different industries and should be
examined on a case-by-case basis.

Companies should consider the Waste Hierarchy as a first step in their waste strategy.

Prevention
The best thing that can be done to reduce the amount of waste produced is to try to prevent it from happening at
all - for example:
• Using close tolerance forging so that metal components need no machining.
• Not printing e-mails or reports in an office.

Preparing for Re-use

Consideration of the re-use of articles or materials is an important conceptual
step in any waste management programme. Re-use implies the direct use of
an article or substance without the need for treatment beyond, perhaps,
collection or cleaning. As an example, the re-use of glass milk bottles in the
UK represents a huge saving in manufacture and energy costs. Similarly, the
re-use of printed paper as rough note-paper represents a re-use scheme
offering potential savings. Indeed, after re-use the paper can be recycled.

The scope for the re-use of materials is probably most marked in the
packaging field. Several manufacturers have arranged for the outer transport
packaging element, which protects their goods in transit to their customers,
to be returned to be re-used, thus achieving savings.

Recycling Glass bottles are left out for re-use

Recycling of materials is distinct from the re-use of materials or articles, in
that recycling involves some form of treatment. The recycling of aluminium drinks cans is a good example of the
environmental advantages of recycling. The consumption of drinks in aluminium cans has increased as consumers
prefer to purchase drinks and consume them at home. A recycled can is produced using only about 5% of the energy
required to produce a can from bauxite (aluminium ore).

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 Responsible Waste Management 7.1

It is true that the environmental, energy and financial advantages are not always so clear-cut. Materials that are recycled
usually have to be collected, then treated to become a secondary raw material before they can re-enter the commercial
cycle. Collection and treatment introduces costs and environmental penalties which may outweigh any advantages.
Companies considering recycling should consider this aspect when they are planning recycling schemes, and an energy
and mass balance should be carried out before deciding on a recycling route for waste.

Waste composting is the aerobic bacterial processing of biodegradable wastes to produce a reasonably stable, granular
material, usually containing valuable plant nutrients. Composting can also be carried out anaerobically, but the process
is more expensive, although it has the advantage of recovering energy.

Other Recovery
Recovery techniques generally concern gaining energy from waste. These include:
• Incinerating waste in a waste-to-energy plant.
• Selecting certain wastes for processing into fuel.
• Burning methane produced from the decomposition of biodegradable waste, i.e. landfill gas.
• Anaerobic digestion, as in sludge, at a sewage-treatment works.
Raising energy from waste produced by the community is seen as an important option, as the increased environmental
standards demanded of landfills raise the prices for what has traditionally been seen as a relatively inexpensive option
for waste disposal. Also, the adverse long-term environmental effects of a landfill site are now better known, which has
caused a decrease in the availability of landfill sites as an option for the disposal of biodegradable materials.

Disposal
The landfilling of industrial waste is the least desirable waste management option because it uses up valuable land
resources, offers few environmental benefits to the disposing company or the disposal site, and may present future
environmental or health hazards and liabilities.

Recent advances in landfill technology have vastly improved the safety of sites, and many sites now also recover
landfill gas (which contains methane). This is an improvement over the older sites, some of which pose long-term
environmental or pollution liabilities. Landfill is also likely to become increasingly expensive as the standards of landfill
engineering, operation and statutory control become more stringent and national landfill capacity decreases.

Burying wastes, especially non-biodegradable wastes, is fundamentally unsound as toxic and harmful residues may leach
back into the environment in the future. There is, therefore, strong national and international backing for introducing
taxes or levies to discourage disposal to landfill and encourage waste reduction, re-use and recycling.

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7.1 Responsible Waste Management

TOPIC FOCUS
There are many reasons why producers of waste are looking at reducing the use of landfill as a disposal
route, including:
• Climate-change impacts such as methane emissions from the breakdown of waste and carbon dioxide
emitted from transportation and other activities.
• Health and safety implications of explosive and flammable landfill gas.
• Water and groundwater pollution from the production of leachate.
• Placing resources underground that could be re-used, recovered or recycled.
• Land take for landfill sites, including restriction on the activities the land can be used for following closure
of the site.
• Restriction on development of the land due to health, safety and environmental concerns for buildings
that are in the vicinity of landfill sites.
• Concerns of local communities and impacts on organisations of lobbying by environmental groups.
• Increased cost due to landfill tax and stricter regulatory control.
• Greater transport distances due to pattern of fewer larger sites.
• New sites development being restricted due to planning permission.
• Management system requirements such as ISO 14001, meaning that other options for wastes need to be
considered, e.g. re-use, recovery, recycling, and other disposal methods.
• Waste for landfill must be subject to pre-treatment.

Hazardous and Non-Hazardous Landfill

In the European Union, landfills are classified as being for hazardous, non-hazardous or inert wastes. The number of
hazardous waste sites is few, and disposal to them is expensive. So, there is a much greater incentive in the correct
classification and separation of hazardous wastes by producers. Legal requirements also state that some level of pre-
treatment to waste must be undertaken prior to going to a landfill for final disposal. The thinking behind this involves a
move away from the co-disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous waste and the progressive diversion of biodegradable
waste away from landfills.

Importance of Responsible Waste Management

The purpose of responsible waste management surrounds:
• Raw material reduction - if more waste is recycled then fewer raw materials need to be extracted, with a
subsequent reduction in environmental impacts.
• Corporate image - communicating good waste management practices in corporate reports and by other means
is good for an organisation’s image and will help improve the reputation of the organisation, both internally and
externally.
• Pollution minimisation - effective waste management practices will result in less pollution, as extra raw materials
do not have to be extracted and processed and the product is not disposed of to landfill. Less pollution will also
result from waste storage and handling.
• Morale - waste minimisation schemes require the participation of the workforce, which should provide them with
a sense of pride that the organisation is improving its environmental performance.

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 Responsible Waste Management 7.1

• Energy reduction - waste minimisation saves energy and associated economic and environmental costs. Many
metals require much less energy to recycle in comparison to being produced from ore. Reductions in energy will
also result in minimisation of air pollutants from energy generation.
• Cost - recycling is generally a more cost-effective way of dealing with waste. Money can be gained for sending
waste for recycling, in addition to not having to pay waste taxes.
• Employment - recycling and other waste management techniques create jobs in the collection and processing of
wastes.

The Circular Economy

As we considered in Element 4, a circular economy can be defined as an economy where resources are retained in use
for as long as possible. During use the maximum value of the product is extracted and when the product comes to
the end of its life then as much material as possible is recovered. Such recovered materials can be used to make new
products.

A circular economy differs from a linear economy, where the raw materials for a product are extracted, the product is
manufactured and then used. When the product comes to the end of its use phase it is disposed of either by landfill or
incineration without energy recovery. Responsible waste management therefore plays a key role in the achievement of
a circular economy.

Role of Design in Reducing Waste

Cleaner design can be defined as the design of a product to minimise its environmental impacts over its entire life cycle.

Cleaner design involves initially determining how a product impacts on the environment during its life cycle (raw
materials, manufacturing, transportation, use and end of life) and then determining how these impacts could be
reduced through better design. A product’s impact on the environment can be established by looking at the following:
• Reduced raw material use.
• Elimination of hazardous materials.
• Reduced use of energy and water.
• Less pollution and waste.
• Increased service life.
• Greater potential for recycling.
Clearly the above actions will result in less waste or greater potential for waste to be minimised by techniques that are
nearer the top of the waste hierarchy. Waste could be better managed at all stages in the life cycle of the product.

Clean design should be achieved without affecting the efficiency, performance

or quality of the product. The process of cleaner design involves undertaking
four activities:

1. Researching the product.

2. Identifying cleaner design priorities.

3. Designing the cleaner product.

4. Design review.

The process can be used to design a totally new product or redesign an

existing product.

Designing the cleaner product

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7.1 Responsible Waste Management

The benefits of cleaner design are many and can include:

• Lower production costs.
• Improved product function and quality.
• Increased market share.
• Improved environmental performance.
• Improved relationships with customers and suppliers.
• Continued compliance with legislation.
• Easier disassembly and increased potential for recycling.
• Longer product design life.

Steps to Responsible Waste Management

On-Site Separation and Storage including Segregation, Identification and
Labelling
Good waste management starts at the very beginning of the process. Once different waste products are mixed it
becomes increasingly difficult, and therefore expensive, to separate them later. Different wastes require different
storage containers and it is important that the right container is used for the right waste. For example:
• Heavy cardboard can be stored in a container that is open, although it should be under cover to prevent the
cardboard getting wet.
• Paper, especially shredded paper, requires a closed skip as it is easily blown away.

TOPIC FOCUS
On-Site Separation and Storage

To ensure that waste is managed appropriately and does not escape from control, the following is required:
• Prevention of:
–– Corrosion or wear of containers.
–– Accidental spills or leakages.
–– Breach of containment by weather.
–– Blowing away or falling from vehicles or storage.
–– Scavenging by vandals, thieves, children, trespassers or animals.
• Protection of waste while it is held (cover skips, store liquids in bunded enclosures).
• Ensuring that waste reaches the next holder intact. (If the next stage is a waste transfer station, it will be
sorted and mixed so that excessive packaging is not needed.)
• Segregating incompatible wastes (preventing cross-contamination of waste).
• Ensuring security (secure against waste attractive to scavengers, e.g. building materials). Waste left for
collection should be adequately secured and left for a minimum of time.
• Labelling waste where appropriate and in accordance with the hazardous substance legislation.

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 Responsible Waste Management 7.1

Transportation

TOPIC FOCUS
Transportation of Waste

Transportation is also strictly controlled. In particular, it often requires documentation that follows the waste
from the point of production to final disposal, recycling or re-use. Although rules vary in countries around the
world, in the EU waste holders should ensure that:
• Waste is transferred only to a waste carrier, who must be registered with a competent authority.
• Carriers are fit and suitable to handle and dispose of the waste. The holder/producer ultimately remains
responsible for the fate of the waste so if, for example, it is taken by a carrier and fly-tipped, it will be the
holder’s/producer’s task to persuade a court of law that he acted within the Member State’s law that
implements the relevant parts of the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC.
When transporting waste internationally, the requirements of the Basel Convention should often be
considered. In the EU, this is implemented through Regulation (EC) 1013/2006, the requirements of which
include:
• Hazardous waste for recovery is not permitted to be exported to non-OECD (Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development) countries.
• Non-hazardous waste for recovery can be freely traded between EU Member States and OECD countries.
It is subject to controls stated in the Regulation.
• Hazardous waste shipped for recovery between emerging states and OECD countries must have prior
written notification from the competent authority of despatch, destination and transit and their consent
prior to shipment beginning.
• Possible controls for non-OECD countries, which include prohibition, prior written notification and
consent (these are set out separately in Regulation 1418/2007).

In the UK, regulatory waste documentation is required when waste is removed from a site (the systems used in other
countries may be different, but share similar principles). For general waste, this takes the form of written information,
which must describe the waste, the current holder and the person collecting the waste. This must be retained for two
years. In a similar manner, a consignment note is required for hazardous waste, which:
• Describes the:
DEFINITIONS
–– Nature of the waste.
–– Process producing the waste. CONSIGNOR
• Includes the six-figure code from the EU List of Wastes. The person producing the
• Remains with the waste until point of final disposal, being further waste and causing it to be
completed by each waste carrier in the chain of custody. removed from the premises.
Consignors and carriers of hazardous wastes must keep a register of the CONSIGNEE
consignment note copies for three years; consignees of the waste must keep
all such consignment note copies until they surrender the licence for the The person receiving the waste
disposal site they manage. for treatment or disposal.

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7.1 Responsible Waste Management

Disposal
Disposal must be to a permitted landfill site or other point of final disposal, such as an incinerator or treatment works.
It is important that you understand where waste is being taken for disposal and ensure the carrier is registered with a
competent authority (if required by law in the country of transfer) to take the waste you produce.

Differing Requirements for Waste

You should be aware that the requirements for managing domestic, commercial and industrial waste can differ in many
countries. Across the European Union, however, Member States’ arrangements will share some similarities, as they
have been designed to comply with the Waste Framework Directive. A good knowledge of a country’s environmental
legislation is required in order to effectively manage waste in that country.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Identify the waste hierarchy.

2. List the environmental issues that may be considered in clean design.

3. Outline the ways in which waste can be prevented from escaping.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Benefits of Waste Management 7.2

Benefits of Waste Management

IN THIS SECTION...
• An effective system of waste management can bring many economic benefits to an organisation.
• The setting of waste objectives may be a requirement of an organisation's EMS.
• There are often specific duties on producers of waste to ensure that wastes are only transferred to persons who
are registered to accept or transport the particular types and quantities of waste involved.
• An effective waste management strategy will usually have a significant level of involvement of employees at an
organisation who will need to understand the importance of minimising waste.

Economic Reasons for Waste Management

An effective system of waste management can bring many economic benefits to an organisation. Although the cost of
landfilling waste has traditionally been low, in recent years this has increased due to more stringent engineering and
permitting requirements for landfill sites. Modern landfill sites also tend to be large and often located a considerable
distance away from waste producers, meaning an increase in transportation costs which contributes significantly to the
total cost for the disposal of waste.

Economic instruments have also been developed by governments to make

disposal of waste to landfill less palatable. In the UK, for example, the Finance
Act 1996 introduced the Landfill Tax (LFT) with the aim of reducing the
volume of waste going to landfill and making alternative options of waste
disposal more financially viable. (The Landfill Tax Regulations 1996 actually
regulate the Landfill Tax and HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) collect it on
behalf of the Government.) Landfill tax for active waste such as food waste,
agricultural waste and packaging waste is charged at a much higher rate than
for inert waste such as ash, furnace slags or waste clay, sand and gravel.

Recycling is a much more cost-effective way of dealing with waste. As we saw

earlier, money can be gained from not sending waste to landfill as well as not
having to pay landfill tax.

We should also not forget that good waste management practices may also Landfill Tax to reduce the volume of
have economic benefits from: waste going to landfill

• the reduction in raw materials use;

• improved corporate image;
• less chance of prosecution;
• improved health and safety standards; and
• increased employment opportunities.
It is safe to say, therefore, that good waste management practices will have a significant economic benefit to organisations
who operate them.

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7.2 Benefits of Waste Management

Setting of Waste Aims and Objectives

The setting of waste objectives may be a requirement of an organisation's EMS. Much of what was discussed for the
setting of EMS objectives in Element 3 would apply to waste where it is a significant issue, such that an aim to manage
waste effectively may be stated in an environmental policy. One or more high-level objectives (usually not quantified)
could then be developed to implement this policy aim, followed by one or more low-level objectives or targets to
implement the high-level objectives. Such low-level objectives are usually specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and
time-bound (SMART). An action plan regarding waste management could then be developed to implement each low-
level objective.

The aims and objectives set by an organisation will vary due to differing activities and resultant waste streams. Common
areas for waste objectives to be set surround:
• Waste minimisation.
• Waste recovery rates.
• Amount of waste diverted from landfill/incineration.

Education and Training of Workers

As an effective waste management strategy will usually have a significant level of involvement of employees at an
organisation, it is important that a strategy is present to ensure that employees are trained and educated in the
importance of waste minimisation. The contents of such training will vary based on the activities of the organisation
but may include coverage of the following beneficial issues associated with waste minimisation:
• Raw material reduction.
• Corporate image.
• Pollution minimisation.
• Morale.
• Energy reduction.
• Cost.
• Employment.
• Legal compliance.
Waste minimisation training could be managed through the system to control competence in the Support section of
an ISO 14001:2015 EMS.

Engagement of Authorised Waste Contractors

As we saw earlier, there are often specific duties on producers of waste to ensure that wastes are only transferred to
persons who are registered to accept or transport the particular types and quantities of waste involved. To fulfil this
duty, it is not sufficient simply to ask the transporter if he/she is registered to transport and dispose of that type and
quantity of waste.
• It is often a requirement to see the actual registrations held by the transporters and disposers of the waste.
Registrations to transport waste can be time-limited, so regular checking should be part of the waste producer’s
duties.
• Similarly, some waste producers arrange to follow the trucks of the waste transporters to the disposal site.
The waste producer must ensure the proper and safe disposal of waste, even after it has been passed on to another
party, such as a waste contractor, recycler, or local authority.

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 Benefits of Waste Management 7.2

STUDY QUESTIONS
4. Identify the reasons as to why waste minimisation is beneficial.

5. Outline how an organisation can ensure that it is using competent waste contractors.
(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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7.3 Monitoring Waste

Monitoring Waste

IN THIS SECTION...
• Waste monitoring may be required for many reasons such as compliance with an integrated environmental permit
or ISO 14001 compliance.
• Monitoring in the form of sampling is often used to screen waste prior to acceptance at a waste management
facility.
• It must be ensured that a waste sample is representative of the waste and has been gained by a technically
competent person.
• Waste reporting involves the output of the process of organising waste data into useful summaries in order to
monitor how the organisation’s informal or formal waste management strategy is performing.
• A waste audit analyses an organisation's waste streams in order to identify the types of waste generated, the
source of such wastes, the composition of the waste and the volume or weight of waste that is recycled, recovered
or discarded.

Purpose and Benefits of Waste Monitoring

Waste monitoring may be required for many reasons such as compliance
with an integrated permit. In such situations, it is often the best available
technique to monitor:
• the physical and chemical composition of the waste;
• its hazard characteristics; and
• handling precautions and substances with which it cannot be mixed.
Many organisations will set objectives for waste management within their
ISO 14001 EMS and as such there will be a need to monitor waste types and
quantities to determine compliance with such objectives.

Monitoring in the form of sampling is also often used to screen waste

prior to acceptance at a waste management facility. Failure to screen waste
samples adequately prior to acceptance at a facility has, in the past, led to Monitoring waste can be of benefit
problems such as inappropriate storage, mixing of incompatible substances, to the organisation
accumulation of wastes and unexpected treatment characteristics.

Adequate sampling and analysis must be carried out to characterise wastes. In all cases the number of samples taken
must be based on an assessment of the risks of potential problems. Sampling regimes do not always have to include
sampling of every receptacle.

Sampling and Analysis of Solid Waste

In some instances, physical sampling will always be required, e.g. in the case of gas cylinders or scrap batteries. In other
cases, such as drummed wastes, large numbers of samples will be required so the waste can be characterised and, most
likely, all containers will need to be sampled. The sampling of process wastes must take account of the variability of the
process, and several samples may be required to characterise the waste.

It must be ensured that the sample is representative of the waste and has been gained by a technically competent
person with knowledge, skill and experience of the sampling process.

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 Monitoring Waste 7.3

The following information would be gained to indicate sample reliability:

• Location of sampling point, e.g. waste skip.
• Capacity of vessel sampled.
• Method of sampling, e.g. sampling tap (mid flow), “top” sample.
• Number of samples and degree of consolidation.
• Operating conditions at the time.
• Preservation techniques.
Samples must be clearly labelled and any hazard identified. Sample tracking systems within a site should be present and
auditable.

Analysis must be undertaken by a laboratory with a good quality assurance and quality control system. Analysis required
will be based on the nature of the waste, the process to be used and what is understood about the waste already.
Parameters analysed may include:
• Check on constituents declared by waste producer/holder to ensure permit compliance, treatment plant
specification and final disposal.
• All hazardous characteristics.
• Physical appearance.
• Colour.
• Presence of oxidants.
• Acidity and alkalinity (pH).
• Ammonia.
• Flashpoint.
• Presence of sulphide.
• Presence of cyanide.
• Priority substances (stated in Directive 2008/105/EC).
• Additional substances of environmental significance.

Waste Reporting
Reporting involves the output of the process of organising waste data into useful summaries in order to monitor how
the organisation’s informal or formal waste management strategy is performing.

Reporting may be from various sources. It is generally attempting to turn raw data into information, as can be seen in
the diagram below:

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7.3 Monitoring Waste

Following reporting the next stage is analysing reports. This can be seen as being a process by which reports are explored
in order to gain insights that can be used to improve waste management within the organisation. The key purpose of
analysis is to interpret reports and develop actionable recommendations.

A waste report will identify what is occurring within the organisation, whereas analysis concentrates on why it is
occurring and what can be done about it. Reporting can be seen as being information that is pushed to the organisation
whereas analysis is where the organisation pulls meaning from the reports.

Following recommendation in the analysis phase, a decision must be made on where to proceed with the recommendation.
This may be known as an ‘action’; when actions are implemented they will provide value to the organisation.

The process of monitoring waste should be included in the operation of the organisation's EMS. You might remember
that as part of ISO 14001 an organisation’s environmental performance must be monitored, measured, analysed and
evaluated, namely:
• What should be monitored and measured.
• The methods for monitoring, measuring, analysing and evaluating.
• What criteria the organisation’s performance is compared against.
• The frequency of monitoring.
• When monitoring results should be analysed and evaluated.
What needs to be monitored and measured is largely the decision of the organisation but will be heavily influenced by
legal and other requirements.

Waste Audits
A waste audit analyses an organisation's waste streams in order to identify the types of waste generated, the source of
such wastes, the composition of the waste and the volume or weight of waste that is recycled, recovered or discarded.
Such information will be useful in determining options to prevent and reduce waste.

By conducting a waste audit an organisation will be in a position to improve process efficiencies by considering
alternative options for waste that are further up the waste hierarchy if financially and technologically feasible. This will
enable the organisation to:
• reduce direct air, water and land pollution;
• reduce resource use;
• reduce its carbon footprint; and
• make significant cost savings.
The undertaking of a waste audit may be integrated into a wider resource efficiency scheme which would consider
resources (energy, water and raw materials) in addition to waste. Such a scheme would involve:

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 Monitoring Waste 7.3

Step 1 - Assessing scope for savings. Determining the potential for savings by estimating resource costs.

Step 2 - Gaining management Gaining support of management is key; this will allow the scheme
commitment. to be fully implemented and operated.

Step 3 - Mapping of activities/processes. Enabling a good understanding of what actually goes on at the
business and a more detailed estimate of where savings can be
made. To create a process map, a flow diagram of the activities that
occur at an organisation should be developed - from where the raw
material enters the site, to where the final product leaves.

Step 4 - Quantifying and cost Considering purchasing records for raw materials and bills, etc. such
determination. as:
• Production data.
• Electricity and gas invoices.
• Water and effluent invoices.
• Waste transfer written information.
• Raw material invoices.
• Stock information.
• Meter readings.
The true cost of waste should be determined (hidden waste costs
can include treatment, abatement costs, staff time, PPE, monitoring
costs, additional utility costs, etc.).

Step 5 - Understanding and generating Considering how to reduce inefficient use of resources or waste
options. production. Brainstorming with staff is useful.

Step 6 - Opportunity assessment. Determining whether the improvements are technically or

economically feasible.

STUDY QUESTIONS
6. What waste constituents should be monitored as part of an integrated environmental permit?

7. Identify the waste parameters that should be analysed by a competent person.

8. Outline the six steps of a resource efficiency scheme.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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7.4 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes

Control Strategies for Solid Wastes

IN THIS SECTION...
• Waste incineration is strictly controlled by the application of operational conditions, technical requirements and
emission limit values.
• Pyrolysis, gasification and plasma arc technologies in a similar way to incineration use high temperatures to break
down waste in the absence of air or with limited amounts of air.
• Mechanical biological treatment plants involve the sorting, screening and treatment of waste materials.
• Composting is a means of biologically treating waste by aerobic means.
• Landfill sites are strictly controlled with regard to their location and control of water.
• Site management controls for landfill include those to control nuisance, access control, and landfill gas.

Engineering Control Measures for Solid Wastes

Introduction to Engineering Control Measures
Although there are many engineering controls to eliminate, treat or render
waste harmless, it is beyond the scope of this course to identify and describe
them all. However, below is a description of three technologies used to treat
waste at source, although these techniques may be used to treat waste away
from source as well.

Both solid and liquid wastes can be treated by using a variety of techniques,
which can be classified into three areas:
• Chemical treatment techniques - using a chemical substance to
change the character of the waste in some way.
• Physical - sorted and segregated, by hand or machine, to ensure
recycling, recovery or treatment of the resultant waste streams.
• Biological - using microorganisms to change the waste’s constituents/
Waste treatment centre
character.

Incineration
Incinerators are used for a variety of purposes. Applications include destruction of:
• Domestic waste, commercial waste and certain industrial wastes.
• Liquid industrial waste, e.g. oils and solvents.
• Sewage sludge.
• Clinical waste.
• Animal carcasses, etc.
Incineration is a process requiring an installation permit. There are very tight monitoring requirements set by the
permit. In the UK, for example, the following emission limit values apply to incinerators:

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 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7.4

Substance mg/Nm3* or mg (Nm3) -1 Standard Requirement

HC1 30
HF 2
SO2 300
NOx 350
Particulates 30
Carbon (excluding particulates) 20
CO 100
T(4)CDD** 1 ng/Nm3
T(4)CDF*** 1 ng/Nm3
Hg 0.1
Cd and Ti 0.1
As and Ni 1.0

*Nm3 refers to standard conditions: 273K, 1,013mb (101.3kPa), 11% O2 and dry gas.

**T(4)CDD = tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxins.

***T(4)CDF = tetrachlorodibenzofurans.

The economics of incineration has been affected by a number of factors - for example:
• Increase in the cost of landfill disposal.
• Economic instruments, e.g. in the UK the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (energy from waste incinerators is classified
as a renewable energy source and therefore receives a subsidy from the Government).
There are two basic types of incinerator: the rotary kiln and the open hearth. Rotary kilns are smaller, but may be
suitable for toxic wastes and where there is a small throughput.

Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions among other things aims to prevent or reduce the negative effects
on the environment caused by the incineration and co-incineration of waste. This is undertaken by the application of
stringent operational conditions, technical requirements, and by the establishment of emission-limit values for plants
carrying out incineration.

Co-incineration applies to those sites the main purpose of which is energy generation (such as power plants or cement
kilns), and which incinerate waste. There are some exemptions, such as plants treating vegetable waste, wood waste,
animal carcasses and offshore oil and gas installations.

A permit is required to operate an incinerator. The key elements of such a permit will be:
• Stringent operating conditions.
• Minimum technical requirements are set.
• The permit application must show that heat generated is recycled as far as possible, residues are minimised and
recycled where appropriate, and disposal of residues is carried out in accordance with relevant legislation.
• Limits are imposed on air emissions (particularly dust, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and heavy metals).
• Water discharges from gas cleaning will also be controlled by the permit.

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7.4 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes

Waste as a Fuel
Solid waste can be burned in purpose-designed incinerators. It can also be compressed into pellets for incineration
in modified boilers. There are a number of projects in the UK where waste is burned to raise heat and/or generate
electricity; e.g. the Coventry Municipal Incinerator, the Tyseley Waste Disposal Incinerator in Birmingham, and the
South-East London Combined Heat and Power, Waste to Energy Plant. Smaller plants have also been designed to use
other wastes, e.g. sawdust, straw or wood chips. Waste-to-Energy Plants offer the advantages of disposal, but also
recover energy and leave only small amounts of residue.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits of Incineration Limitations of Incineration

Reduction in volume. High capital cost and monitoring requirements.

Destruction of hazardous components. High fuel costs on start-up.

Creation of an easily disposed ash. Need to carefully control inputs.

Small size of plant. Incinerators are not suitable for aqueous wastes, wastes
containing heavy metals, chlorinated materials (unless
special controls are in place), and non-combustible
solids.

Immediate and measurable effects.

Can be used to raise energy by using calorific value of

waste.

Advanced Thermal Technologies (Pyrolysis, Gasification and Plasma Arc)

Pyrolysis, gasification and plasma arc technologies in a similar way to incineration use high temperatures to break down
waste. The key difference is that they use limited amounts of oxygen in comparison to a traditional incinerator. Often
such technologies are referred to as advanced thermal technologies.

The feedstock for such techniques is usually carbon-based, including cardboard and plastics in addition to organic
materials such as waste food. The waste is treated at high temperature to produce liquid, solid and gaseous residues.
Pyrolysis thermally degrades waste in the absence of air. Then gasification occurs which involves exposure to some
oxygen but not a sufficient amount to enable combustion to occur. Temperatures are usually in the range of 750°C. In
some systems a second gasification stage occurs in order to ensure that more energy-carrying gases are released.

The main output from pyrolysis and gasification is the production of Syngas, which consists mainly of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen (85%) with much smaller quantities of methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Syngas has a high calorific
value and may be used to generate electricity and steam although the quality of Syngas will vary with the waste that is
input into the system.

The four key stages of pyrolysis and gasification are:

1. Preparation of the waste feedstock - materials with no calorific value are removed.

2. Heating the waste - in a low oxygen atmosphere to produce gas, oil and ash.

3. Scrubbing the gas - removes particulates, hydrocarbons and soluble materials.

4. Using scrubbed gas to generate electricity or heat - this may be achieved via gas engines or steam turbines.

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 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7.4

In plasma arc technologies waste is heated using a plasma arc (an electric arc used to heat waste) creating temperatures
of between 6,000 and 10,000° Celsius to generate Syngas and vitrified slag (a glass-like substance). In some plants the
plasma stage may follow from a gasification stage.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits of Advanced Thermal Technologies Limitations of Advanced Thermal Technologies
By using less oxygen, fewer air emissions may be Unless they use residual waste as a feedstock they may
generated in comparison to thermal incineration. undermine waste minimisation efforts further up the
waste hierarchy.
Plants are modular and consist of small units that can Feedstock is limited in order for them to work
be added to or taken away as volume or waste streams effectively and is unlikely to be truly residual waste.
change.
Plant is relatively quick to construct. Fuel produced will be less than the energy needed to
manufacture new products.
Produce more useful products than conventional An ash is produced that requires disposal.
incineration, e.g. Syngas.
Syngas can generate energy more efficiently than a
conventional incinerator (using a steam turbine).

MORE...
www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/gasification_pyrolysis.pdf

Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT)

Two types of MBT system exist:
• Type 1 - mechanical, then biological treatment.
• Type 2 - biological, then mechanical treatment (BMT).

Mechanical Biological Treatment options

Source: Adapted from Mechanical Biological Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste, DEFRA, 2007

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7.4 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes

Type 1 involves the following:

• Mechanical extraction - dry processes are used for the mechanical treatment. Waste is fed into a mechanised
front-end to remove the metals, glass, plastics and contaminants, such as batteries, still left in the waste stream.
• This maximises the diversion of recyclable materials, leaving a mainly organic fraction for the next stage of the
process.
• Biological decomposition - this usually takes place in an enclosed, in-vessel composting system. The aim of this
stage is to reduce the waste and stabilise any biologically active materials.
• Some MBT systems may propose anaerobic digestion for the biological treatment (see later), capturing the
methane produced to provide energy for the plant.
• The residue produced can then be landfilled, or, in some cases, made into refuse-derived fuel to be burnt.
Type 2 involves the following:
• Drying - the residual waste is shredded and then dried in drums, cylinders, or autoclaves.
• Sorting - the waste is then sorted via various equipment, such as magnets or a separation drum, to remove metals
for recycling and glass, stones and grit for low-grade aggregate.
• The residue produced can be used for a variety of processes.
• The organic fraction can be removed for landfill cover.
• The coarser fraction can be pelletised and used as a fuel in cement kilns, power stations, or as a feedstock for
gasification/pyrolysis plants.
The capacity of MBT plants can range from 10,000 tonnes per annum (tpa) to large-scale facilities of 250,000 tpa.
Advanced Biological Treatment (ABT) in the above diagram will constitute anaerobic.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits of MBT Limitations of MBT
MBT consists of technologies that are proven and are Market for outputs may be small.
used internationally.
May remove waste further material that can be recycled Some wastes will still need to be disposed of to landfill.
from residual waste stream.
Produces waste materials that may be used as a source Higher operational costs in comparison to alternative
of energy. techniques.
MBT can capture waste containing recyclable material Plants are often large and draw in waste from a wide
in residual waste (kerbside recycling schemes are not geographical area with resultant transport impacts.
100% successful).
Significantly reduces waste disposed of to landfill. MBT plants due to cost often operate on long-term
contracts and need a fixed amount of waste. This can
undermine waste minimisation schemes in an area,
particularly those funded by local authorities.

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 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7.4

Benefits of MBT Limitations of MBT

Waste disposed of to landfill from MBT will have much In comparison to kerbside collection of recyclable
lower biodegradability and as such reduce methane and materials where waste recycled materials are segregated
leachate production in a landfill. into different types, the recycled materials from MBT are
generally mixed and fetch a lower price in the market.
MBT can recover items that are not always collected for
recycling.
Sorting will ensure that hazardous items do not reach
landfill sites.
Plants are modular and with units added or removed as
waste streams or waste volumes fluctuate.

Composting
This is a means of biologically treating solid wastes. It is a process which stimulates the decay of organic materials by
aerobic means. It is usually undertaken on green waste but the process can be applied to mixed household waste.
• Green waste composting involves converting garden and other green waste into usable compost by the natural
aeration process. The green waste is shredded then heaped in long rows and regularly turned (windrows).
• The composting of mixed household waste can be undertaken either totally or partially enclosed in an
industrial-type building.
Composting initially involves the fragmenting and screening of waste by either wet or dry pulverisation, followed
where possible by the extraction of ferrous metals and glass. The waste is then composted under controlled conditions
including aeration and mechanical turning of the material.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits of Composting Limitations of Composting
Lower capital investment required than for most other Requires large energy input to turn and aerate compost
alternative techniques. piles.
Produces a solid fertiliser. If run inefficiently may cause odour nuisance.
Less environmental impact than spreading unprocessed A compost plant will require large areas to run
waste on land. efficiently.
Improves the physical, chemical and biological Composted material may retain a heavy metal content,
properties of soil (e.g. water retention). with potential contamination problems.

Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is a biological process that happens naturally when bacteria break down organic matter in
environments with little or no oxygen. It is effectively a controlled and enclosed version of the anaerobic breakdown
of organic waste in landfill, which releases methane. Almost any organic material can be processed with AD, including
waste paper and cardboard (which can be too low a grade to recycle, e.g. because of food contamination), grass
clippings, leftover food, industrial effluents, sewage and animal waste.

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7.4 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes

Methane fermentation is part of the anaerobic digestion process, being a system to extract biological gas (about 60%
of methane and 40% of carbon dioxide) from organic waste by the action of methane bacterium. This can be burnt
to generate heat or electricity, or can be used as a vehicle fuel. If used to generate electricity, the biogas needs to be
scrubbed. It can then power the AD process, or be added to the National Grid and provide heat for homes.

As well as biogas, AD produces a solid and liquid residue called digestate, which can be used as a soil conditioner to
fertilise land. The amount of biogas and the quality of digestates obtained will vary according to the feedstock used.
More gas will be produced if the feedstock is putrescible, which means it is more liable to decompose. Sewage and
manure yield less biogas, as the animal which produced it has already taken out some of the energy content.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion Limitations of Anaerobic Digestion
Produces energy in the form of a biogas. Requires a high level of investment to build AD plants.
A by-product is a solid and liquid fertiliser. If an AD plant is run inefficiently it may cause odour
nuisance.
Can sanitise waste as long as the temperature is held at Operating costs of an AD plant are greater than those
required level for a predefined time period. for aerobic digestion (e.g. composting).
Reduces odour in comparison to unprocessed waste Will not remove non-organic pollutants.
(e.g. at a landfill).
Reduced risk of pollution in comparison to land
spreading of unprocessed waste.
Fertiliser produced is of a higher quality and longer
lasting than untreated organic waste.
Diverts waste from alternative techniques lower down
the waste hierarchy.
Requires little energy to operate an AD plant.

Landfill
Principles of Landfill Site Selection
Landfill sites are the most commonly used form of waste disposal. They must be classified as inert, non-hazardous or
hazardous. They have been used extensively in the UK, owing to an abundance of disused mineral extraction sites. Every
site is different and use is subject to conditions set by regulators. The conditions imposed on a landfill site will depend
on the geology, hydrogeology, topography and the general environment, i.e. proximity to houses, roads, etc.

The conditions on each landfill site will therefore be unique to that site. From a practical viewpoint, waste producers
must check that the particular site proposed for the waste is permitted by the environmental permit. There may be
problems with heavy vehicle movements.

Modern landfill sites are highly engineered. Works commence with detailed engineering surveys and studies of the
geology, hydrogeology, soils, water, groundwater and many other parameters. Today, sites are expected to avoid
pollution, so are usually lined with a plastic or asphaltic liner, followed by the development of a complex of leachate
and gas collection wells and pipes. Monitoring of all these systems is required and incorporated. The waste inputs are
carefully monitored and checked, and tipping takes place in ‘cells’, each of which will be virtually self-contained, giving a
complex ‘honeycomb’ of cells in the completed site, which is then capped with a carefully engineered series of different
sealants (such as clay and subsoil), before being finished with topsoil and planted.

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 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7.4

Section through a typical landfill

TOPIC FOCUS

General Requirements for Landfills

Annex I to the Landfill Directive specifies the general requirements for landfills.

Location
“(1) The location of a landfill must take into consideration requirements relating to:
(a) the distances from the boundary of the site to residential and recreation areas, waterways, water
bodies and other agricultural or urban sites;
(b) the existence of groundwater, coastal water or nature protection zones in the area;
(c) the geological and hydrogeological conditions in the area;
(d) the risk of flooding, subsidence, landslides or avalanches on the site;
(e) the protection of the nature or cultural patrimony in the area.”

Control of Water
Unless the landfill poses no potential hazard to the environment, in view of its location and the kinds of waste
to be accepted, the following applies (not applicable to inert landfills):

“Appropriate measures shall be taken, with respect to the characteristics of the landfill and the meteorological
conditions, in order to:
–– control water from precipitations entering into the landfill body;
–– prevent surface water and/or groundwater from entering into the landfilled waste;
–– collect contaminated water and leachate…;
–– treat contaminated water and leachate collected from the landfill to the appropriate standard required
for their discharge.” (Continued)

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TOPIC FOCUS
The following also applies:
• The landfill must be situated and designed so as to:
–– provide the conditions for prevention of pollution of the soil, groundwater or surface water; and
ensure efficient collection of leachate.
• Soil, groundwater and surface water are to be protected by the use of a geological barrier combined with:
–– a bottom liner during the operational phase of the landfill; and
–– a top liner following closure and during the after-care phase.
The thickness of barriers is specified according to the type of waste to be accepted in the landfill.

A leachate collection and sealing system to ensure that leachate accumulation at the base of the landfill is kept to
a minimum must also be provided in any hazardous or non-hazardous landfill, in accordance with the following
table:

Landfill Category Non-Hazardous Hazardous

Artificial sealing liner Required Required
Drainage layer ≥ 0.5 metres Required Required
Where the potential hazards to the environment indicate that the prevention of leachate formation is necessary,
surface sealing may be prescribed, taking account of the following guidelines:

Landfill Category Non-Hazardous Hazardous

Gas drainage layer Required Not required
Artificial sealing liner Not required Required
Impermeable mineral layer Required Required
Drainage layer < 0.5 metres Required Required
Top soil cover < 1 metre Required Required

Behaviour of Wastes
Potential Problems with Landfill Sites
The major potential problems concerned with landfill sites are:
• Landfill gas.
• Leachate.
• Nuisance.

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TOPIC FOCUS

Landfill Gas
Landfill gas is a flammable mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and water vapour. There are also other trace
organics, which can cause the gases to be malodorous.

A typical analysis of landfill gas might be 50-70% methane and 30-50% carbon dioxide.

The management of gas poses considerable problems to landfill operators. Gas must be prevented from escaping
into the general environment and, specifically, into the basement of any adjacent buildings, where flammable/
explosive mixtures of gases can present a real danger and necessitate evacuation.

We have seen that landfill gas is typically composed of methane and carbon dioxide. Its calorific value is
typically half that of natural (i.e. mains supply) gas. There are also minor constituents comprising organosulphur
compounds which give noticeable odours.

Gas is generated at different stages in the landfill; first aerobic processes take place until the free oxygen is
used up, followed by anaerobic conditions where methane is given off. The evolution of gas normally starts
in the first few months of operation and can last for several years (depending on the site, the waste and other
conditions). Gas evolution could continue for up to 40 years and will be a condition of the environmental
permit. A Certificate of Completion will not be issued until the regulatory body is assured that there is no further
activity from the site.

Gas collection and barriers to prevent off-site gas migration will also be part of the permit conditions. Many
older sites did not have gas collection systems installed at the outset and remedial gas dispersion measures have
had to be installed retrospectively.

Leachate
This is a term used for the liquid which results from groundwater permeating through decomposing rubbish.
It is highly polluting and must be prevented from entering surface watercourses. Leachate management is an
important aspect of any environmental permit. Leachate has a high BOD and the liquid may contain other
leachates (e.g. toxic metals) from the deposited waste.

Nuisance
A badly managed site can produce a number of nuisances, e.g. noise, dust, smell, windblown litter, and mud on
the public highway. It can also attract flies and vermin such as rats, or seagulls. The efficient management of
waste is essential to avoid these problems.

Factors characteristic of good management include waste compaction, waste cover, and restriction of working
area.

Sites can be operated by two main methods: attenuation or containment. Both require excellent management
of the inputs to the site.

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7.4 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes

It is common for certain wastes to be banned from landfill sites. In the EU, for example, under the Landfill Directive the
following requirements apply:
• There is a ban on:
–– The landfilling of liquid wastes (but not sludges), also wastes that are explosive, corrosive, oxidising, flammable
and highly flammable, and clinical wastes that are infectious.
–– The practice of disposing of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes together.
• The tipping of whole tyres was banned from July 2003, and of shredded tyres from 2006.
• Banning from landfill of:
–– New or unidentified waste from research and development establishments and laboratories whose effects on
man or on the environment are unknown.
–– Any waste that does not meet acceptance criteria.
• It is not permissible to dilute or mix waste in order to make the waste acceptable.

Site Management Controls

Control of Gas
• Appropriate measures must be taken in order to control the accumulation and migration of landfill gas.
• Landfill gas must be collected from all landfills receiving biodegradable waste and the landfill gas must be treated
and, to the extent possible, used.
• The collection, treatment and use of landfill gas must be carried on in a manner that minimises damage to, or
deterioration of, the environment and risk to human health.
• Landfill gas that cannot be used to produce energy must be flared.

Control of Nuisance
Measures must be taken to minimise the nuisances arising from the landfill
in relation to:
• Emissions of odours and dust.
• Wind-blown materials.
• Noise and traffic.
• Birds, vermin and insects.
• The formation of aerosols.
• Fires.
The landfill must be equipped so that dirt originating from the site is not
dispersed onto public roads and the surrounding land.

Access Control Birds on landfill site

• The landfill must be secured to prevent free access to the site.
• The gates of the landfill must be locked outside operating hours.
• The system of control and access to each facility must provide systems to detect and discourage illegal dumping in
the facility.

Zero Waste to Landfill

Zero waste to landfill is an approach where no waste streams end up in landfill. Wastes are instead diverted to other
routes that are above landfill on the waste hierarchy. Wastes that cannot be re-used or recycled are treated using other
methods such as incineration with energy recovery or pyrolysis.

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 Control Strategies for Solid Wastes 7.4

When implementing a zero waste to landfill commitment, it is imperative that the organisation has full knowledge of
where waste streams end up. For example, if waste is sent for incineration with energy recovery, it is important to ensure
that the fly ash from incineration is not disposed of to landfill. To ensure waste is not going to landfill, therefore, a full
audit trail of waste treatment techniques used is required.

STUDY QUESTIONS
9. What are the advantages of incineration in comparison to other waste disposal methods?

10. Outline the processes involved in type 1 mechanical biological treatment.

11. Describe the process of composting.

12. Identify nuisance issues associated with the landfilling of waste.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 7: Waste Management 7-29
 Summary

Summary

Key topics covered in this element:
• The best option for managing waste is to prevent it. If this cannot be achieved then preparing for re-use, recycling,
other recovery and disposal should be considered.
• Landfill sites are often classified as being for hazardous, non-hazardous or inert wastes.
• Responsible waste management has many benefits including raw material reduction, improvement in corporate
image, pollution minimisation, increased morale, energy reduction, reduction in cost, and employment.
• Cleaner design involves designing a product to minimise its environmental impacts over its entire life cycle.
• Waste must be managed appropriately and not allowed to escape from control.
• The transfer of waste should be to a carrier registered with a competent authority.
• Appropriately managing waste has many economic benefits.
• Effective waste storage involves security, labelling, protection of waste and segregating incompatible wastes.
• Waste monitoring is required for numerous reasons such as compliance with an integrated environmental permit
or ISO 14001.
• Sampling is often required to screen waste prior to acceptance at a waste management facility.
• Waste reporting is the process of organising waste data into summaries to allow an organisation to monitor how
its waste management strategy is performing.
• Treatment methods for waste include incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, mechanical biological treatment,
composting and landfill.
• Landfill site management control constitutes measures to control nuisance, access control, and landfill gas.

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 Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION
(a) Outline the principles of the ‘waste hierarchy’. (8)

(b) Using suitable examples, describe how the ‘waste hierarchy’ could be applied to minimising
waste in an office environment. (12)

Approaching the Question

Part (a) requires knowledge of the waste hierarchy. A common mistake with questions such as this is not to mention
that the waste hierarchy should be followed from the top down, with the methods at the top being preferable.

Plan
(a) Prevention, preparing for re-use, recycling (composting), other recovery, disposal.
(b) Specific examples of (a) relevant to an office, e.g. prevention - refillable cartridges, paperless office; re-use -
inspecting and re-using packaging, etc.; recycling - segregation for recycling, composting organic wastes; energy
recovery from combustible waste; disposal.

Suggested Answer Outline

Now you have completed your answer, compare it to the following suggested answer.
(a) The waste hierarchy consists of a number of techniques that should be considered to manage the production of
waste. The techniques at the top are favourable in comparison to those lower down the hierarchy.
The first part of the hierarchy is prevention. Prevention covers not producing the waste in the first place, or
producing less. For example, the amount of plastic used for bottles could be reduced by better design. Following
this, preparing for re-use should be considered. This covers activities such as inspection, repair or refurbishment
to enable the waste to be re-used for the same purpose or similar without significant processing. Examples include
inspecting and re-using plastic pallets, or getting bottles or ink cartridges refilled. The next option would be to
consider recycling. Recycling involves some form of significant treatment of the waste to make it usable again, e.g.
waste paper can be recycled to make virgin paper. Composting waste can be used for organic materials such as
waste food - it involves the aerobic bacterial processing of biodegradable wastes to produce a reasonably stable,
granular material, usually containing valuable plant nutrients. Other recovery generally involves using the waste as a
fuel to produce energy. Many incinerators work on this principle. Finally, if the above techniques cannot be carried
out, the remaining option is disposal. This is likely to be to landfill and will result in many adverse impacts on the
environment, such as production of greenhouse gases, flammable, explosive and nuisance issues to name a few.
(b) Preventing waste could be carried out in the office by implementing numerous measures. One example would
be using refillable printer cartridges which, when empty, could be sent off to be refilled. Other examples include
providing electronic systems rather than storing information on paper. This will result in no waste paper being
produced in comparison to a paper-based system.
For re-using waste, examples include re-using waste paper that has been printed on a single side only for note
paper. This may be used to take messages or for drafting out correspondence. Another technique might be to re-
use packaging following inspection to check that it has not been damaged. For example, some types of protective
envelopes could be used again for sending items in the post if the past address and other details are removed.

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ES Exam Skills

Waste recycling can be achieved through the segregation of paper, plastic, cardboard and cans. These can then be
taken for recycling by specialist contractors. Computers from the company and other electrical equipment can also
be sent for recycling. Waste food that might be produced from the kitchens may be composted. The compost could
be used for conditioning and fertilising soil either at the site or elsewhere. Food waste that could be composted
includes teabags, fruit and vegetable peelings and grass cuttings. These would need to be segregated and placed in
a specific compost receptacle.

For any type of combustible waste produced by the office, e.g. paper, cardboard, etc., another option is to combust
the waste to produce heat. The heat could then be used directly for heating or be used to raise steam to power a
turbine which will in combination with a generator produce electricity.

The final option to consider would be disposal - ideally the other options should be carried out but disposal may
be the only option for some waste streams. Wastes that may only be suitable for landfill include certain types of
plastics which cannot at present be recycled. Most wastes can, however, be dealt with by other methods at a higher
level in the waste hierarchy.

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 Element 8
Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll

understand how to:

 Outline the types of emissions to

atmosphere and the harm to the
environment from specific pollutants.

 Outline the purpose of monitoring

atmospheric emissions, including the
practitioner’s role, the sampling methods
available and the situations in which each
method would be used.

 Describe appropriate control strategies

and measures for releases to atmosphere.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-1
 Contents

Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-3

Types of Emission 8-3
Pollutant Impacts 8-4
Key Air Pollution Issues 8-6
National Emission Ceiling Levels 8-12
Study Questions 8-13

Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8-14

Purpose of Air Monitoring 8-14
Principles of a Monitoring Strategy 8-14
Remote Sensing 8-19
Study Questions 8-19

Control Strategies and Measures 8-20

Air Pollution Control 8-20
Particle Arrestment Devices 8-22
Gas and Vapour Devices 8-33
Study Questions 8-44

Summary 8-45
Appendix 8-46
Exam Skills 8-48

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 Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1

Emissions to the Atmosphere

IN THIS SECTION...
• Solid particles in air may be classified as fumes, smoke, dust or grit, depending on particle size.
• Liquids suspended in air can be classified as vapours, mists and droplets.
• The greenhouse effect is the general warming of the Earth as a result of emissions of greenhouse gases.
• Acid deposition is from emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds, causing acids to be formed and damaging
ecosystems.
• The ozone layer acts as a shield in the atmosphere against UV light. It can become depleted through emissions of
chlorine-containing compounds.
• The Gothenburg Protocol sets national emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, volatile organic
compounds and ammonia.

Types of Emission
Solid particles may be classified as fumes, smoke, dust and grit, depending on particle size. Liquids suspended in air can
similarly be classified as vapours, mists and droplets with increasing particle size. Air emissions can also be in the form
of gases or fibres.

DEFINITIONS
DUST
May consist of any size or shape of particle, crystalline or amorphous. Particle sizes capable of inhalation are up
to 10 microns; particle sizes of fewer than 7 microns are capable of penetrating lung tissue.
FIBRES
Are solid particles with an increased aspect ratio (the ratio of length to width). Fibres have special properties
due to their ability to be suspended in the air just like dusts and other aerosols.
FUMES
Are small solid particles produced by condensation of vapours or gaseous combustion products (i.e. cooling of
combustion products from hot processes). Particle size is in the range 0.01 to 1 micron.
GASES
Pure gases are substances which remain in the gaseous phase at the process temperatures and pressures, such
as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and ozone.
GRIT
Is defined as larger particles exceeding 76 microns in diameter.
SMOKE
Particles in the range 0.1 microns to 10 microns are seen as smoke. There are no clearly established size
definitions for these particulates, and different publications suggest other overlapping size bands. In industrial
air streams, the very fine particles may increase in size by coagulating into larger particles. Those greater than
20 microns tend to sediment out rapidly. Therefore, most particle sizes encountered are between 0.1 and 20
microns.

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8.1 Emissions to the Atmosphere

DEFINITION
VAPOURS
Are the gaseous state of materials that are liquid at normal temperature and pressure. Mists are formed
when vapours condense and are composed of very fine droplets in the range 0.01 to 10.0 microns. Droplets
are normally generated by mechanical action on static or flowing liquids, but may form by the further
condensation and coalescence of mist. Droplets normally sediment out of the air stream. However, under
certain conditions, evaporation from the droplet surface may result in the formation of mists.

Pollutant Impacts
Controls over gaseous and particulate releases to the atmosphere focus on those substances that are linked with health
impacts and wider damage to the environment. These substances are released by a wide range of industrial, domestic
and transport-related activities, and often involve the combustion of fossil fuels for energy use. The key air pollutants
will fall into the following categories:

Substances Main Sources Effects

Particulates Combustion of fuels and activities such as Contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular
quarrying and construction. illness. Particles with a mean diameter less than
10 microns (PM10) have been particularly linked
Classified according to size (see above). to adverse health impacts.

Oxides of carbon Combustion of fossil fuels, especially in Carbon dioxide is the main pollutant implicated
electricity generation and road transport. in climate change. Carbon monoxide reduces
the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen and is
especially dangerous to people with heart and
circulatory diseases.
Oxides of nitrogen Any combustion activity taking place in air. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO) are
Road transport and electricity generation often referred to together as NOx. NOx is linked
are important sources. with inflammation of lung tissue and respiratory
symptoms and can reduce leaf growth in plants.
NOx also reacts with VOCs (below) to create toxic
ozone and other components of photochemical
smog.
Oxides of sulphur Combustion of fossil fuels containing Sulphur dioxide causes constriction of the airways
sulphur, such as coal and heavy fuel oil in of the lung and is especially harmful to people
power stations. suffering from asthma and chronic lung disease.
Sulphur dioxide is major contributor to acid-rain
deposition, which contributes to the acidification
of surface waters and soil and subsequent loss of
biodiversity.
Polycyclic Road transport and domestic coal and Potentially carcinogenic and linked to lung and
Aromatic wood fires. skin cancers.
Hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
Volatile Organic Evaporation of liquid fossil fuels used in VOCs can react with NOx (above) to create toxic
Compounds transport and solvents used in a range of ozone and other components of photochemical
(VOCs) industrial processes. smog.
(Continued)

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 Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1

Substances Main Sources Effects

Methane Decomposition of biodegradable waste Explosive, flammable and a potent greenhouse
(e.g. landfill gas), agriculture, fossil fuel gas.
production and distribution.
Low-level ozone • Transportation and industry. Short-term exposure can cause temporary
• A secondary pollutant formed from irritation of the lungs, eyes and respiratory tract.
the reaction of oxygen, VOCs and
Long-term exposure to low concentration may
nitrogen oxides in the presence of
reduce lung function. Exposure to ozone may
light.
worsen respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
emphysema.
Asbestos Historically, used in a wide range of Causes respiratory illness and lung-cancer.
building materials, such as roofing and
lagging, and may be released from
construction sites.
Halogens A family of highly-reactive elements, Toxic and damaging to the growth of plants.
including fluorine, chlorine and bromine. Halogenated refrigerant gases (CFCs, HCFCs) are
Fluorine compounds are used in many strongly linked to the destruction of the ozone
industrial processes. Halogen-containing layer and to climate change (HFCs).
gases are used in refrigeration systems.
Toxic metals Lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury A wide range of toxic biochemical effects,
and nickel may be emitted from the including damage to the nervous system.
combustion of coal and a range of
industrial processes. Historically, lead was
added to road fuels and was an important
exhaust pollutant.
Other toxics The combustion of road fuels and a range Carcinogenic.
of industrial processes have the potential
to release other toxic substances, notably
benzene and 1,3-butadiene.

DEFINITIONS
SMOG
A term used to describe particulate matter and gases and substances that can be breathed in by people, causing
adverse health effects.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
The term used to describe the reaction of primary pollutants with sunlight and other chemical pollutants to
produce air pollution such as low-level ozone (‘bad’ ozone).
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
Pollutants that are emitted directly into the air and cause harm. Examples include particulates, sulphur dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
Pollutants formed from the reaction of primary pollutants with other substances or the surroundings into which
they are emitted. For example, low-level ozone (‘bad’ ozone) is formed when sulphur dioxide emitted from the
burning of fossil fuels reacts with atmospheric gases in the presence of sunlight.

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8.1 Emissions to the Atmosphere

Impacts of Pollutants on Air Quality and Health

The quality of the air that surrounds us is critical to health and the enjoyment of life. Poor air quality may also have
detrimental impacts on wildlife and agricultural systems. But pollution of the air we breathe has been a problem for
centuries, as cities have grown larger and human society has become more industrialised. Although progress has been
made in controlling some sources of air pollution, air quality is still declining in many areas of the world, especially in
large cities with high densities of road vehicles.

We have seen earlier that pollution may have local, regional and global impacts. This is especially relevant when
considering the potential impacts of air pollution because of the ability of some contaminants to be transported
significant distances through the atmosphere.
• Local air pollution, especially in towns and cities, is a continuing focus for regulators because of the health
impacts of ground-level pollution, such as city smog and photochemical smog. The World Health Organisation
has estimated that in 2014 there were about 7 million deaths worldwide that were associated with poor local air
quality. In many developed countries, local air quality has improved markedly with the introduction of stringent air
pollution legislation.
Short-term human health effects from air pollution can include irritation and inflammation of the airways, eyes
and mouth, and triggering of asthma attacks in susceptible individuals. Longer-term problems are often associated
with cardiopulmonary (heart-lung) performance, but some pollutants are also associated with increased incidence
of cancers.
• The long-range transport of air pollution from cities and industrial centres can also have regional impacts. Oxides
of nitrogen (NOx) and sulphur (SOx) can travel hundreds of kilometres from their emission source and react with
moisture in the atmosphere to create ‘acid rain’. This affects trees by damaging their leaves and bark, making
them more vulnerable to disease, weather and insects.
Toxic amounts of aluminium and iron may also be released from soils, further damaging trees and other plants. Lake
ecosystems that are exposed to acid rain may become acidic and this can kill fish eggs. At higher levels of acidity,
aluminium may build up in the water and kill adult fish, which are important food sources for other animals such as
birds.
• The global effects of air pollution such as climate change, ozone depletion and acid deposition have now moved
to the top of the international agenda.

Key Air Pollution Issues

The air is essential to all life and we need a supply of clean air to function effectively. Polluted air can directly affect our
health as well as the environment.

The following are key environmental effects observed on a global basis and are often the results of transboundary air
pollutants:
• Global warming - the greenhouse effect.
• Acid deposition.
• Low-level ozone - photochemical smog.
• Depletion of the ozone layer.

Climate Change
Over time, the gradual increase in CO2 has been contributed to by man’s activities. Burning of fossil fuel increased
tenfold between 1900 and 1980 to 5.3 × 109 tonnes globally. Coupled with deforestation at 1 × 109 tonnes per year, this
has had a net effect of causing imbalances that the cycle cannot compensate for. The rise in carbon dioxide has been
found to coincide with the start of the Industrial Revolution.

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 Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1

The first decade of the 21st century was the warmest on record and measurements over the last 150 years show that
the temperature of the atmosphere has increased by around one degree Celsius. There is now strong evidence that
climate change is related to pollution of the atmosphere, through the mechanism known as the greenhouse effect.

What is the greenhouse effect? It is actually a natural phenomenon. The Sun irradiates the Earth with energy and as the
Earth warms, it emits energy back into space as infrared radiation. Some of this radiation is absorbed by greenhouse
gases that occur naturally in the atmosphere (primarily water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane); the effect of this
is to reduce heat loss from the Earth. Were it not for the greenhouse effect the temperature of the Earth would be
well below zero degrees Celsius. The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a gas depends on how long it lasts in the
atmosphere and how strongly it absorbs infrared radiation. GWPs are ratios normally expressed relative to the effect of
CO2. Some GWPs for common gases are illustrated in the following table:

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

Greenhouse gas Time Horizon
20 years 100 years 500 years
Carbon dioxide 1 1 1
Methane 62 23 7
Nitrous oxide 275 296 156
CFC-12 7900 8500 4200
HCFC-22 4300 1700 520

The greenhouse effect

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8.1 Emissions to the Atmosphere

The problem is that burning fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil, gas, petrol, diesel), which account for more than 85% of the
world’s energy consumption, releases large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Levels of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere have consequently increased significantly during the past 50 years. Enhanced levels of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere are now believed to be artificially increasing the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming.

What is so alarming about a warmer planet?

• Sea levels will rise - primarily through the melting of the polar ice caps. This could result in widespread coastal
flooding.
• Climate change - this could potentially have very serious consequences. For example, major food-producing areas
might begin to suffer droughts, reducing our ability to feed ourselves. There are also likely to be more extreme
and disruptive weather events, such as high winds and floods.

The main man-made sources of CO2 emissions and the greenhouse effect
(reproduced courtesy of Scottish Power)

The Paris Agreement is a key international law that will provide international control of climate change for many years
to come. As you might remember, the agreement was developed at the Paris climate conference in December 2015 and
formally entered into force in November 2016 when a sufficient number of countries (representing at least 55% of the
world’s greenhouse gas emissions) had ratified the agreement. The agreement is planned to enter into force in 2020.

The Paris Agreement provides a framework to reduce global warming to well below 2 degrees C above pre-industrial
levels and plans to achieve climate-neutrality by the end of the century. Other key requirements are:
• A specific legal requirement to reduce emissions on a five-yearly basis from 2025. All participant countries must
be independently reviewed for progress towards their emission reduction pledges.

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 Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1

• Governments must report to the public and each other on progress towards achieving their targets in a robust,
transparent and accountable way.
• Developed and emerging economies must mobilise $100 billion per year from public and private funding to assist
vulnerable and poor countries in protecting themselves against the consequences of climate change.
The Kigali Amendment 2016 to the Montreal Protocol 1987 sets legally binding targets that specify the phased
reductions of the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a potent group of fluorinated greenhouse gases. HFC reductions are
measured on overall CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent). The Kigali Amendment enters into force on 1 January 2019.
The HFC phase-down schedule under the Kigali Amendment is provided in the table below.

Non-A5 (developed countries) A5 (developing countries) A5 (developing countries)

Group 1 Group 2

Baseline HFC 2011-2013 2020-2022 2024-2026

component (average consumption) (average consumption) (average consumption)

Baseline HCFC
15% of baseline 65% of baseline 65% of baseline
component

Freeze - 2024 2028

1st step 2019 - 10% 2029 - 10% 2032 - 10%

2nd step 2024 - 40% 2035 - 30% 2037 - 20%

3rd step 2029 - 70% 2040 - 50% 2042 - 30%

4th step 2034 - 80% - -

Plateau 2036 - 85% 2045 - 80% 2047 - 85%

Belarus, Russian Federation,

GCC (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan,
Article 5 countries not part of United Arab Emirates, Qatar,
Notes Uzbekistan, 25% HCFC
Group 2 Bahrain, Oman), India, Iran,
component and 1st two steps are
Iraq, Pakistan
later: 5% in 2020, 35% in 2025

HFC Phase-Down Schedule under the Kigali Amendment

Source: adapted from https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/EIA-Kigali-Amendment-to-the-Montreal-
Protocol-FINAL.pdf

Photochemical Smog
The main causes of air pollutants are vehicle exhaust emissions and industrial activities. Vehicles emit a mixture of gases
and particulate material that can cause harm to the environment and damage human health. Oxides of nitrogen (often
referred to as NOx) can react with atmospheric gases, in the presence of sunlight, to produce harmful low-level ozone.
While we need ozone in the troposphere part of the atmosphere, at low altitudes where people live it is a poisonous
gas.

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8.1 Emissions to the Atmosphere

Acid Deposition
Acid deposition can occur as acid rain or dry deposition.

• Acid Rain
Acid rain results from the burning of oil and coal for power generation, from industry or transportation. These
activities release oxides of nitrogen (NOx) into the air and sulphur dioxide (SO2), which combine with water vapour
(clouds) to form acid rain. The rain may be blown extremely long distances from the sources. When the clouds
precipitate, the acid nature of the precipitation can have many impacts (see below).

• Dry Deposition
Dry deposition is much more localised and involves acidic gases falling back to Earth under the influence of gravity
much closer to the source of the pollution and reacting with water. This form of deposition has the same effects as
for acid rain.

Impacts of Acid Deposition

Acid deposition can have many impacts, including:
• Impacts on fish - this can be as a result of the lowering of pH of watercourses as well as release of harmful
substances into watercourses from the dissolving of toxic elements, e.g. aluminium, from the soil and rocks.
• Impacts on other species - other species can also be affected, such as birds which live near affected lakes or rivers
due to bioaccumulation of pollutants released by acid rain in food chains. Harmful metals (such as aluminium) can
also be released into drinking water.
• Forest and crop damage - acid deposition can affect forests and crops both directly and indirectly. Direct damage
can occur from the effects of acidity on the leaves or needles of trees; e.g. brown spots can occur on leaves,
reducing the amount of area available for photosynthesis. Indirect impacts of acidity include dissolving important
nutrients and minerals from the soil the trees grow in. It can also release toxic substances into soil, such as
aluminium, which is normally chemically-bound and not available for uptake.
• Damage to buildings and other man-made structures can occur, leading to a significant amount of expenditure in
maintenance costs.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Life on Earth is protected from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation by a layer of ozone molecules (O3) in the
lower stratosphere, between 15 and 25km above the Earth’s surface. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, one of the
major causes of skin cancers. Certain chemicals (ozone depleters) can destroy the ozone layer. These include:
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - historically used in a variety of products, e.g. foams, aerosols, refrigeration, solvents
and air-conditioning. They have the highest ozone depletion potential.
• Halons - e.g. bromochlorodifluoromethane (halon 1211) that was used in fire extinguishers.
• Carbon tetrachloride - traditionally used as a solvent.
• 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform) - a non-flammable solvent with low toxicity which is often used for
cleaning metal.
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) - transitional substances used as replacements for CFCs. Although less potent
at depleting ozone, they still have some depletion potential.
• Methyl bromide - widely used as a fumigant to kill pests in soil and stored crops.
It is believed that the ozone layer has been depleting at a rate of 5% every ten years over northern Europe, with
depletion extending south over the Mediterranean and southern USA. However, ozone depletion has been most
dramatic over the polar regions, due to particular upper atmospheric conditions, and a continent-sized hole has
developed over Antarctica.

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 Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1

Most ozone depleters are chemically-stable compounds containing the halogen elements chlorine or bromine. These
compounds have typically been used as refrigerant gases, as propellants for aerosol sprays, as foam-blowing agents, as
solvents and in fire-fighting systems (e.g. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, halons).

These ozone-depleting compounds are very stable and if they are released by human activities they can persist
unchanged in the atmosphere until they drift upwards to reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere. At this altitude, the
compounds are exposed to higher levels of UV radiation, which liberates charged chlorine and bromine atoms from the
parent molecules. These charged atoms are known as ‘free radicals’ and are highly reactive.

Chlorine and bromine free radicals are able to react with, and break down, ozone molecules in a variety of ways - for
example:
• A chlorine free-radical reacts with ozone to produce chlorine monoxide and molecular oxygen:
Cl + O3  ClO + O2
• The chlorine monoxide so formed may then react to break down more ozone:
ClO + O3  Cl + 2O2

International agreements (especially the Montreal Protocol) are in place to curb the production and use of ozone
depleters.

Unfortunately, even if all ozone depleters were banned today, the chlorine molecules already in the atmosphere would
continue to affect stratospheric ozone levels for at least a century.

Depletion of the ozone layer

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8.1 Emissions to the Atmosphere

International Law and Ozone Depletion

The Vienna Convention 1985 required nations to take appropriate measures to protect people and the environment
against the impacts resulting from human activities that modify, or are likely to modify, the ozone layer. The main aim
of the Convention is to ensure that countries undertake research, exchange information and monitor CFC production.
The Convention acts as a framework for international efforts to combat ozone depletion.

More specific requirements on the banning and phasing-out of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODSs) are present in the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1987. Since it initially opened for signatures in 1987
(coming into effect in 1989), the Protocol has undergone seven revisions. This has resulted in the phase-out dates for
ODSs as identified in the table below:

Developed Countries Phase-Out Developing Countries Phase-Out

Ozone-Depleting Substance
Dates Dates
CFCs 1995 2010
Halons 1993 2010
Methyl Chloroform 1995 2015
Carbon Tetrachloride 1995 2010
HCFCs 2020 2030
HBFCs 1995 1995

MORE...
NASA ozone watch website:
https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
Further information on the Montreal Protocol can be found at:
http://ozone.unep.org/en/treaties-and-decisions/montreal-protocol-substances-deplete-ozone-layer

National Emission Ceiling Levels

The Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 (and eight associated Protocols) aims
to limit and gradually reduce pollutants that can cross national boundaries. The Convention applies to the countries
within the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) - this currently includes 56 member states
across Europe and Canada, the USA, Central Asian republics and Israel.

The Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone 1999 is made under
the Geneva Convention. It sets national emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, VOCs and ammonia
(see Annex 1 for the emission ceilings for 2010 up to 2020). It builds on previous protocols that addressed these
pollutants. Such ceilings have been developed based on scientific assessment and the abatement options for the
pollutants. Those countries whose emissions have the greatest impact and whose emissions can be reduced in a cost-
effective manner must make the largest cuts. The Protocol also sets emission limits for specified emission sources such
as combustion plants, dry cleaning and vehicles. VOCs from paints and aerosols must also be reduced. Parties must
report their progress on an annual basis.

An amendment to the Protocol in 2012 sets emission reduction commitments to be achieved by 2020 and beyond. The
revised Protocol is also extended to cover fine particulate matter emissions (including black carbon).

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 Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1

MORE...
www.unece.org/env/lrtap/multi_h1.html

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Outline what is meant by the terms ‘smog’ and ‘photochemical smog’.

2. Outline the impacts of acid deposition.

3. Describe the requirements of the Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-
Level Ozone 1999.
(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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8.2 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions

Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions

IN THIS SECTION...
• Legislation often includes requirements to sample, monitor and measure emissions from stacks, chimneys and
process vents.
• Periodic measurement is a measurement regime carried out at specified intervals, e.g. six months.
• Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM) measurements are taken automatically, with few if any gaps in the data
produced.
• In order to ensure that those who undertake monitoring are suitable, competency schemes have been developed
such as the monitoring certification scheme (MCERTS).
• The technique used to carry out atmospheric monitoring will usually be defined in standards at the national,
European or international level.
• Analysis of reports will largely involve comparison of the measured concentrations against Emission Limit Values
(ELVs) stated in a permit.

Purpose of Air Monitoring

Legislation often includes specific requirements to sample, monitor and
measure emissions from stacks, chimneys and process vents. In addition,
it is necessary to accurately measure process emissions in order to specify
arrestment plant to meet statutory requirements. In some cases, it is
important to sample and measure stack emissions in order to demonstrate
that the emissions are harmless to local communities living around the plant.

Monitoring of the waste gas stream as it leaves the chimney or flue stack
may be required in order to demonstrate compliance with the environmental
permits. The choice and specification of the sampling equipment is outside
the requirements of this course, but the following general principles apply.

Principles of a Monitoring Strategy

Emissions need to be monitored
Introduction
Generally, as we considered above, the monitoring of atmospheric emissions is largely driven by legislation. To
understand the type of monitoring required will therefore require reference to permits or equivalent legal documents
in addition to guidance publications. These will usually specify the sources, substances and techniques, etc, that should
be used to monitor atmospheric emissions.

Monitoring of atmospheric emissions is generally a specialised discipline that would not in most cases be undertaken
by a general environmental management practitioner. However, in order to ensure that the correct monitoring is
undertaken and is legally compliant, an environmental management practitioner needs to develop a background
knowledge of atmospheric monitoring.

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 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8.2

A monitoring strategy consists of the elements identified in the diagram below:

Which substance
Safety When to
to sample?
TGN M1 sample, for
TGN M2
how long, how
Quality assurance many samples?
and control TGN M2
TGN M2
Monitoring
Strategy Which
technique,
method and
Collection,
equipment
interpretation and
Where to sample to use?
reporting of data
from TGN M2
TGN M2
TGN M1

Main elements of a monitoring strategy

Source: Adapted from Technical Guidance Note (Monitoring) M2, Monitoring of stack emissions to air,
Environment Agency, 2015
(www.gov.uk/government/publications/m2-monitoring-of-stack-emissions-to-air)

Sampling Principles
Key Terms in Stack-Emission Monitoring

DEFINITIONS
SAMPLING POINT
The specific position on the stack where the sample is extracted.
SAMPLING OR ACCESS PORTS
Points on the wall of the stack, duct or flue through which access to the emission can be gained.
ISOKINETIC SAMPLING
‘Same speed’ sampling - a technique of drawing a sample of air through a probe at the same speed as the gas
flow in the stack. This reduces the risk of concentrating either larger or smaller particles and ensures that the
sample taken is representative of the spectrum of particles found in the stack emission.
MONITORING APPROACH
Whether the monitoring is periodic or continuous.
MONITORING TECHNIQUES
The analytical principles behind the monitoring, e.g. infrared absorption, chemiluminescence, etc.
MONITORING METHOD
The published or documented procedure for using the monitoring approach and technique so that comparable
results can be obtained when the monitoring is carried out at different times and by different organisations.
MONITORING EQUIPMENT
The instruments and apparatus used.

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8.2 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions

Monitoring Approaches
There are two main approaches to measuring stack emissions - periodic measurement and Continuous Emissions
Monitoring (CEM).

• Periodic Measurement
This is a measurement regime carried out at periodic intervals, e.g. six months. Samples are usually taken from the
stack and measured elsewhere (grab or extractive sampling). Instrumental or automatic techniques can be used
where an online analyser carries out the sampling and analysis; or a manual technique may be used where a sample
is extracted on-site and analysed later in a dedicated laboratory. Samples may be collected over lengthy periods of
several hours, or can be spot or grab samples taken over much shorter periods, from a few seconds to a few minutes.

• Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM)

These are measurements taken automatically, with few if any gaps in the data produced. Measurement can be
carried out in situ or the sample gas can be extracted and measured remotely on an instrument permanently
located elsewhere. CEM is also referred to as Automatic Monitoring Systems (AMS).

The two types of techniques are compared in the following table:

Important characteristics of CEMs and periodic monitoring
Characteristic CEMs Periodic Monitoring
Sampling period Monitoring covers all or most of Snapshots of the long-term emissions profile.
the period that substances are
emitted.
Speed of results Almost always real-time output of Real-time results if instrumental analysers used; delayed
generation results. results if manual method with laboratory end-method
used.
Averaging of results Results continuously averaged, Result over period of test, typically 30 minutes to
typically over one hour or 24 hours. several hours.

Calibration and CEMs require calibration against Standard reference methods can be used for periodic
traceability a standard reference method monitoring; also instruments calibrated with certified
(SRM) and with certified reference reference gases can be used.
materials.
Capital cost Tends to be higher than the cost of Tends to be lower than the cost of CEMs.
periodic monitoring equipment.

Operating cost Tends to be lower than periodic Tends to be higher than CEMs approach because
approach, as not usually labour labour-intensive. Trained team on site for whole
intensive. Requires routine duration of monitoring campaign.
maintenance and calibration only.
Certification of MCERTS certification of equipment MCERTS certification of transportable stack-
equipment available. monitoring equipment available.

Accreditation of Quality assurance of the calibration UKAS accreditation to ISO 17025 for the MCERTS
monitoring and maintenance of CEMs is performance standard for organisations carrying out
covered in EN 14181. periodic monitoring. Accreditation to the MCERTS
standard includes the requirement for individuals
carrying out monitoring to be certified under MCERTS
as competent.
Source: based on Technical Guidance Note (Monitoring) M2, Monitoring of stack emissions to air, Environment
Agency, 2015 (www.gov.uk/government/publications/m2-monitoring-of-stack-emissions-to-air)

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 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8.2

DEFINITION
MONITORING CERTIFICATION SCHEME (MCERTS)
Is a certification scheme for pollution-monitoring equipment based on internationally-accepted performance
standards.

Competence
The undertaking of atmospheric monitoring requires a high level of competence and is usually undertaken by specialist
contractors. Without the necessary skills, knowledge and experience, it is unlikely that a general environmental
practitioner would be competent to carry out such monitoring.

In order to ensure that those who undertake monitoring are suitable, competency schemes have been developed. The
key environmental regulator in England, the Environment Agency, has for example developed a scheme known as the
monitoring certification scheme (MCERTS).

MCERTS:
• Provides a framework of standards for regulators and industry that can be used to monitor emissions that have
the potential to have a significant impact on the environment.
• Covers:
–– ­ performance standards that equipment must meet;
–– ­ the level to which staff who monitor must be qualified; and
–– ­ the accreditation of laboratories and inspecting sites.
The MCERTS framework is based on numerous relevant standards such as ISO 17025 for monitoring and equipment
testing.

The Manual stack emission monitoring - Performance standard for organisations is one example of an MCERTS
standard that, as the name suggests, covers manual monitoring of stacks. MCERTS standards have been produced for
issues relating to the monitoring of air, soil and water in addition to environmental data-management software.

MORE...
Further information on the MCERTS performance standard for those undertaking manual stack emissions
monitoring can be found at:
www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/301417/manual_stack_emission_
monitoring_-_performance_standard_for_organisations.pdf

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8.2 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions

The techniques used to carry out atmospheric monitoring will usually be defined in standards at the national, European
or international level. Permits or associated guidance will often state the standards that are deemed to be an acceptable
means of gaining a sample. The following are examples of standards specified for use in England for particulate matter
and gases:
Particulate matter
Type of Monitoring Monitoring Further Information
Monitoring Technique Standard
Manual Isokinetic BS EN Reference method for concentrations below to 50 mg m-³. However,
sampling 13284-1 and the scope states that it can be used for higher concentrations.
followed by MID Primarily developed for waste incinerators, the scope also states
weighing that it can be applied more widely. Reproducibility (worst quoted)
±5.7 mg m-³ at 6.4 mg m-³ and 30-minute sample. Validated at
concentrations around 5 mg m-³ and 30-minute sampling duration.
The overall uncertainty of the method complies with the uncertainty
of ±30% required by IED.

Particulate matter size fractionation1

Type of Monitoring Monitoring Further Information
Monitoring Technique Standard
Manual Impaction BS EN ISO Allows simultaneous measurement of <PM10 to > PM2.5
based on 232102 concentrations using a cascade impactor. The standard does not
a round measure the contribution of stack gas emissions to the formation
nozzle of secondary particulate matter in ambient air. It was primarily
two-stage developed for measurements of mass concentrations below
impactor 40 mg/m3 at STP. However, it states that it is applicable for
particulate concentrations between 1-50 mg/m3. The standard
also specifies limitations on stack gas temperature, pressure and
humidity.2 It is suitable for combustion sources, cement and steel
processes. It cannot be used to measure stack gases that are saturated
with water vapour. It is not applicable to stack gases where the
majority of particulates are greater than PM10. It cannot be used
for the measurement of total mass concentration of particulates.
The velocity and temperature profile of the sample plane is used to
determine a single representative sample point.
1
EA TGN M15 provides guidance on size fractionation measurements. It also provides further information on the
use of BS EN ISO 23210. TGN M15 is available from www.mcerts.net
2
For stack gas emissions with particulate concentrations above 50 mg/m3 the following are available:
–– BS ISO 25597: Test method for determining PM2.5 and PM10 mass in stack gases using cyclone samplers and
sample dilution.
–– BS ISO 13271: Determination of PM10 /PM2.5 mass concentration in flue gas - Measurement at higher
concentrations by use of virtual impactors.
Source: based on Technical Guidance Note (Monitoring) M2, Monitoring of stack emissions to air, Environment
Agency, 2015
(www.gov.uk/government/publications/m2-monitoring-of-stack-emissions-to-air)

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 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8.2

BS 1747
Standard Name
BS 1747-6:1983, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Sampling equipment used for the determination of
ISO 4219:1979 gaseous sulphur compounds in ambient air
BS 1747-9:1987, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of the mass concentration of
ISO 7996:1985 nitrogen oxides in ambient air: chemiluminescence method
BS 1747-11:1993, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of a black smoke index in ambient air
ISO 9835:1993
BS 1747-12:1993, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of the mass concentration of ozone
ISO 10313:1993 in ambient air: chemiluminescence method
BS 1747-13:1994, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of the particulate lead content of
ISO 9855:1993 aerosols collected on filters: atomic absorption spectrometric method

Reporting and Recommendations

Following atmospheric emissions monitoring a report will be submitted by the contractor outlining the concentrations
of measured substances at the sampled emission points. As we considered for waste, such reports then need to be
analysed. Analysis in this sense will largely involve comparison of the measured concentrations against Emission Limit
Values (ELVs) stated in the permit. If breaches occur then this will mean that action must be taken to reduce emissions
to below the ELV. This could require a range of actions but may include reviewing the efficiency of pollution control
equipment, reviewing compliance with other relevant control measures or ensuring that current controls are adequate.
In some situations there is a duty on an organisation to report to the regulator breaches of an ELV.

Remote Sensing
Remote sensing enables the viewing of the Earth across great distances and at wavelengths of light that are invisible
to the human eye. It is often undertaken by satellites or high flying planes. Remote sensing is undertaken by using
detectors to record light as it is discharged by the element of interest. Remote sensing has many uses, including the
assessment of air pollution.

A method of remotely sensing air pollution is the tuneable pulse laser system. This uses laser pulses to transmit and
receive electromagnetic radiation. Most pollutants present in air exhibit optical absorption bands in the ultraviolet,
visible, or infrared portions of the spectrum. The concentration of gaseous pollutants may be monitored by the
application of a pulse LIDAR (light detection and ranging) over great distances, recording the absorption that
is attained at one wavelength that corresponds to a strong absorption band in a gas and making comparisons with
absorption at an adjacent wavelength where there is no absorption of the gas. This is known as the tuneable pulse laser
measurement of air pollutants. Differential absorption has been applied to the measurement of many air pollutants
including ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and mercury vapours.

STUDY QUESTIONS
4. Identify the main elements of a monitoring strategy.

5. Explain the meaning of the term ‘isokinetic sampling’.

6. Identify the two main approaches to stack emissions monitoring.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

Control Strategies and Measures

IN THIS SECTION...
• Reduction at source is the most effective option for the control of air pollutants.
• The range of particle arrestment devices includes cyclones and other inertial separators, fabric filters, wet
scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators.
• There are several types of gas and vapour-control devices including absorption devices, adsorption devices,
incinerators, coolers and chillers, and peat beds.

Air Pollution Control

Industrial air-pollution control encompasses the design, process engineering
and abatement techniques necessary to eliminate, reduce or render harmless
the emission of contaminants into the atmosphere. The most cost-effective
and efficient methods are those incorporated into the process design to
reduce the total mass of contaminants in the waste stream. The engineering
devices should be supplemented by management techniques, i.e. procedures,
information, instruction and training.

Control Hierarchy
The control hierarchy describes a system of controls of different effectiveness.
For instance, if a pollutant can be eliminated then there is no need to have
procedures in place to minimise it, or render it harmless before exhausting to
atmosphere. If it can be minimised then there is less to deal with. If neither
Air pollution needs to be
of these are possible, then we are left with the render harmless option. One controlled to eliminate, reduce or
problem with this is that the harmful substance is still in use and if it escapes render harmless the emission of
through failures in process or equipment it can still cause harm. contaminants into the atmosphere

TOPIC FOCUS
Control Hierarchy

Eliminate:
• Replace solvent-based chemicals with water-based chemicals, e.g. paints.
• Replace chemical process with mechanical process. Mechanically-generated particles are generally larger
than those produced through a chemical process and therefore easier to collect.
• Replace halogenated products with non-halogenated products. When CFCs were banned, they were
replaced with products such as propane and isobutene as alternative propellants (or use pump-action
sprays, which remove the need for any propellant).
(Continued)

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 Control Strategies and Measures 8.3

TOPIC FOCUS
Minimise:
• This has been achieved in the motor industry through the use of improved technology, such as engine
management systems and fuel injection. Modern cars do significantly more miles per gallon/litre of
fuel than older cars, when we compare similar engine sizes. They are also more powerful, so both fuel
economy and performance have improved, yet emissions are reduced.
Render harmless:
• Techniques to render harmless air pollutants will vary depending on the type of pollutants, examples
include bag filters, cyclones, adsorption devices, wet scrubbers and peat filters.

Examples of Technology
There are many techniques available to control pollution to the atmosphere and we discuss some of the main ones
below. The choice of technique will depend on a number of variables, such as the:
• type and volume of pollutant to be controlled; and
• environment in which the process takes place.

Particulate Matter Removal

The range of particle arrestment devices includes:
• Settling chambers.
• Cyclones and other inertial separators.
• Fabric filters.
• Wet scrubbers.
• Electrostatic precipitators.
• Water walls.

Gas and Vapour Devices

There are several types of gas and vapour control devices using a variety of technologies. Some devices are designed to
capture high volumes of particular gases and vapours, whereas others are designed to eliminate relatively small volumes
of gaseous material that cause odours. There is considerable overlap between the technologies used to control large gas
emissions and those designed to prevent VOC emissions and malodorous gases and vapours.

The technologies are as follows:

• Absorption devices.
• Adsorption devices.
• Incinerators.
• Dry scrubbers.
• Coolers and chillers.
• Peat beds.
• Bio scrubbers.

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

Particle Arrestment Devices

Settling Chambers
Settling chambers are relatively simple devices that reduce the velocity of an emission to allow dust to settle out by
the action of gravity. They are generally more effective at removing larger particles (over 50 µm). The efficiency of
collection of a settling chamber depends on the size of particles and the settling chamber design. They are often used
to prevent dust loading in a primary collection device such as a bag filter.

Settling chamber

Cyclones

TOPIC FOCUS
Cyclones operate by causing the airflow to change
direction rapidly into a spiral, thus throwing the
particles out of the air stream toward the walls of the
device. The particles then fall down to the bottom of
the device for collection. Cyclones are most efficient
for large dense particulates; smaller, less dense
particulates may be carried on through the cyclone.
Cyclones are used primarily for the following functions:
• Product recovery, e.g. wood dust.
• First-stage air-stream cleaning.
• Droplet removal.
Single cyclones have no moving parts, so the running
costs and maintenance requirements are low. However,
efficiencies are much lower than for fabric filters or
electrostatic precipitators (see later) and generally
they are not suitable for achieving current air-emission Cyclone schematic
standards. Common uses include wood-dust collection
in woodworking factories, and grinding and general metallic dust collection in light-engineering plants.
(Continued)

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 Control Strategies and Measures 8.3

TOPIC FOCUS
Different design geometries are used to improve the efficiency, but at the cost of throughput capacity.
For instance, as the diameter of the cyclone chamber increases, the volume of air that can be put through
increases and the air-cleaning efficiency decreases. With a constant resistance to airflow, the throughput of a
cyclone is proportional to the square of body diameter.
The efficiencies of a cyclone are given by the following relationship:

πNPd2V
Efficiency =
9MW

where N = number of turns made by the air vortex in the cyclone

P = particle density
d = particle diameter
v = gas velocity
M = gas viscosity
W = inlet width

The efficiency can be improved by decreasing the chamber diameter and increasing the chamber length and
the inlet velocities. However, this leads to a reduction in throughput. To accommodate this, cyclones may be
arranged in groups and operated in parallel.
In some multiple-tube cyclone designs, the vortex is induced by vanes at the entrance to the tube. However,
there is a small pressure drop as air passes each row of tubes and this is compensated for by reducing
the length of the cyclone body in each successive row. Collection efficiency can be improved by hopper
evacuation, in which a small portion (about 15%) of the total gas flow is drawn off through the hopper. This
reduces re-entrainment of deposited dust and may increase collection efficiency by 50%.

Fabric Filters
Fabric filters remove dust from a gas stream by passing through a fabric. The fabric must allow air to pass through it and
remove the dust particles from the air.

TOPIC FOCUS
Principles of Fabric Filters

The filtration mechanism involves both the mechanical filtration of particles adhering to the strands of the fabric
and the filtration properties of the dust particles that accumulate on the fabric surface. The layer of dust that
accumulates on the fabric surface is called the filter cake. It would be logical to expect that the particles that
pass through the filter cake are those that are smaller than the spaces between the filter-cake particles and the
fabric weave. In fact, studies have shown that the particle size distribution leaking through into the exhaust air is
similar to that in the original gas stream. The process involved may be visualised by imagining the slow build-up
of particles on the clear fabric surface.

(Continued)

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

TOPIC FOCUS
As the fabric pores are all open and unobstructed, the airflow through the fabric is uniform and at a relatively
slow speed. As particles begin to adhere to the fabric strands, they form long chains due to electrostatic charging
and begin to bridge the pores in the fabric. Large particles may actually block the pores altogether. With time,
more and more pores are closed and the airflow through the remaining open pores increases. At some point,
there are very few pores left open and the airflow through them may be several orders of magnitude higher than
it was when they were all open. The force of air through these pores prevents particles bridging, and particles of
all sizes are swept through the remaining pores. At this point, the pressure drop across the filter is very high and
the fabric surface must be cleaned to allow airflow to continue.

Fabric filters are generally more efficient than cyclones at removing smaller particles from air streams.
Consequently, cyclones are often used as first-stage air-cleaning devices to remove the larger particles from the
air stream before it is passed into a fabric-filter unit.

Fabric Filter Types

Fabric filters are normally designed with the fabric forming cylinders or bags. Usually, there are several filter bags
or filter elements grouped together in an enclosure; the whole air-cleaning device is called a bag house, or bag-
filter plant. The types of bag-filter plant are differentiated by the mechanism used to remove the filter cake from
the surface of the bag.

There are three commonly used mechanisms:

• Mechanically Shaken
The technique of using fabrics to filter particles out of dust-laden air streams dates back to the 1800s. In
the early 1890s, bag-shaped filters were employed and these were shaken by hand to remove the filter cake.
Modern bag-filter plants employ mechanical shaking devices to vibrate the bag at frequencies between 10
and 100 cycles per second, for a few minutes. Generally, the bag is open at the bottom and closed at the top.
The dust-laden air enters the bag at the bottom and passes up and through the bag to leave the filter plant
through vents at the top. Thus, the filter cake accumulates on the inner surface of the bag. The cleaning cycle
is operated at regular intervals to remove the filter cake before the airflow through the bag is stopped, and
a slight reverse airflow is sometimes introduced to aid cleaning. The bags are shaken and the released dust is
collected in hoppers at the base of the plant.

The mechanical shaking of the bags induces friction and stresses the fabric, so the material of the filters must
be able to tolerate this.

• Reverse Air Cleaning

Reverse-airflow bag-filter plants employ a cleaning technique that involves passing cleaned air through the
bags in the opposite direction to the normal operating direction. In high-temperature operations the cleaned
air is recirculated rather than using colder ambient air, which reduces the thermal stresses in the plant and
prevents condensation.

(Continued)

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 Control Strategies and Measures 8.3

TOPIC FOCUS
Generally, the reverse airflow is carried out in separate compartments of the bag house to allow continuous
operation of the plant. The reverse airflow fan is much smaller than the main bag house fan. As with
mechanically-shaken systems, the dust-laden air enters the fabric bags, which are open at the bottom and
closed at the top. The filter cake accumulates on the inner surface of the bag. During the cleaning cycle, the
normal airflow is diverted and a reverse air current applied to the outside of the bag. This change in pressure
initially causes the bag to deform and the filter cake is dislodged and falls into a hopper. It is believed that
the filter cake is dislodged as a result of the deformation of the bag rather than the aerodynamic forces of
the reverse airflow. This method of cleaning involves less mechanical stress to the bags and so the strength
of the fabric material is not so crucial.

Sonic horns have been introduced into mechanically-shaken and reverse-flow bag-filter plant designs to
supplement the filter-cleaning mechanisms.

Bag-filter plant reverse-air cleaning

• Pulse Jet Cleaning

Pulse-jet bag-filter plants employ jets of compressed air to remove the filter cake. In these plants, the bag
filter elements are closed at the bottom and open at the top. The dust-laden air passes from the outside of
the bag to the inside and up to vents at the top of the plant. The filter cake forms on the outside of the bag.
To prevent the bags collapsing in normal operation, they are supported on the inside by metal rings or cages.

During the cleaning cycle, the airflow to bags is redirected and air from compressed air nozzles at the open
tops of the bags is directed into the bags. This positive pressure slightly inflates the bags and the deformation
and outward flow of air dislodges the filter cake. The dislodged dust falls into a hopper and is removed from
the plant.

(Continued)

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

TOPIC FOCUS

Pulse-air jet bag-filter plant

Fabric Material

Probably the most important aspect of a bag-filter plant is the choice of filter fabric. The material chosen must
be able to withstand the dusts and gases to which it is subjected without damage and deterioration. Another
critical factor is the temperature. Early bag filters used natural fibres, such as cotton or wool, and they are still
used today. However, these materials are not suitable for high-temperature applications. Synthetic fibres, such
as acetates, acrylics, polyamides, polyester, polyolefins and polyvinyl chlorides have better chemical resistance
and temperature characteristics. For high-temperature use, Teflon®, Ryton® and carbon-fibre filters have been
developed, with glass, ceramic and metallic fibres being employed for very-high-temperature applications.

The material may also be subjected to repeated flexing and abrasion within the fabric and between the materials
and the supporting structure. The material chosen must be capable of withstanding this level of abrasion.

(Continued)

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 Control Strategies and Measures 8.3

TOPIC FOCUS
In selecting an appropriate bag-filter material, the following characteristics must be considered:

• Temperature
The material chosen must have a maximum continuous service temperature higher than the normal
temperature of the application. If the temperature is likely to surge above the normal operating range, this
must be taken into account when selecting the material.

• Corrosivity
The ability of the material to resist physical degradation from the acids, alkalis, solvents and oxidising agents
in the waste gas stream must be considered.

• Hydrolysis
The effects of the expected levels of humidity of the flue gases must be considered.

• Dimensional Stability
If the material may shrink or stretch in service, the effects of this must be taken into account.

• Strength
The resistance of the material to flexing and abrasion must be considered. A trade-off between the other
factors may mean selecting a material that has to be replaced within shorter periods, thus increasing
maintenance costs.

• Release Characteristics
The material chosen must release the filter cake generated in the specific operational circumstances being
considered. Poor release characteristics will rapidly degrade the plant efficiency.

Bag-Filter Efficiency

Many of the design characteristics of bag-filter plants have been carefully researched and documented. However,
designers have been largely unsuccessful in predicting accurately bag-filter plant efficiencies prior to installation.
The method of measuring efficiencies involves measuring the particle concentrations in different size ranges
and expressing efficiency as the percentage of mass concentration retained by the plant in each size range.

Specific characteristics are important in designing plants to deal with specific situations. The parameters include
the gas-to-cloth ratio for particular materials. This is the measure of gas flow through a unit area of material.
However, this measure considers only the material and not the filter cake. There are various theoretical equations
for pressure drop across a porous bed and they are applied to material and filter-cake combinations to determine
the appropriate fan sizes and cleaning-cycle frequencies.

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

Wet Scrubbers
Wet scrubbing techniques are used to remove particulates from waste gas streams. Gases will also be removed and the
mechanisms involved are similar to those employed in absorption devices, such as packed columns (see later), whose
main function is to remove soluble gases. However, wet scrubbing techniques employ higher energy systems and are
normally employed under the following circumstances:
• Where the contaminant cannot be removed easily in a dry form.
• Where the waste gas stream contains both particulates and soluble gases.
• Where the particulates to be removed are soluble or wettable. They would adhere to the inner surfaces of a
cyclone or bag-filter plant and clog it.
• Where the contaminant will undergo some subsequent wet process, such as sedimentation, wet separation, or
neutralisation.
• Where the pollution-control system must be compact.
• Where the particulates may ignite or explode if collected in a dry form.
Wet scrubbing is used to control sticky emissions which may block filter-type collectors, to handle waste gas streams
containing both particulates and gases, to recover soluble dusts and powders and to remove metallic dusts such as
aluminium, which may explode if handled dry.

Principles of Wet Scrubbers

The principle of all wet scrubbers is that water droplets are generated within the device and particles are captured
within the droplets. The droplets are then removed from the air stream, which is now clean. The droplets are collected
as contaminated water and transported out of the device for treatment or disposal. It is generally accepted that smaller
droplets are required to capture small particulates and that the ideal case is to have a high concentration of fine droplets
in contact with the dust-laden exhaust air stream.

There are three main particle mechanisms involved:

• Impaction
This occurs when the particle is moving at a much higher velocity than the target droplet and impacts directly onto
the droplet. It happens when the particle has sufficiently high mass to overcome the aerodynamic forces exerted by
the air stream flowing around the droplet and applies mainly to large or dense particles.

• Interception
This occurs when smaller particles following the airflow around a droplet touch the surface of the droplet and are
captured in the droplet surface. It happens when the velocity of the particle is similar to the velocity of the droplet.

• Diffusion
The collision of very small particulates with air molecules causes them to move in a random fashion, known as
Brownian motion. In a moving air stream, where there is little relative difference between the velocity of water
molecules and particulates, the motion may be Brownian, but diffusion may cause particles to come into contact
and be captured by the droplets.

The scrubber design must be directed toward generating a high concentration of small droplets and mixing those
efficiently with the dust-laden air stream. The methods for doing this include injecting water directly into the air stream
and mechanically shearing the water into droplets, spraying the water into the gas stream and injecting water onto a
spinning disc or fan. Different scrubber designs use different techniques, or combinations of techniques.

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Scrubber Designs
There are five basic types of scrubber design:

• Venturi Scrubbers
These create atomised droplets by injecting water into the
gas stream before accelerating the water through a high-
velocity zone, called a venturi throat. The water and the gas
stream is then released into a low-pressure area, called
the diverging section. The turbulence in the venturi throat
breaks the water into tiny droplets and particle capture
occurs toward the end of the venturi throat and at the
beginning of the diverging section. Most venturi scrubbers
have throat widths of 150 mm or less because large throat
widths lead to inefficient mixing and areas where there are
fewer droplets. To accommodate higher airflows, multiple
venturis are often employed with throat widths of less than
30 mm.

• Mechanically-Aided Scrubbers
These use spinning discs or fans to generate water droplets.
Theoretical equations have been derived linking spinning-
disc speed to droplet diameter - the faster the disc speed,
the smaller the droplet diameter. To increase the capture
efficiency for small particles, smaller droplet sizes are
required and the energy consumption of the scrubber
increases. Simple venturi scrubber

• Pump-Aided Scrubbers
These spray the water as droplets into the gas stream.
In some devices, the droplet spray direction is counter
to the gas flow direction, thus increasing the impaction
mechanism efficiency. The atomisation of the liquid spray
may be enhanced by compressed air.

• Wetted Filter Scrubbers

These devices use a combination of water spray and a
filtration element. Particles are captured by water droplets,
as described previously. However, particles may also impact
temporarily on the elements of the filter to be washed off
by a film of water.

• Tray or Sieve Scrubbers

Tray or sieve-type wet scrubbers have small holes in trays
that accelerate the gas stream. Water is piped onto the trays
to form a shallow layer of water. The airflow through the
holes creates a froth, which assists in capturing particles.

Impingement tray tower scrubber

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

Droplet Removal
The principle of wet scrubbers is the injection of fine droplets into the dust-laden air stream. It is crucial to the
satisfactory operation of the scrubber that the droplets and associated mists are removed from the air stream. Many
scrubbers use cyclonic separators or cyclones to remove droplets. Others use chevron droplet eliminators for either
vertical or horizontal gas flow. Shaped like curved and parallel blades, the chevron introduces a surface against which
droplets impact and accumulate as water and then drain off. The solids that accumulate on the surface are periodically
washed off using water sprays.

For finer droplets, mist eliminators comprising a fine metal mesh are often used. A layer of wire mesh is introduced in
the final duct and the mist accumulates on it and drops off. The mesh mist eliminators are also spray-washed periodically
to remove any particulate build-up.

Operating Practice
There are certain useful principles that may be adopted in the design, selection and operation of wet scrubbing devices:
• Do not cool hot gas streams with water that has a high dissolved solids content. The water will evaporate leaving
very small particles, which are difficult to remove.
• The order in which the contaminated air is treated can be important. The air should be saturated with water first,
then the particulates removed. This will leave any contaminant gases which should then be taken out. If the air
stream is not saturated, the water droplets will evaporate and drive the particles away from droplets. However,
if the air is saturated, condensation on the particulates will aid particle capture. Particulates should be removed
before gas absorption because gas absorption requires larger droplets, which are not efficient for particle capture.
• Condense the moisture in the contaminated air whenever possible. This helps sweep particles out of the air
stream by creating submicron droplets around them. These small droplets are easier to collect.
• Allow for thermal expansion and contraction. As the temperature of the contaminated air-streams increases, the
volume which they occupy increases. The scrubber capacity and velocity calculation must incorporate thermal
expansion factors.
• Chemicals should be injected at points where they encounter the lowest particulate concentrations.
• Ensure that the scrubber can handle the maximum dust loadings envisaged. High dust loadings will result in
greater particulate build-up on surfaces and require more cleaning and maintenance. Lower dust loadings will
allow scrubbers with finer nozzles and perforations to be used.
• Take into account any airflow variations required because of batch production schedules. Airflow transients,
which may occur during abnormal or emergency situations, must also be considered and the effect on scrubbing
performance predicted.
• Arrange to remove sludges where the highest particle concentrations in liquid occur. Always design the scrubber
to inject the clean liquid into the zone where the cleanest exhaust air is required. Avoid running liquids with high
particulate concentration where the cleanest exhaust air stream is required, i.e. clean droplet eliminators with
clean liquids. Avoid adding clean liquid into a dirty sump or scrubber tank.

Electrostatic Precipitators
DEFINITION
Principles of Electrostatic Precipitators
ELECTROSTATIC
An area of ionised air molecules is established, usually around a wire, by PRECIPITATOR (ESP)
maintaining the wire at a very high voltage, typically 20,000 to 100,000 volts.
Is a particulate and droplet
This region of ionised air molecules is called a corona. As dust particles flow
control device which uses
through the corona, they collect the ions, then they themselves become
electrical forces to remove
charged. Small particles around one micron may collect tens of thousands of
particles from a dust-laden air
ions. A plate, called the collector plate, is maintained at the opposite electrical
stream.
polarity to the wire and the particles, so that the charged particles migrate
toward the plate.

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ESPs are normally arranged with a series of wires between rows of plates so that as the particles pass each wire, they
collect more of a charge and drift progressively towards the plates. However, the turbulence in the gas tends to keep the
charged particles uniformly mixed with the gas. The collection process is a competition between the electrostatic and
dispersive forces. Eventually, the particles approach close enough to the plates so that the turbulence drops to lower
levels and the particles are deposited.

An ESP would be a very high-efficiency collection device, if all the particles could be removed efficiently from the plates.
However, the removal of dust from the plates is often accomplished by rapping the top of the plates mechanically,
using a hammer or piston. The released dust then drops or slides down the plate into a hopper. During this process,
approximately 10% of the dust may re-enter the air stream. Most of this dust is recaptured, but dust released at the
outlet of the device will escape into the exhaust air stream.

The dust deposited on the plates is not a solid cake, as in a bag-filter plant, but a fragile deposit. Thus, there may be
re-entry of the dust by the airflow over the plates. To prevent this, baffles are often included to reduce airflow over the
plant surface.

Electrostatic precipitator (plate-wire)

Another major factor in ESP losses is the resistivity of the dust. Because the particles form a continuous layer on the ESP
plates, all the ion current must pass through the layer to reach the ground plates. This current creates an electric field in
the layer and it can become large enough to cause local electrical breakdown. When this occurs, new ions of the wrong
polarity are injected into the plate-wire gap, where they reduce the charge on the particles and may cause sparking. This
breakdown condition is called back corona.

Types of Electrostatic Precipitators

There are four main types of precipitator:

• Plate-Wire Precipitators
Plate-wire precipitators, as described above, are by far the most common type and are used in a wide variety
of industrial applications, including coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, solid-waste incinerators, paper-mill recovery
boilers, petroleum refining and catalytic cracking units, sinter plants, basic oxygen furnaces, open-hearth furnaces,
electric-arc furnaces, coke oven batteries and glass furnaces.

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

• Flat-Plate Precipitators
These are used for smaller applications and use a central plate rather than a wire. The flat plates increase the average
electric field, which can be used to collect the particles and provide an increased surface area for the collection of
particles. Since a corona cannot be generated on flat plates, needle-like electrodes are located on the leading and
trailing edges of the central plates.

A flat-plate ESP operates with little or no corona current flowing through the collected dust, except directly under
the corona needles. This leads to a lower likelihood of back corona and, since there are two oppositely-charged
collection surfaces, particles of both polarities can be collected. However, because of the lack of current in the
collected layer, the layer is less strongly attracted to the collection plates and this leads to high rapping losses.

Flat-plate ESPs have applications for small (less than one micron) particles with high resistivities. These applications
are appropriate because electrical dislodging forces are weaker for small particles. A low air velocity is essential to
avoid high rapping losses. This type of ESP has been used to collect fly ash.

Flat-plate electrostatic precipitator

• Tubular Precipitators
The early ESPs were tubular, with the discharge wire running up the centre of the tube. In order to accommodate
higher airflows, the tubes were often arranged in bundles. The tubes may be formed as a circular, square or hexagonal
honeycomb and can be tightly sealed to prevent leaks of material. Consequently, while they are most often used
in sulphuric-acid plants, coke ovens, and iron and steel plants, they are often also employed to recover valuable
materials, or to control the release of hazardous material.

• Water-Irrigated Precipitators
A water-irrigated precipitator may be of any of the design types discussed above, but with walls washed with water
rather than the dry dust rapped from the surface. The water flow may be continuous or intermittent with the sludge
collected in a sump below the plates.

The use of a water-wash system reduces the build-up of dust on the plates and so reduces the chance of back
corona. However, it also generates slurry, which is more difficult and expensive to dispose of than a dry dust deposit.

Typical Applications
Electrostatic precipitators are often used as the final stages in an air cleaning system. Where there are high dust loadings
with large particles, a cyclone is often used as a first-stage cleaning device to remove the coarse or large particles from
the air stream.

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Gas-conditioning equipment to improve the ESP performance by changing dust resistivity is occasionally used as part of
the original design, but more frequently it is used to upgrade existing ESPs. The equipment injects a chemical into the
gas stream ahead of the ESP. Usually, the chemical mixes with the particles and alters their resistivity to promote higher
migration velocity and thus higher collection efficiency. However, the electrical properties of the gas may change rather
than the dust resistivity. For example, cooling the gas will allow a higher voltage to be applied before sparking occurs.
Important conditioning chemicals used include SO3, H2SO4, sodium compounds, ammonia and water, but the major
conditioning chemical by usage is SO3.

Water Walls
Water can be used to suppress dust and prevent it escaping from a confined area. This technique is commonly used
in construction and demolition, where large amounts of dust can be generated and therefore need to be controlled.

There are two common methods:

• Rain guns - used to spray water over stockpiles or buildings being demolished and keep material damp but not
wet. This reduces the amount of dust created by the break-up of the building material. The guns can be either
static or mounted on vehicles such as loading shovels so they suppress dust as material is moved around a site.
• Perimeter systems - create a curtain of fine water particles that can cover a large area where activities may create
dust.
With both systems the design of the nozzles is critical to avoid using excessive volumes of water and creating run-
off that then needs to be controlled. If designed and installed correctly there should be little, if any, run-off as the
particle size of the water droplets is such that they encourage dust particles to bind together and therefore drop out of
suspension in the atmosphere.

Gas and Vapour Devices

Absorption Devices

DEFINITION
ABSORPTION DEVICES
Remove pollutant gases by bringing them into contact with a solvent liquid (often water) - the pollutants are
absorbed by the liquid and removed from the air stream. A packed column is often used.

TOPIC FOCUS
Principle of Absorption Devices

These installations are designed primarily for removing pollutant gases from exhaust air-streams. In most
industrial circumstances, the concentration of pollutant gas in the air stream is low. The principle upon which
these devices operate is to bring the molecule of the pollutant gas into contact with a solvent liquid, usually
water, so that the pollutant dissolves and so is removed from the air stream. The efficiency of the installation
depends on the:
• solubility of the pollutant gas in the solvent;
• rate at which pollutant gas is dissolved;
• contact time between the gas and the solvent; and
• the degree of mixing.
(Continued)

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

TOPIC FOCUS
When the pollutant gas is distributed throughout the air stream, the pollutant molecules are evenly distributed.
Thus, when one molecule of pollutant gas is dissolved in a droplet, either another molecule must move toward
the droplet, or the droplet must move toward another molecule for absorption to continue. There must,
therefore, be mixing and turbulence designed into the system.

Packed Columns

One of the most common types of absorption device is the packed column. These are usually vertical steel
columns containing small elements over which water flows, coating each of them with a thin layer of water. In
most arrangements, the water enters from the top and trickles down while the polluted air stream enters from
the bottom. The elements are designed with complex shapes to present a large surface area to the air stream.
As the air moves up the column, the pollutant gas is absorbed onto the water film which moves down toward
the sump at the base of the column. As the air stream moves up the column, it becomes progressively free of
the pollutant.

The upward movement of the air stream against the downward flow of water causes a resistance to the flow
of water. Consequently, as more air flows through the column, the resistance to the water will increase and the
flow of water will decrease. Eventually, a situation may be reached where the airflow is such that the water flow
through the column is less than the rate of water delivered to the top of the column. At this point, the layers
of water on the elements will increase and combine, and flooding of the column will occur, preventing the
operation of the column. The column must be designed to have a maximum throughput of approximately 70%
of flooding velocity.

The efficiency of the column is also dependent on the even distribution of water moving down through the
column, so that the maximum surface area of water is presented to the air stream.

The water distributor is designed with spray jets to spray an even distribution of water onto the top of the
packing. However, water tends to migrate toward the walls of the column. To reduce this effect, packing supports
are incorporated into the column every three or four metres. These are plates which collect the water moving
down through the packing and redistribute it evenly. There are many different elements which are used. There
are also two basic packing strategies called random packing and stack packing.

• Random-Packing Columns
In random-packing columns, the elements are dropped in the column in a random way. To prevent damage
to the elements, the column is filled with water and the elements are dropped in and allowed to take up the
position in which they settle. After the first two or three weeks’ operation, the packing will normally settle
further and so will need to be topped up.

• Stack-Packing Columns
The elements in stack-packed columns are manually placed in position. This creates vertical channels through
which the water film can travel and maintain a more even distribution of water surface. It also leads to a
lower pressure drop across the column.

(Continued)

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TOPIC FOCUS

Counter-current random packed column

(Continued)

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

TOPIC FOCUS

Packing media

Plate Columns

Another mechanism used to mix pollutant gases in an air stream with a solvent is to bubble the air up through
water held on plates. These devices are called plate columns. There are two basic designs, bubble-cap plate
columns and sieve air-perforated plate columns. As the air bubbles through the holes in the plates, the
pollutant gases are dissolved into the water. In order to extend the contact time with the water and allow mixing
of the pollutant gas and the air, these devices have several stages, or plates. The contact between polluted gases
and liquid is also increased by creating bubbles or froth.

In the bubble-plate system, the plates are approximately 500mm apart, with holes on top of which perforated
caps are fixed to generate a frothing action. These are called bubble caps.

The plates in the perforation-plate column are closer together, about 300mm, and the holes between 5mm
and 25mm in diameter. The liquid resting on the plate flows off over a weir and into a down caster to the plate
below. The action of forcing the airflow through the small holes and into the liquid again creates bubbles or a
frothing effect which increases the gas liquid surface area. Increasing the depth of liquid through the gas bubbles
increases efficiency. However, it also increases the pressure drop, which increases the energy consumption of
the device.

(Continued)

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TOPIC FOCUS

Bubble-cap plate column

Application

These devices each have several features which present advantages in particular situations. The total weight
of a plate column is normally less than the equivalent packed column. The pressure drop of the gas through a
packed column is lower than that through a plate column. The plate column can function on lower water-feed
rates as the water stands on the plates. However, the packed columns must have a minimum water-feed rate to
maintain a water film on all of the elements. The arrangement of water flowing off the plates also means that a
plate column can accommodate higher water-feed rates at levels which would normally flood a packed column.

(Continued)

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

TOPIC FOCUS
In addition, the plate column design is less likely to have the water distribution problems presented by a random-
packed column. The contact between the gas and the water is better. If the air stream contains particulates,
they will deposit on the internal surfaces of the columns. With packed columns they may plug or clog the
elements. While back flushing may remove some sediments, gross contamination is difficult to clear. In plate
columns, the plates may be cleaned manually provided access manholes have been incorporated into the design.
Where the absorption processes involve heating or cooling of the liquid, this can be achieved by incorporating
heat exchange systems on the plates of plate columns. However, heat exchange elements are more difficult to
incorporate into a stack-column design. In addition, temperature changes are more likely to damage a packed
column than a plate column.

Where the air stream contains highly corrosive pollutants, a packed column is simpler and cheaper to construct,
the ceramic elements are less prone to corrosion and easier to replace. Packed columns are also preferred for
liquids with high foaming characteristics.

Activated Carbon Adsorption Devices

There are two adsorption mechanisms: a physical action involving
intermolecular Van der Waals forces and a chemical action involving activated DEFINITION
adsorption.
ADSORPTION
The physical adsorption uses the forces present on the surfaces of most A process involving the
solids to attract gas molecules. When these surface forces are stronger than retention of a gas or vapour
the intermolecular forces between the pollutant gas molecules and the air molecule on the surface of
molecules, the pollutant gas molecules will adhere to the surface of the solid. a particle or droplet. The
Chemical adsorption, in contrast to physical adsorption, involves chemical phenomenon is essentially a
reactions on the surface of the adsorbent. surface reaction as opposed
to absorption, which involves
Some solids with many pores and crevices present extremely large surface
the complete encapsulation
areas to gases and so are the most appropriate adsorbents. These include
of a molecule which is then
activated carbon, activated alumina, silica gel and molecular sieves - see
dissolved in a liquid droplet.
following illustration.

Adsorption on a solid with many pores

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Adsorbents
Several factors must be considered in selecting an adsorbent. A high relative surface area is important to maintain a
large contact area for adsorption, while maintaining the maximum possible space between the adsorbent granules
for maximum airflow rates. Relative affinity for polar and non-polar compounds varies between adsorbent media.
Activated charcoal, which is non-polar, has an affinity for organic compounds to the exclusion of polar gases, including
water vapour. Silica gel and alumina are polar and have increasing affinity for higher polarity gases. Clearly, the
adsorbents must not be chemically reactive with the gases to be retained, unless chemical adsorption is desired.

• Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is charcoal which has been heated in the absence of air. At one time wood was heated to produce
charcoal, but later developments include the use of coal, coconut shells, peat and other substances.

After heating, the carbon is activated to remove the volatile components. In the case of coal, high temperature
steam is used. Zinc chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride and phosphoric acid have also been used as
activating agents.

• Activated Alumina
Activated alumina and hydrated aluminium oxide is produced by special heat treatment of aluminium ore or bauxite.
Activated alumina is mainly used for drying gases under pressure. It selectively adsorbs polar and higher molecular
weight compounds and, like all polar adsorbents, has an affinity for water.

• Silica Gel
Silica gel is an amorphous form of silica derived from the interaction of sodium silicate and sulphuric acid. As
with alumina, the polarity of the adsorbed compound determines the binding strength, hence compounds of high
polarity will displace compounds of lesser polarity.

• Molecular Sieves
A carbon molecular sieve sorbent is the carbon skeletal framework remaining after pyrolysis of the synthetic
polymeric or petroleum pitch precursors. The result is a spherical macroporous structure. The choice of starting
polymer or pitch dictates the physical characteristics of the sieve, such as particle size, shape and pore structure.
Carbon molecular sieves are most commonly used to collect non-polar organic compounds.

Operational Mechanisms
Adsorption systems are designed either to remove pollutant gases and vapours from air streams, to prevent the
emission of these pollutants to atmosphere, or to collect those vapours to return them to the process. In either case,
there are four phases in the process:
• Contact between the polluted air stream and the adsorbent under conditions that allow adsorption of the
pollutant.
• Removal of the cleaned air stream from the adsorbent.
• Regeneration of the adsorbent to recover the pollutants and re-use the adsorbent.
• Re-use or disposal of the pollutant.
The adsorbent most often used is activated carbon.

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

• Static-Bed System
In simple systems, granulated activated carbon is held in a vertical column and solvent-laden air is passed down
through the column. The solvent is progressively adsorbed on the carbon and the cleaned air passes out of the
column to the atmosphere. After a predetermined period, set to ensure that the carbon is not completely saturated
with solvent, the airflow through the column is shut off and the carbon is regenerated. This may be achieved by
lowering the gas pressure on the carbon to cause desorption of the solvent, or by increasing the temperature. Of
the two, thermal desorption is the most widely-used method. In many cases, hot dry steam is passed through the
column in the opposite direction to the previous airflow. Thus, desorption occurs first at the end of the column with
least adsorption and the released solvent is passed over the areas of most adsorption, which reduces the likelihood
of re-adsorption during the regeneration cycle.

Steam consumption per litre of solvent recovered varies with strip time and with the particular solvent adsorbed.
As the steam strip time is extended, more steam per litre of solvent recovered is required and a point is reached
at which expended steam cost exceeds the solvent recovery benefits. Hence, it is more economical to operate the
strip cycle to recover only part of the adsorbed solvent, leaving a heel of solvent within the bed. The resultant
steam solvent mixture passes into a condenser and then into a single gravity separator. In cases where the recovered
solvent is miscible in water, fractional distillation may be necessary.

After the solvent is steam-stripped, the carbon beds are hot and saturated with water. The beds are normally
opened and air-dried, allowing the water to evaporate to atmosphere. Where the polluted air stream contains more
than one pollutant, the solvents with a lighter molecular weight will be adsorbed first, but may then be displaced by
those with a higher molecular weight. Thus different percentages of chemical species may be present at different
parts of the column.

Although the time taken for regeneration of the carbon and recovery of the solvent or gas is usually much less
than the period when air cleaning or adsorption is taking place, in some cases the industrial process is such that
it cannot be stopped. Multiple systems are therefore common where two or more columns are used. This allows
some columns to be in the adsorption part of the cycle, while others are in the regeneration part of the cycle, as in
the following illustration:

Simple activated carbon solvent-recovery system

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• Rotary-Bed Systems
To improve efficiency of the carbon bed, continuous rotary-bed systems have been developed. These consist of
a rotating drum containing activated carbon. The drum has a hollow central core along the axis of rotation and
the space between the inner and outer walls of the drum is divided into radial sections. Vapour-laden air enters
the drum in one section, at one end of the drum. It then travels along the length of the section and the vapour is
adsorbed in the carbon. The cleaned air leaves through the central core from the far end of the drum.

Once that section is saturated with vapour, the drum rotates to the next section. At another vapour-saturated
section of the drum, steam is pumped up a pipe in the central core to enter the section at the far end of the drum.
The steam passes through the vapour-saturated carbon to exit as a steam and solvent mixture at the front end of
the drum. Thus, there is always adsorption, and regeneration is progressive within the drum.

Process Controls
Before a carbon-bed adsorption system is considered or designed, careful consideration should be given to modifying
existing processes and procedures to reduce the quantities of VOCs in the exhaust air-streams:
• Consider whether the use of the solvent is necessary, or whether a water-based system or detergent degreasing
system could be used.
• Consider the substitution of the solvent for a lower-volatility solvent, or a less toxic solvent, or one with a lower
environmental impact.
• Minimise the ventilation rates and volumes in the process to reduce evaporation rates.
• Establish working procedures for increasing free board zones, increasing transit times, avoiding splashing and
solvent carry-over. Train workers to comply with the procedures.
• Maintain a cold-air condensation zone above tanks with either chilled water coils, or direct expansion
refrigeration. Do not vigorously boil the sump or agitate the solvent with compressed air.
• Provide well-designed local-exhaust ventilation systems with hoods and tank enclosures.
• Provide a parts-drying chamber within this process if possible, with internal recycling.
• Cover tanks when not in use.
• Perform solvent spraying in a vapour zone, preferably with a gentle flush rather than an atomised spray.
• Do not use compressed-air drying techniques.
• Do not direct ventilation fans onto solvent baths, containers or uncontrolled drying areas.

Maintenance and Operation

The surface area of carbon granules must be protected against dirt and other particulates entering the bed. It is common
to have a fabric filter or bag filter as a primary air-cleaning device located upstream of the carbon bed. Some solvents
entering the adsorption bed will degenerate or polymerise. Such substances must not be allowed to enter the bed as
they will progressively reduce the working surface area of the carbon.

Many local-exhaust ventilation systems have been introduced to satisfy occupational hygiene requirements. Poor
hood and enclosure design and leaking ducts have often been compensated for by higher ventilation velocities and
volumes, which are not consistent with efficient final air-cleaning characteristics. Careful consideration should be given
to improved design characteristics which deliver lower ventilation velocities and volumes. This will lead to lower space-
heating energy requirements, more efficient final air cleaning, lower atmospheric emissions and lower fan and system
maintenance costs. Working bed capacities vary considerably, depending on the particular solvent being reclaimed and
its regeneration characteristics. To maximise the performance of the carbon bed, the duration of the adsorption cycle
should be extended to just below the breakthrough points of the bed. Breakthrough can be determined using organic
vapour analysers simultaneously on the inlet and outlet streams of the adsorber bed. Breakthrough history can be
determined on the particular process being controlled and regeneration can be initiated when appropriate.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-41
8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

Incinerators
There are three types of incineration devices generally referred to: flare stacks, thermal incinerators and catalytic
incinerators.

Incineration Devices
• Flare Stacks
These are usually employed in the petrochemical industry and are seen
as tall stacks with visible flames on top. When operating efficiently, the
flame should be blue or colourless. Yellow flames indicate incomplete
combustion. The oxidation reaction occurs at the burner at the top of the
stack and is almost instantaneous.

• Thermal Incinerators
These devices are used primarily for oxidising organic compounds to
prevent their release into the atmosphere. For simple organic compounds
containing only carbon and hydrogen, the products of combustion are
carbon dioxide and water. However, where more complex compounds
are involved containing sulphur or halogens, the incineration process
may produce sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid or
phosgene. These pollutants may have to be removed using a scrubber, Flare stack incinerator
before they are released to the atmosphere.

Combustion occurs when the waste gas is raised to a sufficiently high temperature for the molecules to react with
oxygen. For this to happen, the conditions must be established in terms of temperature and time. The higher the
temperature, the more rapid the reaction rate and so the shorter the time involved.

Most incinerators comprise a chamber containing a burner unit. The burner unit, fuelled usually with natural gas,
raises the temperature of the waste gas to the point where it reacts with the oxygen in the air. The chamber size
and waste-gas flow rate is designed to achieve a given residence time of the waste gas in the chamber. Since the
cost of the fuel gas is a critical parameter in the economics of incinerator operations, a balance between operating
temperature and residence time is reached.

Most hazardous waste-gas incinerators operate at temperatures of between 950°C and 1,200°C, although the
thermal destruction of most organic compounds occurs at around 600°C. Residence times are of the order of one
or two seconds. One of the major considerations in operating waste-gas incinerators is complete incineration of the
waste gas stream. Operating at higher temperatures assists this, but thorough mixing of the incoming waste gases
with the hot gas around the burner zone is critical. For this reason, the chamber is designed to induce turbulence
in the burner zone. Some designers say that the most important design features are Temperature, Time and
Turbulence, or the three Ts.

• Catalytic Incinerators
Since the cost of fuel gases used to maintain high temperatures in incinerator operation is so high, devices have
been developed to achieve oxidation at lower temperatures. Catalysts, such as finely divided platinum in the form
of surface-coated pellets, honeycombs and meshes are in common use. However, there are other catalytic surface
coatings, such as oxides of copper, chromium, vanadium, nickel and cobalt.

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 Control Strategies and Measures 8.3

The use of a catalyst allows the oxidation reaction to take place at much lower temperatures, around 400°C.
While this allows economies through fuel-gas costs and less substantial structures due to the lower pressure and
temperature demands, there are penalties in the initial cost of the catalyst. In addition to this, the surface of the
catalyst can be poisoned by halogens and particulates containing metals such as zinc, arsenic, lead and mercury.
This requires the catalyst surface to be regenerated periodically using steam. The necessity of keeping the catalyst
surface clean also means that particulates may have to be removed from the polluted air stream before entering
the catalytic incinerator.

Both thermal and catalytic incinerators can achieve destruction efficiencies in excess of 95%. They are widely used for
the control of VOCs and where odour control is important.

Dry Scrubbers
A dry scrubbing system does not saturate the gas stream with moisture. They therefore do not have a wastewater
handling requirement. There are various forms of dry scrubber that will usually use a combination of moisture-free air
pollution abatement technologies that we have covered above such as bag filters, adsorption, electrostatic precipitators
and cyclones. Dry scrubbing techniques may be used for treating pollutant emissions from numerous sources such as
waste incineration, biomass combustion or kilns.

A common application of dry scrubbing is the removal of acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide from an air stream released
from fossil fuel combustion. In such a scenario, an alkaline material (such as hydrated lime or sodium bicarbonate) is
injected into an air stream. The acidic gas reacts with the alkaline sorbent to form a solid salt. The solid salt is removed
via particulate control devices such as filters, etc.

Coolers and Chillers

VOC vapours condense when their temperature is reduced or pressure increased. In most air pollution-control
applications it is more practical to reduce the temperature of the vapour. Two methods are used to reduce vapour
temperature. One involves spraying cold water into the gas stream and cooling by direct contact. Devices which use
this principle are called contact coolers, or contact condensers. Devices that present the vapour with a cold surface
are called surface coolers.

TOPIC FOCUS
Contact and Surface Coolers

• Contact Coolers
The simplest form of contact cooler is a chamber fitted with sprays. The vapour enters the chamber and
is sprayed with chilled water. Another variant involves a chamber containing trays onto which chilled water
pours from tray to tray down the chamber. The vapour rises through the chamber, condensing as it makes
contact with the chilled water.

In contact coolers, there is clearly intimate contact between the vapour being condensed and the cooling
medium. Thus, the cooling medium becomes contaminated and is seldom suitable for re-use. This may, in
fact, present significant waste-disposal problems.

• Surface Coolers
In surface-cooling or surface-condensing devices, the cooling water is circulated within pipes similar to a
heat exchanger. The vapour-polluted air stream flows over the pipes and the vapour condenses on the pipes,
leaving the air stream.

Neither contact nor surface coolers are high-efficiency devices and are generally used for pre-treatment to
reduce the total vapour volume being passed into more efficient devices.

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8.3 Control Strategies and Measures

Peat Filter Beds

These were being developed in the mid-1980s as an inexpensive technology to remove from air streams simple
organic compounds that were not toxic but did present odour problems. The beds are typically large steel or concrete
containers containing natural peat. The peat was treated with micro-organisms and supplied with water and nutrients
to encourage their growth. High-volume, but low-velocity air streams could then be treated by passing them through
the peat beds to remove the organics that generated the odours.

Bio Scrubbers
A bio scrubber consists of a gas scrubber that removes pollutants from the gas stream by the use of washwater. The
wastewater is then transferred to a biological reactor where pollutants are biologically degraded.

Bio scrubbers can be used to treat a range of pollutants such as hydrocarbons, chlorinated organics and odorous
substances.

STUDY QUESTIONS
7. Describe two devices that can be used for the capture of particulates; sketch an outline of each device.

8. Identify abatement techniques for gases and vapours.

9. Describe how an emission of a solvent could be captured for re-use.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Summary

Summary

Key topics covered in this element:
• Particles and liquids may be classed as fumes, smoke, dust, grit, vapours, mist and fibres.
• Transboundary pollutants may cause acid deposition, climate change and ozone depletion.
• The Gothenburg Protocol requires participants to comply with national emission ceilings for four identified
substances.
• Legislation often states requirements for atmospheric monitoring.
• Competence schemes, such as MCERTS, have been developed to ensure standardisation of monitoring results.
• Report findings will need to be compared to emission limit values in permits.
• The eliminate, minimise, render harmless hierarchy can be applied to air pollutants.
• Particulate matter can be reduced by engineering controls such as settling chambers, cyclones and fabric filters.
• Gas and vapours may be removed by absorption devices, adsorption devices, incineration and peat beds.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-45
 Appendix

Appendix

Emission Ceilings under the Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification,
Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone 1999

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 Appendix

Source: Annex II, Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone, United
Nations, 1999 (as amended) (www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2013/air/eb/ECE.EB.AIR.114_ENG.
pdf)

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-47
ES Exam Skills

Exam Skills

QUESTION
Describe the main environmental effects that may be caused by emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
into the atmosphere. (20)

Approaching the Question

For this question a description of the main effects of nitrogen oxides being released to atmosphere is required. Nitrogen
oxides are common pollutants that have numerous effects on a wide range of receptors.

Plan
Ground level, respiratory problems, photochemical smog, odour, acid deposition (wet and dry), effects (damage to
vegetation, release of metals, damage to monuments and buildings, aquatic system).

Suggested Answer Outline

Now you have completed your answer, compare it to the following suggested answer.

The main environmental effects of emissions of nitrogen oxides into the air include direct damage to human health if
air quality standards are exceeded. NOx emitted at a low level through car exhausts, for example, can be breathed in by
people and combine with water in mucous membranes of the respiratory system (e.g. lungs and throat), causing acid
formation. This will result in irritation of the lungs. Emissions of NOx at a low level are also implicated in the formation
of low level ozone, which again is another respiratory irritant. NOx and other substances are broken down with the aid
of sunlight and form low level ozone (photochemical smog) which is inhaled by people.

Emissions of oxides of nitrogen are also odorous in large quantities, causing a nuisance problem to those who may live
or work close to the source. Emissions of NOx from combustion and other activities can also be involved in the process
of acid deposition. Acid deposition can be of two types - wet and dry. Wet deposition occurs when NOx is released
to air in the atmosphere and combines with water in clouds to form acids. Such clouds can be blown long distances
and the lowered pH of the precipitation can cause damage to vegetation both directly (corrosive action on the plants’
structures) and by removing essential minerals from the soil, leaving the plant open to disease and attack by parasites.
Acid rain may also release harmful heavy metals such as aluminium from certain areas into groundwater and surface
water used for drinking. Such metals can have significant effects on people’s health. Additionally, acid rain can cause
damage to buildings and monuments, particularly those constructed from more vulnerable types of building materials
such as limestone and metals. Acid rain may also decrease the pH of rivers and lakes and as such reduce the biodiversity
of such habitats, as organisms that can tolerate the lowered pH will thrive whereas those that cannot will disappear.
Fish, plants and macroinvertebrates could also be affected depending on their tolerance to the increased acidity of the
water. Acid deposition can also occur from dry deposition. This is when acidic particles or gas are removed from the
air through gravitational forces. Depending on where the particles land, this can have similar effects to acid rain such as
release of heavy metals from soil, damage to buildings and monuments, etc.

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 Element 9
Managing Emissions to the Water Environment

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll

understand how to:

 Outline the types of pollutants/effluents

likely to be discharged to the water
environment.

 Describe the purpose of monitoring

effluent discharges and the measuring
techniques used.

 Outline different potable water and

wastewater treatment methods and the
situation/s in which each method would
be used.

 Explain the need for sustainable water

abstraction.

 Outline the risks associated with flooding

and appropriate control measures.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment 9-1
 Contents

Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9-3

Introduction 9-3
Water Pollution 9-3
Point and Diffuse Sources of Pollution 9-5
Causes and Effects of Eutrophication 9-6
Pollution Prevention 9-6
Study Questions 9-15

Monitoring of Effluent Discharges 9-16

Purpose of Effluent and Water Monitoring 9-16
Environmental Practitioner’s Role in Water Pollution Monitoring 9-17
Biotic Index 9-18
Key Monitoring Parameters 9-18
Study Questions 9-20

Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9-21

Reasons for Effluent Treatment 9-21
Sewage Treatment Works 9-22
Treating and Distributing Water 9-25
Effluent Treatment 9-27
Desalination 9-33
Study Questions 9-33

Abstraction from the Water Environment 9-34

Need for Sustainable Water Abstraction 9-34
Water Neutrality 9-34
Ways to Reduce Water Consumption 9-37
Water Stress 9-37
Study Questions 9-38

Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and Control Measures for Flooding 9-39
Consequences of Flooding 9-39
Factors when Assessing Flood Risk 9-40
Control and Mitigation of Flooding 9-40
Study Questions 9-42

Summary 9-43
Exam Skills 9-44

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water

Environment

IN THIS SECTION...
• Water pollutants can be classed as being physical, chemical or biological.
• Oxygen stress is the reduction of oxygen to low levels, significantly affecting aquatic life.
• Suspended solids in water may cause visible nuisance, smother plants and damage fisheries.
• Point sources are those where there is a distinct controlled discharge into a water-course.
• Prevention of water pollution can be achieved by identifying and marking drains, bunding, appropriate drum
storage and control on deliveries.
• Fire-fighting run-off may cause pollution and should be controlled. Control techniques include containment
lagoons, penstock valves and using an appropriate fire-fighting strategy.

Introduction
Water forms a valuable resource and most water is used for the irrigation of
crops for both humans and animals. Industry also uses significant amounts
of water for many purposes, such as in the product directly, e.g. food and
drink and chemicals-manufacturing, and for the operation of processes, e.g.
cooling water and solvent cleaning.

Pollution of drinking water can have a direct significant effect on people’s

health and can also affect other species. While some fish species can tolerate
poor water quality, others need clean water with a high dissolved oxygen
content to survive. For example, carp can exist in highly polluted water,
whereas salmon and trout require very clean water with high dissolved
oxygen content.
Pollution of water can affect a
Water Pollution range of species

Generally, water pollutants can be classified as being either:

• physical - such as litter, suspended solids, heat and radioactivity;
• chemical - such as acids, alkalis and pesticides; or
• biological - harmful pathogens in water that cause disease, e.g. viruses and intestinal parasites.
We will now consider specific pollutants and the possible damage that they can cause to the water environment.

Oxygen Stress
Plants and animals that live in aquatic environments depend on an adequate supply of oxygen for respiration - just like
plants and animals on land. But land plants and animals get their oxygen direct from the atmosphere, whereas aquatic
plants and animals must use oxygen that is dissolved in the water in which they live. Although oxygen makes up around
21% of the atmosphere (by volume) it is much less available in water. The amount of oxygen that water can hold in
solution depends on a number of factors, especially temperature, but typically a litre of water will only contain 5-6
milligrams of dissolved oxygen - this is around 20 times less than a litre of air. Aquatic plants and animals are therefore
extremely sensitive to any pollutant that reduces the oxygen content of the water.

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9.1 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment

Creating an oxygen stress is one of the most important mechanisms by which polluting effluents can affect aquatic
wildlife. Effluents that contain high levels of organic material - for example, human sewage - strip oxygen from receiving
waters. This is because the micro-organisms that feed on the organic material and break it down consume oxygen from
the water column as they grow and multiply. Oxygen stress may also be caused by the oxidation of chemicals in water.
Substances will combine with oxygen in water, thus reducing the amount of freely available oxygen for wildlife. In iron-
rich waters, for example, the iron will be oxidised to form soluble ferric hydrate, thus consuming large quantities of
dissolved oxygen in the water.

Solids
Large amounts of litter (particularly plastic bottles and wrappers) end up in rivers, lakes and on beaches. Grits and silts
(such as cement) also end up in rivers, washed from building activities.

Suspended solids are present in many trade effluents, e.g. from paper-making and quarrying, and run-off from
construction sites.

The main effects are aesthetic (visible nuisance) and also include smothering plants and animals on the bed of the
watercourse, damaging fisheries and interfering with self-purification.

Acids and Alkalis

Change in the pH of a watercourse through the introduction of acidic or alkaline effluent can alter the natural pH
balance. This may lead to change in the biodiversity of the watercourse, as organisms that cannot cope with the
increased/decreased pH will cease to exist. Alteration to the pH balance of a watercourse may also cause the release of
secondary pollutants such as metals that are bound in sediment. A high level of such pollution may even cause death.

Phosphorus and Nitrogen Compounds

Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds can indirectly remove oxygen from water by the process of (nutrient enrichment)
(see later).

Hydrocarbons
Oil and oil-based compounds form a layer on the surface of water, reducing oxygen exchange and thus lowering oxygen
level in the water. Oil may also coat the leaves of aquatic plants and other organisms such as birds.

Pesticides
The impacts of pesticides in water can vary depending on type. Acute release of pesticides in water has been known to
kill aquatic life. Pesticides often bioaccumulate, having significant long-term impacts on aquatic life which might include
thyroid disruption in amphibians and fish (organophosphates and DDT), endocrine disruption (DDT) and negative
interactions with immune systems (atrazine). They therefore have a significant potential to reduce biodiversity.

Persistent Organic Pollutants

These are a group of substances that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of any organisms and, as they degrade very
slowly, can bioaccumulate in food chains, posing a high risk to human health and the environment - a number are
carcinogenic, for example. They are carbon-containing compounds - major sources are pesticides, industrial chemicals
and unintentional by-products. Examples include:
• Aldrin.
• Chlordane.
• Dieldrin.
• Endrin.

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

• Toxaphene.
• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).
• DDT.
• Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF).
• Hexachlorobenzene (HCB).
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Thermal
Raised temperature can have the effect of reducing the amount of oxygen in
the water and altering the biodiversity. For example, ‘game fish’ such as sea
trout and salmon can die if water temperatures are beyond a 5°C to 20°C
range, whereas ‘coarse fish’ such as roach and tench can tolerate a broader
temperature range.

Pathogens and Parasites

Sewage and animal wastes contain pathogenic micro-organisms (viruses,
bacteria, protozoa and intestinal parasite eggs). Numbers of a given organism
depend on the prevalence of infection in the population and other factors.
Examples include:
• cryptosporidium - a single-celled parasite that causes severe gastric
problems; and
Raised temperatures can be fatal for
• E.coli - which can cause lethal toxins to form in the body. some species
Chlorine and Chlorine-Containing Compounds
Chlorine-containing compounds can also pose a significant risk to the water environment. Trichloroethylene (TCL), for
example, is a common industrial solvent. It has many uses with perhaps the most well known being as a degreaser of
metal parts. Ingestion of TCL in drinking water may lead to liver damage and increase the risk of various types of cancer.
TCL has also been identified as being toxic to aquatic organisms.

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium have the ability to bioaccumulate in food chains. The impacts of
bioaccumulation will vary depending on the type of heavy metal. Exposure to significant levels of mercury, for example,
may lead to damage to the central nervous system, sensory impairment, numbness, dizziness, loss of vision and hearing,
coma and, in some cases, death.

Point and Diffuse Sources of Pollution

Point sources of water pollution are those where there is a distinct controlled discharge into a watercourse. This could,
for example, be a drainage inlet connected to a pipe that takes surface water drainage from a car park, discharging the
drainage to a nearby river. Generally, point sources of water pollution are much easier to control than diffuse (non-
point) sources.

Diffuse sources are those that do not enter a watercourse through controlled sources. Examples include agricultural use
of fertilisers and pesticides and discharges from contaminated land or landfill sites.

Controlling pollution from diffuse sources is difficult. Increasing the retention and allowing small quantities of pollutants
to soak into the ground (e.g. from car parks) can reduce pollution. Large paved areas increase opportunities for pollution
of controlled waters (and flash floods).

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9.1 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment

Currently, experiments are running in many countries, including the USA, Denmark and France, to use natural means
to combat non-point-source pollution. Examples of natural means of controlling such pollution include swales (broad
ditches), detention ponds, retention ponds, filter strips and soakaways. They allow settlement of solids and filter organic
and other matter before allowing surface water to gradually soak away. Small car parks may have porous surfaces
capable of removing 80% of sediment and substantial levels of trace metals and organics. Semi-permeable paved
surfaces can also be used for car parks.

These natural methods are advantageous in allowing groundwater recharge, as well as providing and enhancing wildlife
habitats. Maintenance costs are generally lower than for conventional systems and they are particularly useful in low-
risk areas.

Causes and Effects of Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a process that results in oxygen stress in aquatic environments. This is caused by excessive nutrients
(for example, run-off of fertilisers from agricultural land containing nitrates and/or phosphates) greatly enhancing
the growth of aquatic plants, especially microalgae that live suspended in the water column. As the plants grow and
multiply, they also consume the oxygen in the water, greatly reducing the oxygen that is available for animals such as fish.

The ‘blooms’ of microalgae created by eutrophication may also reduce the light available for plants that live on the
bottom of the lake or river, restricting their growth.

Pollution Prevention
Managerial Means of Preventing Pollution
In addition to the practical matters described below, there are other matters that bring about pollution prevention.
Prime among them must be an Environmental Management System. Part of the management system will be a policy, a
risk assessment, operating procedures and appropriate training programmes. Emergency plans and their testing are also
included in an EMS, which will reflect the nature and relative risks of the particular premises.

Practical Means of Preventing Pollution

Identifying Drains
Many companies or businesses do not know where the drains are or what type (i.e. Surface Water System (SWS) or
Foul Water System (FWS)) they are. A drainage plan of a site is a necessity for effective pollution control. Education as
to the uses of different drains is also important.

Marking Drains
The Environment Agency recommends that surface-water drains be painted blue and foul- water drains red, although
many companies use alternative colour codes. It is essential to ensure that everyone understands the colour code and
what it means in practice.

Maintenance of Drainage System

Maintenance of the drainage system used for the discharge of pollutants is required such that discharges do not
contaminate land or cause other environmental impacts. CCTV surveys of drainage are often required to check integrity.
Blockages must all be removed to ensure that discharges do not overflow from drainage.

Bunding
Storage of bulk chemicals and oil in tanks is a frequent source of pollution and the main means of protecting water from
these sources is by bunding.

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

Bunds should be sturdily constructed of, or lined with, material impervious to the substance to be contained. Bunds
should comprise a base and surrounding walls (with no damp course). Pipework should not pass through a bund. The
capacity of the bund should be the whole capacity of the storage tank, plus 10%.

Hydraulically-linked tanks should be considered as a single tank. If there is more than one tank in the bund, the volume
should be related to the capacity of the largest tank.

There should never be any outlet from the bund to any drain, sewer, groundwater or watercourse. Any accumulated
water should be pumped out manually after testing. All tanks should be labelled to show the contents.

Pipework
Pipework should be above ground, where possible. It should be well supported and vulnerable pipework protected.
Filler pipes should be within the bund and vent and overflow pipes positioned to overflow into the bund. Pipes should
be locked. Underground pipework should be protected in a sleeve or duct and protected from damage from excessive
surface loads.

Drum Storage
Drums should be stored in a bunded area, preferably with a roof. The impervious base should contain any spillages.
Wherever possible, protect against vandalism by the use of locked compounds.

Deliveries
Ensure delivery areas are isolated from the surface water drains, in case of spillage. Catch pits may be fitted at the
delivery point, with isolating valves. Automatic cut-off valves should be fitted to oil delivery points to prevent over-
filling. Emergency plans should take account of deliveries, and appropriate means, materials and training be put in place.

Single-skinned oil tank within an open bund (after Pollution Prevention Guidelines PPG2)

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9.1 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment

Integrally bunded tank (after Pollution Prevention Guidelines PPG2)

Spill Kits
The provision of a suitable spill kit in case of emergencies is sound practice. These should be appropriate to the
substances used on-site and training must be given. Spill kits must be accessible, so their location is important. Spill kits
are available to cope with a number of different types of substances, e.g. oils, acids and alkalis. They should be checked
regularly. Typical spill kits will contain gloves, absorbent materials, shovels, brooms, plastic bags, etc. Care should be
taken to dispose of used material appropriately.

Pollution Incident Control Plan

Following determination of the risk of pollution, a 1. Contain at Source
Preferred
pollution incident control plan can be developed to
response
ensure that an effective response is in place should 2. Contain close to Source
an incident occur. An effective plan will consist of
information such as:
3. Contain on the surface
• Contact details for someone from the organisation
for ‘out of hours’ incidents. 4. Contain in the drainage system
• How clean-up will occur following a spill. Least preferred
• How residues will be removed following a spill. response 5. Contain on or in the watercourse
• Contact details for clean-up contractors.
The pollution control hierarchy
Training of staff is important to ensure that the plan is
effectively implemented. For example, staff should:
• Know what they should and should not do following a spill.
• Be aware of where pollution control equipment and PPE are located and the location of the pollution incident
control plan.

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

When planning a spill response, the pollution control hierarchy should be considered.

• Contain at Source
The most effective measures are to stop a spill at the source where the primary or secondary containers have been
breached. This will decrease the amount of pollutant released, reducing the quantity that can cause pollution. This
can be achieved by:
–– Sealing the damaged container/pipework - physically blocking the leak with a temporary sealant, such as
a proprietary leak-sealing putty or leak-sealing equipment (pad or clamp fitted over the damaged area or
inflatable wedge).
–– Turning a container - turning a drum over so that the area that is damaged is at the top.
–– Placing a leaking container into another secure container - purpose-built overdrums made from chemically-
resistant plastics can be used.
–– ­Turning valves on pipework off to halt materials flow.

• Contain Close to Source

Methods close to the source may include:
–– Moving the leaking material to an undamaged container - a pump will be required suitable for the size of the
spill.
–– Using sorbent product to soak up the spill - examples include granules, sheets, rolls, pillows or booms
(sorbents are described in British Standard BS 7959 Part 1:2004).
–– Using small portable containers to capture the spill - this includes collecting material as it leaves primary or
secondary containment by equipment such as pop-up pools or overdrums that can be placed on the floor
surface where the spill is occurring.

• Surface Containment
If the spill cannot be contained near to the source, the next option is to prevent the material from entering the
drainage system, or unsurfaced ground (unless the drainage system is planned to be used to contain the spill).

Methods to achieve this include:

–– Booms to prevent the material from spreading - these include booms that are filled with water.
–– Use drain mats that cover drain inlets and manhole covers - clay mats, for example.
–– Temporary storage containers and portable tanks - may be used once a spill has been contained (such tanks
are usually constructed from synthetic rubber, polymers or reinforced plastics).

• Drainage System Containment

If a spill has entered the drainage system then it should be retained there and prevented from entering the
environment. If the drainage system can be closed, it can act as a temporary containment system. However, care
should be taken to ensure that material will not cause an explosive atmosphere in the drain. Methods to achieve
this can include:
–– Closing oil separators (see later) - it may be possible to close the entrance to the separator to stop it being
overwhelmed. (Note that separators will only contain substances that are lighter than water and don’t mix
with water.)
–– Shutting penstock valves or other drainage pollution control valves - these can isolate the whole or part of a
site drainage system. They can be operated manually, or through automatic sensors.
–– Pipe blockers - if no penstock or shut-off devices are present then purpose-made pipe blockers that are
inflated with air, or a builder’s drain bung, can be used.

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9.1 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment

• Contain On or In the Watercourse

If the spill has escaped from the drainage system into a watercourse, the environmental damage can be reduced by
containment on the watercourse prior to the spill spreading. However, important considerations should be taken
into account before deployment, such as the safety of river traffic. This can be achieved by:
–– Deploying
­ a river boom - this is a physical barrier that floats partly above and partly below the surface of the
water. It is recommended that such booms are tethered to banks and staggered, as this will allow the pollutant
to be collected in one area close to the bank so that it can be removed by vacuum tanker (see following
figure).
–– Damming
­ the watercourse - if the spilt pollutant mixes with water then it will flow under a boom. Materials
that can be used to dam a river include sand bags, wooden planks, hay bales and soil.

Source: Based on PPG 22 Incident response - Dealing with spills, Environment Agency, SEPA and NIEA, 2011

Improvised Equipment
If no pollution control equipment is available then the following may be used:
• Salvage sheets, or tarpaulins and wooden planks to create a temporary boom in a river.
• Fire hoses used as a boom.
• Straw bales used as a boom and sorbent.
• A shovel to spread sand or earth onto small spillages, or to construct a dam.
• A car foot-well mat or a sheet of polythene, weighed down with sand or earth as a drain seal.

Site-Specific Pollution Control Options

The pollution risk assessment may identify that site-specific pollution control will be needed, such as on-site structures
that can be used to divert or pump a spill to provide pollution containment. Examples include:
• Containment lagoons and ponds - earth-banked lagoons lined with an impermeable liner or clay can be built but
must be able to be isolated from the main drainage.
• Tanks - a purpose-built tank may be constructed to temporarily contain a spill.

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

• Sacrificial areas - yards, roads and parking areas that are impermeable may be made into temporary lagoons using
sandbags, excavated soil, or sand to form perimeter bunds. Permanently-installed bunding, such as low curbs or
roll-over bunds, are usually a more effective measure.
• Pits and trenches - these may be used when other pollution control measures have failed. They must be lined to
ensure they do not leak into land or groundwater.

Spill Clean-Up
Any spillage needs to be cleaned up and disposed of in line with legal requirements for waste.

Spill Review
Finally, an investigation should be undertaken to determine:
• What occurred and how it happened.
• How effective the response was.
• Whether the incident response plan was effective and followed.
• What the impacts of the spill were from environmental and cost perspectives.
The investigation may result in changes to procedures, staff training, or the incident response plan.

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9.1 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment

• What you store or transport;

Carry out a pollution risk assessment that
includes information about: • What could happen if it spills;
• Drainage systems, water courses and protected
environments on and around your site;
• Health and safety for pollution management

Prepare, plan and practise your Pollution Incident Response Plan and make sure you have all the equipment you may
need

1. Contain at source

2. Contain close to source

Use the pollution control hierarchy to help
you plan your spill response and select 3. Contain on the surface
suitable pollution prevention equipment
4. Contain in the drainage system

5. Contain on the watercourse

• Containment lagoons and ponds

Consider site-specific pollution control • Sacrificial areas
options tailored to your needs • Pits and trenches
• Spill-containment tanks

• Correct signage
• Vehicle spill kits
If you transport materials by road, consider • Fuel-tank and emission-reduction solution spills
what you can do if you have a spill, or collision • Tanker spills

• Check your legal obligations for waste management

You’re responsible for cleaning up any spilt • Sewer-jetting requirements
material and for the safe legal disposal of • Highways clean-up
any waste from a spill. A UK Spill-accredited • Material-specific clean-up
contractor is recommended to help you • Site remediation
clean up

Review how the spill happened, how you could stop it happening again, and if you need to update your Pollution
Incident Response Plan

Summary of spill response actions (adapted from PPG 22 Incident response - Dealing with spills, Environment
Agency, SEPA and NIEA, 2011

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

Drums and Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs)

Drums and intermediate bulk containers can be a significant source of pollution to land and water. Such containers must
be stored and handled appropriately on a site. To ensure you are storing and handling drums and IBCs safely, consider
the following points:

• Label all your storage with the contents and any hazard they pose
Know what you have in store • Keep an up-to-date inventory of the materials you have on your site, and
in which volumes

• Make sure your primary containers are fit for the job
Safe storage • Check the location, capacity, design and construction of your secondary
containment system
• Take special care if you’re storing hazardous substances, flammable
liquids, or pesticides - you may need to take extra precautions

• Label materials-delivery and handling areas

Delivery and handling of
• Isolate these areas from surface water and groundwater
containers
• Supervise all deliveries and material transfers

• What to look for when you check your storage

Primary container and
secondary containment • Quick, on-site jobs
inspection and maintenance • Repair, or take out of use

• Assess the risk

• Write a better pollution incident response plan
Prepare for having to deal with
a spill • Have a spill kit with pollution-control equipment appropriate to what you
store
• Consider your spill-control options

• Reduce the waste you produce

Waste management • Duty of care
• Waste disposal

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9.1 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment

Container type Minimum secondary containment volume

Single drum Secondary containment for drum storage can be provided by a drip tray with at least
25% of the volume of the drum.

In Scotland, if you don’t use a drip tray as secondary containment you must have
secondary containment with a minimum of 110% of the container volume.
Multiple drums Secondary containment for drum storage can be provided by a drip tray with at least
25% of the total drum storage.

In Scotland, if you don’t use a drip tray as secondary containment you must have
secondary containment with a minimum of either 25% of the total volume of the
containers, or 110% of the largest container, whichever is the greater volume.
Single IBC You can’t use a drip tray with only 25% storage capacity if you’re storing oils in an IBC.

Secondary containment with at least 110% of the container volume.

Multiple IBCs Secondary containment with a minimum of either 25% of the total volume of the
containers, or 110% of the largest container, whichever is the greater volume.
Source: based on PPG26 Safe storage - Drums and intermediate bulk containers, Environment Agency, SEPA and
NIEA, 2011

Prevention of Pollution from Fire-Fighting Water Run-Off

Many industrial organisations use and store large quantities of hazardous materials within a site. If a fire occurs, these
substances could easily be transferred to a surface water body via a surface water drain. An emergency plan should
therefore take into account run-off that may occur from water and other liquids used to fight a fire. Water is often used
to fight fires, as it is cheap and ubiquitous. Several major pollution incidents have, however, occurred from run-off of
contaminated water. Fire-fighting run-off can be polluted with the material on site, combustion products and/or fire-
fighting foam. Certain high-risk sites must make arrangements for water run-off from fire-fighting.

Mitigating the Effect of Fire-Water Run-Off

The first thing to assess is the likely route of run-off, followed by the amount of fire-water that is likely to occur. Control
measures which can then be implemented include the following:
• Containment lagoons and sacrificial areas are often built which are of a capacity for the volume of fire-fighting
run-off expected. Such areas do not have to be dedicated solely to such a purpose. Often, areas such as sports
grounds or car parks are used if they are isolated from drainage systems, can be secured and are designed
to prevent groundwater contamination. Permanent or portable tanks can also be used but they should be
constructed of a material impermeable to the fire run-off and should be vented.
• Penstock valves can be used to isolate drainage in the event of a fire. Contaminated water is retained within the
drainage system until it can be safely removed.
• The relevant authorities should be consulted and informed as to the method chosen and up-to-date and adequate
emergency plans should be produced, ensuring that relevant staff are aware of them.
• Materials that have a potential to cause significant environmental damage should always be stored within a
bunded area that is 110% of the capacity of the tank (10% being volume of fire-fighting water and/or foam).
However, in most cases more is needed to fight fires, so a bund of such a size will only provide temporary
containment of run-off.
• Fire-fighting strategies that are developed should take into account methods to reduce run-off if possible, e.g. it
may be possible to fight fires with sprays rather than jets, and by recycling fire-water.

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 Discharge of Effluents/Pollutants to the Water Environment 9.1

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘eutrophication’.

2. Identify the impacts of releasing heated effluent to surface water.

3. Give two examples of diffuse sources.

4. List four ways of controlling fire-water.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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9.2 Monitoring of Effluent Discharges

Monitoring of Effluent Discharges

IN THIS SECTION...
• Permits and consents often identify emission limit values for parameters present within an effluent discharge.
• Competency standards exist for monitoring personnel and equipment.
• Biological monitoring of macroinvertebrates can be used to determine the health of a watercourse.
• Key parameters that are monitored in effluent include chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand, pH,
total suspended solids, total dissolved solids and turbidity.

Purpose of Effluent and Water Monitoring

Legislation often dictates requirements to sample and monitor effluent discharges. Permits and consents to discharge
will identify emission limit values for emission points into the public sewer system or surface water drainage. A typical
set of conditions for a sewage discharge consent follows:

Example of requirements of a consent to discharge to sewer

Maximum Temperature 35 - 40°C
pH 6-9
Substances Producing Flammable Vapour Nil
Cyanide Concentration 5 mg/litre
Sulphide Concentration 1 mg/litre
Soluble Sulphates 1,000 mg/litre
Synthetic Detergents 25 mg/litre
Free Chlorine 90 mg/litre
Mercury Nil
Cadmium 0.01 mg/litre
Chromium
Lead
Zinc
Copper
} 5 mg/litre total

Total Non-Ferrous Metals 20 mg/litre

BOD/COD Variable
Total Soluble Non-Ferrous Metals 5 mg/litre
The monitoring of water use by the site is normally undertaken as part of a water minimisation scheme which will assist
in reducing the costs and environmental impacts associated with water use. It is not commonly carried out for legal
reasons although can sometimes be required as part of an integrated environmental permit. A management system
standard such as ISO 14001:2015 will require that monitoring is undertaken for key environmental issues on a site and
as such water and/or effluent monitoring may be required to be carried out by an organisation. Environmental bodies
are also in many countries legally required to sample the quality of ground and surface water.

Trade effluents and leachates often contain toxic substances, as well as organic materials or sewage. The regulatory
bodies use a system of fixed and random sampling points for testing water and effluent samples. Care of samples is
important as they can deteriorate, particularly where organic effluents are involved, and false results may be recorded.

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 Monitoring of Effluent Discharges 9.2

Temperature control of samples is a particular issue; and certain results, such

as BOD, may become inaccurate if analysis does not take place promptly.

Standard tests are available for most common parameters including BOD,
and the use of accredited laboratories is essential if results are to be relied on
for monitoring, or for legal purposes.

Common causes of pollution include de-oxygenation, toxins, pathogens,

oils, silts, nutrients, and heat. There are separate test methods for each, with
several test parameters - e.g. drinking water is subject to at least 50 separate
analytical parameters.

Common laboratory analytical techniques include spectrophotometry,

atomic absorption spectrophotometry and a wide variety of chemical
methods.
Sample being collected
As we saw in Element 8 in relation to air monitoring, continuous monitoring is when measurements are taken
automatically, with few, if any, gaps in the data produced. Measurement can be carried out in situ or the sample can be
extracted and measured remotely on an instrument permanently located elsewhere.

A measurement regime carried out at intervals, e.g. six months, is known as periodic monitoring. Samples are obtained
and measured elsewhere (grab sampling). Instrumental or automatic techniques can be used, where an online analyser
carries out the sampling and analysis; or a manual technique may be used, where a sample is extracted on-site and
analysed later in a dedicated laboratory.

Environmental Practitioner’s Role in Water Pollution Monitoring

As with air monitoring covered previously, effluent monitoring requires specific competencies in order to be undertaken
to standards dictated by law. The MCERTS standards in England that we covered previously for air monitoring also
state competency requirements for those undertaking the chemical testing of sewage and trade effluents. There are
numerous MCERTS standards related to water sampling and monitoring, including the following:
• Performance standards for organisations undertaking sampling and chemical testing of water.
• Minimum requirements for the self-monitoring of flow.
• Performance standards for continuous water monitoring equipment.
• Performance standards for portable water monitoring equipment.
• Radioanalytical testing of environmental and wastewaters.
From the general environmental practitioner’s point of view, it must be ensured that those who undertake sampling
and analysis are competent to do so, falling in line with any competence standards that may be set in permits/consents
and/or associated guidance if it exists. If such requirements are not met then the monitoring results will not be accepted
by the regulator and may cause a breach of legal requirements.

Following water monitoring, a report will be submitted by the contractor outlining the concentrations of measured
substances at the sampled emission points. As we considered previously, such reports then need to be analysed. Analysis
in this sense will largely involve comparison of the measured concentrations against emission limit values (ELVs) stated
in the permit/consent. If breaches occur then this will mean that action must be taken to reduce discharges to below
the ELV. This could require a range of actions but may include reviewing the efficiency of pollution control equipment,
reviewing compliance with other relevant control measures or ensuring that controls are adequate. The breaches
should be included as a non-conformance within the organisation’s EMS, which should ensure that the improvement
is formally tracked by the management system. In some situations, there is a duty on an organisation to report to the
regulator breaches of an ELV.

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9.2 Monitoring of Effluent Discharges

Biotic Index
Environmental enforcement bodies often assess and classify the quality of rivers and other water bodies. The assessment
method can look at both the ecological (considering fish and invertebrate species present) and the chemical status (e.g.
concentrations of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides and nutrients) of the water. The classification system
identifies where the water quality is good or where it needs to be improved.

One common ecological method of classifying river quality uses invertebrate

species as a basis for measurement. Known as the Biological Monitoring DEFINITION
Working Party (BMWP) score, it attaches a score between 1 and 10 to species
of aquatic invertebrates depending on their tolerance to pollution (the less AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES
tolerant a species is, the higher the score). Sensitive species, such as stonefly Animals without a backbone
nymphs, attract a score of 10, while more tolerant species, such as worms, living in a water environment.
have a much lower score. Such a rating system is known as the ‘biotic index’.
By using a simple hand net, a sample can be obtained and examined and scores given for the number of species found
in the sample. (Note that scores are for number of species, not number of individuals found, so five stonefly nymphs
still attract a score of 10, as would one stonefly nymph.).

Key Monitoring Parameters

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen present in water. Oxygen enters water through the air or as a plant
by-product from photosynthesis. DO is essential for aquatic life. Fish, for example, require oxygen for respiration. We
considered the impacts of oxygen stress earlier. DO can be measured using various techniques such as electrochemical
or optical sensors, and colorimetry.

• Sensors
There are two main techniques to measure oxygen via a sensor - the optical and electrochemical measures. A DO
sensor is portable so may be used in the laboratory or field.
­ n optical DO sensor measures the combination of oxygen with various luminescent dyes when exposed to
–– A
light.
–– I­n electrochemical techniques, an electrical current is passed across a sample with the current being directly
related to the amount of oxygen in the sample.

• Colorimetry
Here, DO levels are measured by the actions of reagent, which produces a colour which is directly proportional to
the quantity of DO in the water.

COD, BOD and TOD

TOPIC FOCUS
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• The COD test measures materials in a water sample that can be chemically oxidised.
• The test is performed in a laboratory by reacting the water sample with a strong chemical oxidising agent,
such as potassium dichromate, for a specified time (usually one or two hours) at a defined temperature.
(Continued)

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 Monitoring of Effluent Discharges 9.2

TOPIC FOCUS
• In essence, a COD test determines the amount of organic matter by measuring the amount of oxygen the
sample will react with.
• COD is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre (mg/l).
• The COD test is relatively simple and can be performed within about two hours.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Also known as Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
• The BOD test measures all the materials in a water sample that can be broken down by the action of
microbes.
• The test is performed in a laboratory by incubating the water sample with a culture of micro-organisms
for a specified time (usually 5 days) under defined conditions and then comparing the level of dissolved
oxygen in the sample at the beginning and end of the test.
• BOD is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre (mg/l).
• The BOD test is more complex and time-consuming than the COD test.
Total Oxygen Demand (TOD)
• Measures all of the organic and inorganic compounds present in a sample of water that can be oxidised.
• TOD is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre (mg/l).
• May be undertaken by equipment that only needs a few minutes to measure a sample.
Note: Although COD, BOD and TOD all provide measures of the potential oxygen depletion that can be
caused by a polluting effluent, they do not give exactly comparable results. For example, the COD test does not
measure the oxygen-consuming potential of certain organic compounds such as acetate, whereas acetate can
be metabolised by micro-organisms and would therefore be detected by the BOD test. On the other hand, the
oxygen-consuming potential of cellulose would not be picked up by a standard BOD test but would be detected
by a COD test. It is important, therefore, that the most appropriate test is used in each situation.

pH Scale
The pH scale identifies the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous sample. The scale runs from 0 to 14. Numbers 6 to 0
represent increasing acidity, 7 is neutral and 8 to 14 is increasingly alkaline. Discharge permits and consents often specify
that a discharge should be between 6 and 9 on the pH scale. Discharge of significantly acid or alkaline effluent can have
numerous impacts such as changes in biodiversity and the release of organic bound toxic materials. (An acid or alkali
will break down the organic material and release the toxic material which can then be taken up by living organisms.)

Two common methods of measuring pH are by digital meter or litmus paper.

• pH meters are known to be the most accurate but require regular calibration. They work by passing an electrical
current through a sample and measuring the voltage. The voltage is then compared to the voltage produced by a
solution of a known pH. An acidic solution will produce a greater voltage as it consists of more positively charged
hydrogen ions.
• Litmus paper is a strip of paper that turns a certain colour when a sample of water is placed on it. The colour is
compared to a chart which provides the pH of the water.

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9.2 Monitoring of Effluent Discharges

Total Suspended Solids

Total suspended solids (TSS) is the dry weight of particles trapped by a filter. The TSS of effluent is often gained by
pouring a known volume of effluent through a weighed filter paper then weighing the filter again after it has been dried
to remove the liquid element. The sample is often washed with deionised water to remove dissolved substances (e.g.
salt in seawater). As we saw earlier, the main effects of a high level of suspended solids are aesthetic (visible nuisance),
smothering plants and animals on the bed of the watercourse, damaging fisheries and interfering with self-purification.

Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) constitutes salts, metals and other substances that are dissolved in water. The principal
substances are usually calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorides and sulphates. TDS is often measured using an electrical
conductivity meter. The impacts of TDS can vary as they represent a range of dissolved solids. They can, however, affect
the taste and health of drinking water and increase the hardness of water (which causes scale build-up in kettles, pipes,
valves, etc.).

The measurement of TDS in a laboratory is undertaken by filtering a known volume of a sample through a glass fibre
filter paper. The sample is then moved to a pre-weighed ceramic dish and placed in a drying oven at a high temperature.
Once finished, the sample and dish are weighed, which gives the overall weight of the TDS when taken away from the
weight of the dish. When compared to the volume of the original aqueous sample the concentration of TDS can be
determined in mg per litre.

Turbidity
Turbidity is a term used to describe the cloudiness of a fluid which is caused by particles in the water that are individually
invisible to the naked eye (in a similar manner to smoke in air). Materials which cause water to be turbid include clay, silt,
fine organic and inorganic compounds and microscopic organisms. Turbid water is displeasing to the eye, may provide
food and shelter to pathogens and block light. Measurement of turbidity is achieved by shining a light through a sample
and measuring the amount of light received back to a light sensor.

STUDY QUESTIONS
5. Explain the use of the biotic index in assessing water quality.

6. What is BOD in relation to water pollution?

7. How is total dissolved solid content of an effluent measured?

8. Outline the meaning of the term ‘turbidity’ in the context of water pollution monitoring.
(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9.3

Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

IN THIS SECTION...
• Sewage works operate numerous processes to process wastewater, categorised as preliminary sewage treatment,
secondary biological sewage treatment and tertiary treatment.
• Techniques to treat drinking water include screening, aeration, coagulation, clarification, filtration, pH adjustment,
disinfection and softening.
• Effluent can be treated by using chemical, physical or biological techniques.
• Desalination is the removal of minerals, largely salt, from saline water. It has numerous significant impacts on the
environment.

Reasons for Effluent Treatment

There are often strict limits on the pollutants that may be discharged into
surface water or public sewers. The most widely used and effective methods
of treating wastewater are biological methods used in sewage treatment
works. However, industrial-waste effluents may require pre-treatment before
entering the municipal sewage systems.

The reasons for effluent treatment may include:

• Recovery of Expensive Raw Materials

Many industrial waste-effluent plants are designed specifically to recover
valuable raw materials and so reduce overall processing costs. During the There are often strict limits on the
pollutants that may be discharged
manufacture of television sets, for example, three types of phosphor are
into public sewers
washed onto the screen in a coating process. The waste-effluent system
consists of three units, each dedicated to recovering a particular phosphor. Thus, the phosphors are collected to be
re-used in the process rather than allowed to become contaminated with other materials, or to be disposed of as
waste.

• Protecting the Sewage Pipes

One of the main reasons for pre-treatment of industrial waste effluents is to neutralise caustic liquids to reduce
damage to sewer pipes. Approximately 70% of the cost of the waste sewer system in the UK is attributable to the
infrastructure or pipes.

• Protecting Sewage System Workers

The risk to the health of the sewage workers is considered in granting consents to discharge industrial effluents to
the foul sewer. High concentrations of toxic, noxious, flammable or explosive substances may not be discharged
directly into sewers.

• Protecting the Sewage Works

The biological processes used in sewage works operate most efficiently under steady-state conditions. While the
processes will tolerate some excursions in concentrations of heavy metals and in pH, massive changes may destroy
the living bacteria upon which the treatment plants depend. Thus, a small slug of a highly-toxic material entering
a sewage works may result in a massive release of partially treated sewage to a river. If material discharged into
the sewage system in contravention of a discharge consent damages the biological treatment surfaces in a sewage
works, the offending company may be sued by the water company.

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9.3 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

• Reducing Sewage Treatment Charges

Considerable costs are incurred by industrial-effluent producers through trade-effluent disposal charges levied
by the water companies and other sewage undertakers. These charges often reflect the increased costs to the
sewage undertakers involved in the treatment of industrial-waste effluent. The costs are often so high that it is
more efficient for manufacturing units to install waste-effluent treatment plants to treat their own wastes prior to
discharge to the sewage system.

• Protecting the Receiving Water

Ultimately, the treatment process must produce a final effluent that does not adversely affect the quality of the
water into which it flows. In some rivers, at certain times of the year, particularly under dry weather conditions,
treated effluent can make up a considerable proportion of the total river flow. Rivers support a variety of natural
life and recreational uses; some are also used for abstraction. It is essential that the sewage-treatment process works
effectively to prevent damage to any of these uses.

Chemical, physical and biological forms of treatment are described in the Effluent Treatment subsection later in this
element.
Typical effluents produced by specific industry sectors
Industry Effluents
Acid Manufacture Acids, pH < 6
Battery Manufacture Acids
Breweries Alkalis
Chemical Industries Acids, alkalis, metals (copper, cadmium, cobalt, lead, nickel, mercury, zinc), solvents,
acetone, chlorinated hydrocarbons
Coke Production Phenols, cyanide
Detergent Manufacture Detergents, both anionic and cationic
Food Industries Alkalis, detergents
Laundries Detergents
Metal Processing Metals (aluminium, copper, cadmium, cobalt, iron, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc)
Metal Plating Chromium, nickel
Oil Refining Phenol
Pharmaceutical Industry Antibiotics, solvents, alcohols
Rubber Industry Ammoniacal nitrogen
Tanneries Chromium, alkalis, dyes, protein
Textiles Detergents
Wood Preserving Phenols, metals (copper, chrome), arsenic, fungicides, solvents, chlorinated hydrocarbons

Sewage Treatment Works

Sewage is a complex mixture of suspended and dissolved materials, which may be characterised by two parameters:
Suspended Solids (SS) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).

The sewage entering a sewage treatment plant is mostly liquid, with only a very small solid component. Typically, the
sewage is 99.9% water with 0.1% total solids. The solid fraction is 70% organic and 30% inorganic. The organic material
includes nitrogenous compounds, such as soap, cooking oil and greases. The inorganic material includes chlorides,
metallic compounds, road grit and other materials.

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 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9.3

Wastewater Treatment Processes at Sewage Works

The conventional wastewater treatment process can be described as consisting of three processes:
• preliminary sewage treatment;
• secondary biological sewage treatment;
• tertiary treatment;
followed by:
• sewage sludge treatment and disposal.

TOPIC FOCUS

Wastewater Treatment Processes

Preliminary Sewage Treatment
The following paragraphs deal with the treatment of mixed domestic sewage and industrial effluent in the
sewage works. The flow of raw sewage entering the sewage works is treated as a continuous process. However,
during periods of heavy rainfall the volume of the sewage may increase. The excess is then diverted to holding
tanks (storm flow separation). Occasionally, the holding tanks may not have sufficient capacity and the over-
capacity is released directly into rivers.

The preliminary treatment processes are designed to remove most of the solids from the sewage. These include
large floating materials, suspended materials and dense particulates. They are removed by passing the sewage
through bar screens and grids. The material collected by the screens is raked or scraped off to be landfilled or
incinerated. Stones, gravel and grit are collected in settlement or grit channels.

The sewage is then pumped into sedimentation tanks and the organic particulates settle out by sedimentation,
enhanced by flocculation. Settlement times are typically between two and six hours. The sedimented sludge is
scraped or pumped from the bottom of the tanks. Primary sedimentation removes approximately 55% of the
suspended solids and this reduces the BOD by typically 35%.

The sewage at this point may have an SS of 150 mg/litre and a BOD of 200 mg/litre. This should be compared
with the standard of SS of 30 mg/litre and BOD of 20 mg/litre.
Secondary Biological Sewage Treatment
There are three main types of biological treatment:
• Percolating filter treatment (described later in this element).
• Activated sludge treatment (described later in this element).
• Oxidation ponds (described below).
Tertiary Treatment
• Sand Filtration
A final stage of effluent treatment that is often used is filtration through a sand filter. The beds are frequently
backwashed to remove particles filtered out of the effluent. This is a physical process and has no biological
aspect.

(Continued)

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9.3 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

TOPIC FOCUS

Sand filter filtration cycle

• Oxidation Ponds
Oxidation ponds include reed beds and involve passing the waste into some kind of pond to allow natural
purification to occur. For instance, partly treated sewage can be fed into an oxidation pond where purification
takes place under the influence of sunlight and air.

When pond treatment is used as a tertiary process, i.e. after primary settlement and biological oxidation,
the pond may be termed a maturation pond. One disadvantage can be that algae will be present in the
final effluent discharged to the watercourse. They can be physically removed by micro-strainers, but this is
expensive. An alternative is to use fish such as carp in the ponds to feed on the plant life.

• Reed Beds
Reed beds provide an aesthetically pleasing means of final effluent purification. They are low maintenance
and, once established, can be an effective means for final cleaning of effluent.

Sewage Sludge Treatment and Disposal

Huge quantities of sewage sludge are produced each year from the primary and secondary sedimentation process in
sewage treatment. These sludges are mostly between 99% and 93% water, are putrescible and very offensive, with a
distinct faecal odour. The aim of sludge treatment is to simplify disposal by making it easier to handle and transport and
to reduce the odour. However, if road transport is required, it may be dewatered to reduce transport costs. There are
two principal sludge treatment methods: anaerobic digestion and sludge dewatering. The dumping of sewage sludge
at sea ended in 1998 in the UK.

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 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9.3

Anaerobic Digestion
This process involves pumping the sludge into a vessel where it undergoes anaerobic digestion and produces methane
gas and carbon dioxide. The methane is used in burners to warm the sludge entering the vessel. The digestion process
takes 20 to 40 days to complete and the total solids are reduced by 30%, with a 50% reduction in volatile solids. The
offensive odour is also greatly reduced and replaced by what is described as a ‘tarry odour’.

Sludge Dewatering
Sludge can be dewatered mechanically, or by being allowed to dry naturally. The mechanical methods involve pressure
filtration, where sludge is pumped at high pressures into a series of cloth-lined chambers. An alternative method is
called vacuum filtration. A segmented cylinder with a cloth covering perforations is rotated through the surface of
sludge tanks. The air pressure is reduced in the segments in the sludges and those carrying a film of sludge on the
cylinder. As the sludge on the cylinder reaches a scraper, the air pressure in that segment is allowed to normalise and
the sludge cake is detached. The solid content of the sludge cake is typically 15%.

Disposal of Sludge to Land

Sewage sludge is rich in nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. Unfortunately, sludges also contain
pollutants, such as heavy metals from industrial effluent.

About 40% of the sludge produced at sewage treatment works in the UK is disposed onto farmland. About 97% has
been treated by anaerobic digestion or some other method. Because of the potential hazards presented by the sludge,
certain precautions must be taken.

Sludge may be applied to both arable and grazing land. If sludge is applied to grazing land, farm stock should not be
allowed access until three weeks after the application.

Land on which cereal crops are to be grown may be particularly suitable for sludge disposal, especially if the land can be
ploughed immediately after application to reduce odours.

The presence of heavy metals in the sewage sludge presents limitations on its use and the guidelines are kept under
continuous review.

Incineration
When sludge cannot be disposed of to land, a common but expensive solution is incineration. This is often used for
sludges containing metals as contaminants. Incineration can be used as a means of recovery (of energy) by raising steam
or generating electricity. Incineration facilities require a permit under the Environmental Permitting (England and
Wales) Regulations 2016.

Treating and Distributing Water

In spite of many efforts to control water quality at source, very few water sources are suitable for drinking without any
treatment. Raw water does not meet drinking water standards for a number of reasons and has to be treated prior to
distribution. The causes include:
• Natural pollution - falling rain absorbs dirt, dust and grease from the air. In flowing over the ground, the
water collects mud, clay and decayed plant matter (dead leaves, sticks, etc.) and bacteria derived from soil and
vegetation.
In the ground, water dissolves soluble salts from the rocks, while water containing carbon dioxide can dissolve
carbonate rocks to form bicarbonates.
• Man-made pollution - this may take the form of sewage or contamination due to other activities (farming,
animal rearing, mining, etc.).

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9.3 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

–– ­ Sewage introduces putrefying organic matter and, in particular, bacteria and other disease organisms.
–– ­ Farming often causes soil, manure and organic debris to be washed into streams and rivers.
–– ­ Mining may contribute harmful mineral contamination and much fine suspended matter.
–– Industries
­ using chemicals may discharge toxic substances into the waters, which can cause taste and odour
problems, and kill off the natural life in rivers.
Natural waters may have one or more of the following undesirable characteristics:
• Colour - due to dissolved organic matter, e.g. from peaty land and mineral salts of iron or manganese.
• Suspended matter - mineral and vegetable debris.
• Turbidity - fine mineral or organic matter in suspension.
• Pathogenic bacteria, etc.
• Excessive hardness, particularly in ground waters from boreholes or wells.
–– ­ Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling.
–– ­ Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling.
• Taste and smell - due to contamination by sewage, decayed vegetation or to stagnant conditions caused by lack
of oxygen in the water.
• Harmful mineral content - absorbed from soil or introduced by industrial activities.

Objectives of Water Treatment

The objectives of water treatment are to produce an adequate and continuous supply of potable water, which is:
• Clear - no turbidity or suspended matter.
• Palatable - no unpleasant taste.
• Safe - no disease, other organisms, or harmful mineral content.
• Reasonably soft.

Natural Purification
Although there are many ways in which waters may become polluted, there are also natural processes at work tending
to purify the water, namely storage and filtration.
• Storage in ponds and lakes:
–– ­ Suspended matter settles to bottom.
–– ­ Harmful bacteria gradually die out.
–– ­ Colour is reduced by the bleaching effects of sunlight.
–– ­ Hardness is reduced by liberation of carbon dioxide to air by algae. Thus, bicarbonates are converted to
carbonates and precipitated.
–– ­ Organic impurities (including taste and odour) are oxidised in the upper layers, particularly where agitation
by wind and current occurs. Similar processes are at work in rivers.
• Filtration through soil removes suspended matter and bacteria. Some impurities may be removed by biological
action.
(Source: Severn Trent Water Limited)

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 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9.3

The Water Treatment Process

The main methods of treatment to ensure that water is fit for drinking are as follows (not all will be necessary at the
same site, as the methods used depend on the characteristics of the source):

Screening To remove sticks, weeds and large particulates.

Aeration • To eliminate certain odours.
• To remove objectionable dissolved gases.
• To oxidise some metal salts to enable them to be filtered out.
Coagulation To enable finely divided matter to be settled out, in order to entrap bacteria and absorb
colour.
Clarification To settle out sediment to provide clear water.
Filtration To remove particles.
pH adjustment To ensure that it is chemically neutral.
Disinfection To remove pathogenic or disease-causing bacteria.
Softening To remove excess quantities of calcium and magnesium salts.

Distribution of Water
When the water has been treated by a combination of the methods outlined, it is ready to be passed to the consumer.

In general, the water mains leaving the treatment works, which is often some distance from the area of demand, are
of comparatively large diameter (trunk mains). In some cases, they feed by gravity and in other cases it is necessary for
the water to be pumped. Generally, the mains feed into covered service reservoirs or towers, the purpose of which is
to enable a local storage of water and to help meet varying demands without demand fluctuation being reflected back
directly on the treatment works. From these reservoirs, outlet mains, which branch into progressively smaller pipework,
convey the water to the consumer. Each residential street has a three or four-inch-diameter main, from which individual
consumer connections are taken.

(Source: Severn Trent Water Limited)

Effluent Treatment
The Principles of Chemical, Physical and Biological Treatment Techniques
Liquid wastes can be treated by using a variety of techniques, as we saw above. The techniques can be classified into
three areas:
• Chemical treatment techniques - using a chemical substance to change the character of the waste in some way.
• Physical - physically screening out larger items of waste, for example.
• Biological - using micro-organisms to change the waste’s constituents/character.

Physical Treatment
There are several physical methods that can be used to treat waste. Each has its own particular application and the
choice will depend on the effectiveness of the technique and the economic implications.

• Screening
This is the physical removal of coarse, low-density solids from liquid streams and may take the form of widely-
spaced bars across a channel to finer mesh, where smaller particles are to be recovered.

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9.3 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

• Sedimentation
This technique allows the separation of coarse, dense particles by gravitational settlement. More refined
sedimentation techniques allow the size-separation of particles from a constant liquid-flow velocity, as larger
particles settle out earlier in the channel than the smaller particles.

• Activated Carbon
Activated carbon filtration is a technology that involves the adsorption of contaminants on to a filter. The technique
is effective in removing organic pollutants such as chlorine and fluorine from wastewater but it is not effective at
removing metals, nitrates and other inorganic pollutants. During liquid filtration, wastewater is passed through an
activated carbon filter and contaminants adhere to the surface or become trapped in small pores. The filter will
need to be replaced or regenerated when full.

• Air Stripping
A wastewater is brought into contact with a gas, usually air, such that an undesirable substance in the water volatile
is taken away by the gas. Such techniques can be undertaken in packed columns in a similar way to that covered
in Element 8. In such techniques the wastewater passes through the packing material from the top while air is
pumped from the bottom of the tower. The pollutants of interest in the wastewater, such as VOCs and ammonia,
are stripped from the wastewater into the air stream.

• Filtration
Filtration is used for removing finer particles from liquid flows. The filtration medium may be fine metal mesh, cloth
or a bed of sand. This is often used for final ‘polishing’, removal of fines from a liquid to increase the purity or for
the dewatering of sludge. Different pore sizes of filter will remove exceedingly smaller particles; as such filters may
be classed as:
–– Micro filters - pore sizes of around 0.1 microns to 10 microns; removes larger particles such as sediment, algae
and large bacteria.
–– Ultra
­ filters - pore size of around 0.1 microns to 0.01 microns; removes large particles, most micro-organisms
but few viruses.
–– Nano
­ filters - pore sizes of around 0.01 microns to 0.001 microns; removes most organic molecules, nearly all
viruses, most organic matter and a range of salts. Will also remove divalent ions which make water hard.

• Centrifuging
The combination of a metal or cloth screen in a rotating drum may be used to force water from a sludge.

Simple decanter centrifuge

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• Flotation
Very low-density solids and liquids can be removed by skimming from water surfaces. Buoyancy can be induced by
bubbling air from the bottom of the tank, and the froth produced contains particles, which can be collected in the
resultant foam on the top of the liquid surface. This is called ‘dispersed air flotation’. Refinements of this method
include pumping a super-saturated solution of air in water into the tank under pressure. This is called ‘dissolved air
flotation’. Another technique involves producing tiny bubbles of 70-150 microns in diameter by electrolysis. The
bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen contain particles to be removed by surface collection. This technique is called
‘electrolytic flotation’.

• Ion Exchange
Ion-exchange systems are particularly suitable for the treatment of effluent containing low concentrations of metals.
Rinse waters from electroplating operations are frequently treated by this process. However, organic contaminants,
which may damage the resins, must be removed by passing the effluent through a vessel containing activated
charcoal, before the effluent is pumped into the exchange system.

Two ion-exchange resins are used, one based on insoluble organic acids for cationic exchange, and the other based
on insoluble organic bases for anionic exchange. Cationic resins may be either sulphonic or carboxylic acids, while
anionic resins may be either quaternary or tertiary amines.

An ion-exchange system consists of two vessels containing the different resins. The effluent stream is pumped
through each vessel in turn. Occasionally, a third vessel containing a mixed resin is located, if the first two fail to yield
improved results.

When the resins have reached capacity, they are regenerated and the liquid recovered during regeneration contains,
in concentrated form, all of the contaminants removed from the effluent. It is normal practice to install two sets of
ion-exchange vessels to allow one set to be in operation while the other set is being regenerated.

• Evaporation
While evaporation is a straightforward process, it is very energy-intensive and used only when valuable raw
materials are being handled. Typically, evaporation may be used to return electroplating liquor to the correct metal
concentration in chromium plating.

• Reverse Osmosis
This process involves applying high pressures to liquids to induce transfer across a semi-permeable membrane.

Normal osmosis Reverse osmosis

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9.3 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

• Sumps
Sump tanks may be used to hold wastewater, which will then be treated using appropriate techniques. Diversion
tanks may also be operational in an emergency incident and involve the drainage being switched by a valve such that
spilled effluent enters a holding tank rather than entering the usual surface or foul-water system. Sumps may also be
used to hold and test effluent prior to discharge.

• Oil-Water Separators - Interceptors

Interceptors are pieces of equipment used to separate oil and water. They are normally placed in the following
locations:
–– Oil storage and handling areas.
–– Industrial yards.
–– Vehicle maintenance areas.
–– Commercial vehicle parks.
–– Large car parks.
–– High-risk roads (certain motorways and trunk roads).
–– Blocks of over ten garages.
Interceptors require maintenance. Oil will float to the top and silt will sink to the bottom. They must be cleaned
regularly to ensure correct operation.

Water containing detergents should never be allowed to run into an interceptor; it should instead go to a foul-water
drain.

Simple oil interceptor

Chemical Treatment
Most chemical treatments apply to both liquid and solid wastes and include:

• Neutralisation
Most industrial effluents require pH adjustment and this is the most common form of chemical pre-treatment. The
chemicals most often used are calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.

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• Oxidation
Since it is expensive, chemical oxidation is used only for oxidising particular compounds like cyanide. Additions of
ferrous sulphate and lime will form complex cyanides of iron, but only partial removal of the free cyanide is achieved
by this method and there may be a few parts per million left in solution. Chlorination with sodium hypochlorite, or
chlorine gas plus sodium hydroxide, will achieve complete destruction in all but a few cases. Nickel interferes with
both these reactions and nickel cyanide complexes are not readily broken down.

• Sedimentation
This was described earlier, but chemically enhanced sedimentation can improve the process. Using lime or aluminium
salts can greatly improve the collection efficiencies for several metal and chlorinated hydrocarbon species due to
the adsorption of these substances onto the lime particles.

• Coagulation and Flocculation

The techniques of coagulation and flocculation are used to aid colloidal and general suspended solids separation.
The process depends on the physical nature of the precipitate. Those substances usually found in industrial effluents
tend not to produce particles of a crystalline nature, but mostly of a gelatinous type. Flocculating agents produce
larger particles as discrete flocs for settlement or flotation. It is desirable to produce strong flocs so agitation will not
destroy them. Unfortunately, some are intrinsically fragile and co-precipitation with such substances as aluminium
hydroxide or ferric hydroxide can increase the strength of many flocs. Other additives, such as activated silica,
sodium alginate or one of the many long molecular chain polymer substances, may materially assist flocculation.

• Metal Precipitation
Most metals form stable precipitates under alkaline conditions. Metals such as iron, copper, nickel and zinc are
precipitated as hydroxides or carbonates following the addition of sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or lime.
Flocculating agents may be added to encourage settlement in some cases. These precipitates must be removed by
settlement, usually followed by filtration, and the supernatant liquor discharged (with consent) to the foul-waste
sewer.

• Disinfection
This is usually the final stage of wastewater treatment, with its main aim being the removal of microbial contamination.
There are numerous types of disinfection techniques such as the use of chlorine, ozone and ultraviolet radiation.

Biological Treatment
This is often used in the treatment of sewage. The biological treatment methods are:
• Percolating filter treatment.
• Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC).
• Activated sludge treatment.
• Oxidation ponds.
Another type of biological treatment of waste is composting.

• Percolating Filters
The Percolating Filter Treatment method is also called the Trickling Filter, or Bacteria Bed Treatment method. The
bacteria beds are circular or rectangular in shape and contain crushed rock, gravel, clinker fragments between 50
and 100 mm in size, or a plastic packing structure. The beds are between 1.5 and 2.0 m deep with a packing density
of approximately 50%. This produces many open spaces to ventilate the bed and a huge surface area, which is
covered with a microbial film. The microbial film contains bacteria, protozoa and, on the upper surface, algae, which
oxidise the organic material in the sewage to reduce the BOD. On circular tanks, rotating arms spray the sewage
on the top of the bed and the sewage trickles down through it (see following diagram). It is thought that the algae
derive minerals and nitrogen from the sewage.

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9.3 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods

The film is sloughed off with the treated sewage. If the film is not removed properly, the bed will block and ponding
will result. Sewage will then accumulate on the surface, preventing airflow through the bed and thus stopping
treatment. The recovered, treated sewage then consists of water in which the components of the microbial film are
suspended. The treated sewage is then pumped into secondary sedimentation tanks. After secondary sedimentation,
the water is discharged to a river. The sediment is consolidated into humus sludge.

Trickling filter system - cross-section and top view

• Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

This is a technique which involves wastewater contacting a biological medium prior to discharge. An RBC consists
of a number of parallel discs that are attached to a rotating shaft. A microbial slime grows on the surface of the disc,
degrading organic pollutants in the wastewater. The discs rotate at a speed of around 2 to 5 revolutions per minute.

• Activated Sludge
The reactor vessel of the activated sludge plant is usually in the form of long deep channels into which air is introduced
to aid oxidation. The microbiological material which oxidises the organic material in the sewage is present as the
free-floating flocculants. Air is introduced as compressed air through cinder blocks at the base of the channels. The
retention time in the reactor vessel is usually between three and six hours. The treated sewage and biomass are then
pumped into sedimentation tanks for secondary sedimentation. As before, the treated effluent is discharged to a
river; however, in this case the sludge from the secondary sedimentation containing the biomass cells is pumped
back to a mixing vessel and mixed with incoming sewage prior to being pumped into the reaction vessel. This allows
a more rapid oxidation of the sewage without having to grow the micro-organisms for every batch of sewage.

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 Potable Water and Wastewater Treatment Methods 9.3

• Oxidation Ponds
These were described earlier.

Desalination
Desalination is the removal of minerals, largely salt, from saline water. It produces water that is suitable for human
consumption and agriculture, and salt as a by-product. The need for additional freshwater is great in arid areas that have
limited access to surface or groundwater.

There are numerous ways in which saline water can be desalinated, including:
• Multiple stage flash distillation - saline water is heated and passes to a stage where the ambient pressure is
lower. This causes the water to boil, releasing steam. The steam then passes through demisters and condenses into
raw water. The process consists of a number of stages that have different pressures corresponding to the boiling
point of water at the temperature of the stage.
• Vapour compression distillation - saline water is preheated in a heat exchanger located outside the evaporator.
The saline water boils in the evaporator. The resulting water vapour is compressed by an external mechanical
compressor. The hot compressed water is fed back to the evaporator to provide the required heating energy for
the boiling saline water.
• Reverse osmosis - as discussed above, reverse osmosis can also be used to remove salt from water in addition to
other materials.
The advantages and disadvantages of desalination are identified in the table below:

Advantages Disadvantages
Provides clean freshwater for drinking and agriculture Energy consumption and associated impacts are great.
where no source exists. Distillation, for example, requires large amounts of water
to be boiled and reverse osmosis requires significant
energy to overcome natural osmosis.
It uses tried and tested technology that has been in use Significant cost - desalination plants are generally
for many years. expensive to build and maintain. It has been found that
desalinated water can be five times as costly as freshwater.
Habitat protection - creating water from the sea means Other environmental impacts, in addition to those
that land-based surface and groundwater is not extracted. associated with energy, can be great. Chlorine and other
This means there is less impact on land-based aquatic chemicals are often added to water during processing
systems such as lakes and rivers. and left behind with waste brine which, if dumped into
the ocean, can harm marine life.

STUDY QUESTIONS
9. Identify the key reasons for effluent treatment.

10. Identify three secondary biological treatment methods for sewage.

11. Identify five physical methods of treating wastewater.

12. Outline the advantages of desalination of seawater.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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9.4 Abstraction from the Water Environment

Abstraction from the Water Environment

IN THIS SECTION...
• Excess demand for water, leading to over-abstraction from water sources, can have detrimental impacts on aquatic
wildlife and humans.
• ‘Water neutrality’ is a term used to imply a process whereby participants try to balance their water usage by
reducing water usage and investing in projects that increase the supply of freshwater.
• A water balance is a numeric analysis of the quantities of water that enter an organisation, where the water leaves
an organisation and water use activities in between.
• Reducing water usage may be achieved by many means, including measures in toilets, stopping dripping taps,
water diffusers and grey water recycling.
• Water stress can be defined as being when the demand for water resources exceeds the amount available for
usage.

Need for Sustainable Water Abstraction

Excess demand for water, leading to over-abstraction from water sources, can
have detrimental impacts on aquatic wildlife and humans. Water removed
from ground and surface waters rarely returns to the source from which it
was taken. Around 80% of water applied to crops, for example, evaporates.
This can lead to many rivers flowing at low levels during times of peak
demand or, in the worst case, they can dry up completely.

As we saw in Element 6, impacts of over-abstraction on rivers and aquifers

include:
• Reductions in river-water flow, reducing the size of the populations of
aquatic species that the river can support. Around 80% of water applied to
crops evaporates
• Wetland habitats that are supported by river flows drying up and
disappearing.
• Aquifers drying up, removing important sources of water for human consumption and agriculture.
• In coastal areas, removing water from aquifers at an excessive rate can lead to saltwater intrusion, making the
water unfit for use.

Water Neutrality
‘Water neutrality’ is a term that was first coined during the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002. The
term is used to imply a process whereby participants try to balance their water usage by reducing water usage and
investing in projects that increase the supply of freshwater. It therefore involves balancing the demand and supply of
water by intervention of the user. It pertains to the amount of water being used being broadly equal to the amount
put back.

Water Balance
Before looking at ways to reduce water costs it is necessary to gain an understanding of water use around a site. This
can be achieved by completing a water balance.

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 Abstraction from the Water Environment 9.4

A water balance is used to:

• Understand and manage water use and effluent production.
DEFINITION
• Identify areas that have a significant cost-saving potential.
• Detect areas of leakage. WATER BALANCE
A numeric analysis of the
A water balance works on a simple principle - the amount of water coming
quantities of water that enter
into an organisation has got to be equal to the amount that leaves (either in
an organisation, where the
product, evaporation or leakage, etc.).
water leaves an organisation
The first step in completing a water balance is to consider the quantity of and water use activities in
water that has been used over the past year. This can be obtained from between.
various sources such as bills, meter readings or equipment operating data.
The amount of wastewater discharged as effluent over the same time period should also be considered.

The next stage is to validate the data by comparing the amount of water that has entered the site to the volume that has
left the site. Inputs should be the same as outputs, however allowance may be made for issues such as water removed
in the product and drying activities.

Source: Saving Money Through Resource Efficiency: Reducing Water Use, WRAP, 2013 (www.wrap.org.uk/sites/
files/wrap/WRAP_Saving_Money_Through_Resource_Efficiency_Reducing_Water_Use_0.pdf)
Copyright WRAP

Water-Using Activities
A water balance can be used to determine activities that use significant amounts of water. This will include where, how
and why water is consumed, the quantities and the water quality requirements at the points of discharge.

Water balances are often presented as a block diagram, as can be seen in the example below. Each significant activity
is presented as a box listing significant water uses. Inputs are identified at the top of the diagram and outputs at the
bottom.

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9.4 Abstraction from the Water Environment

Water inputs and outputs for an example site

Source: Saving Money Through Resource Efficiency: Reducing Water Use, WRAP, 2013 (www.wrap.org.uk/sites/
files/wrap/WRAP_Saving_Money_Through_Resource_Efficiency_Reducing_Water_Use_0.pdf) Copyright WRAP

Water Savings Ideas

The next action is to generate practical water savings ideas. This could be carried out by holding a meeting and
brainstorming actions to save water.

Analysing Different Options

The ideas generated then need to be analysed to determine their feasibility and the costs and actions required. Those
that are environmentally, financially and technically feasible should be reported to senior management. Once approval
is gained the action can be implemented.

Maintaining Momentum
The momentum of the improvements can be maintained in various ways such as competitions against departments,
appointing ‘water wardens’ and implementing suggestion schemes. A monitoring system should be set up to maintain
and achieve savings, enable ongoing improvement and demonstrate successful implementation.

Reporting on Success
The success of the project should be clearly reported using mechanisms such as bulletins, posters and newsletters, etc.

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 Abstraction from the Water Environment 9.4

Ways to Reduce Water Consumption

Reducing water usage may be achieved by many means. Examples include:
• Toilets - if installing a new toilet, ensure it has a dual flush system which allows less water to be used if a full flush
is not required. Indeed, consider not always flushing the toilet; even a short flush system uses several litres of clean
water and may not always be necessary. If you have the older, single-flush system, then consider a water-saving
device, such as a “Hippo” - a plastic container open at the top that retains a portion of the water that would have
been used in the flush.
• Fit a water meter - although not a direct reduction technique, knowing you are being charged for what you use is
a great incentive to reduce water consumption. It can also save you money on both your water bill and sewerage
bill as this is calculated from the amount of water used.
• Stop dripping taps - according to Waterwise (a not-for-profit water organisation funded by the water industry in
the UK), a dripping tap wastes at least 5,500 litres of water a year.
• Water garden plants in the evening - this ensures that more of the water remains available to the plants and so
in the long run less has to be used.
• Fit diffusers on taps - they won’t make much difference when filling a bowl or basin, but if you wash anything
under a running tap they will reduce the amount of water needed.
• Grey water recycling - using bath and washing water to flush the toilet can save large quantities of fresh, clean,
drinking water from simply being flushed away.
• Fit low flow showerheads and take more showers than baths.

Water Stress
Water stress can be defined as being when the demand for water resources exceeds the amount available for usage.
This may be during a certain period or when poor quality puts restrictions on the water’s use.

Water stress will cause deterioration in the quantity of water resources, such as aquifer or surface water depletion, and
the quality of water resources (e.g. from eutrophication).

The Water Exploitation Index (WEI) or withdrawal ratio is a measure of the vulnerability of water abstractions to over
exploitation. It is calculated as follows:

WEI = Total abstraction of freshwater / Long-term average freshwater resources

Note: Long-term average freshwater = Long-term average precipitation - Long-term average evapotranspiration +
Long-term average inflow from neighbouring countries.

WEI describes the way that total water abstraction creates pressure on water
resources. It identifies countries that have a high abstraction in relation to the MORE...
amount of water available and that are likely to suffer problems associated
with water stress. The warning threshold of water stress is deemed to be www.eea.europa.eu/data-
20% (identifying a non-stressed region from a stressed one). Severe water and-maps/indicators/
stress is likely to occur with a WEI of over 40%, which indicates significant water-exploitation-index#tab-
competition for water. figures-supporting-this

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment 9-37
9.4 Abstraction from the Water Environment

STUDY QUESTIONS
13. Explain the meaning of the term ‘water neutrality’.

14. Identify the purpose of undertaking a water balance.

15. Identify how the Water Exploitation Index is calculated.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and Control Measures
for Flooding
9.5

Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and

Control Measures for Flooding

IN THIS SECTION...
• Flooding has many impacts including damage to property, loss of income, increased insurance premiums, pest
infestations and damage to roads.
• Factors that may be considered when assessing flood risk include identification of flooding sources, typical
climate, location of floodplains and climate change.
• Controls to prevent or mitigate flood risk include maintenance, emergency plans, monitoring of flood updates
and the use of sustainable drainage systems.

Consequences of Flooding
Flooding has significant direct and indirect consequences, including the
following.

Direct Effects of Flooding

• Damage to property/equipment/stock - such material items may be
damaged, e.g. floor carpets, wallpaper and the foundations of buildings.
• Loss of income - significant loss of income may occur after a flood due
to damage to stock, buildings and business infrastructure. This may lead
to laying-off staff or making redundancies in order to reduce costs.
• Business continuity issues - a business may cease trading or trade on Flooding causes damage to property,
a more limited basis following a flood, due to operational disruption, equipment and stock
incurrence of financial losses, loss of business to competitors and impacts on reputation.
• Increased insurance premiums - those businesses at risk of flooding may not be able to gain flood insurance or
will have to pay a high insurance premium. Generally premiums for all insurance policies will increase due to more
frequent flood events.
• Pest infestations - common pest problems following a flood include ants and rodents entering buildings as their
homes are flooded and flies and cockroaches being attracted to buildings by floodwater containing sewage.
• Health issues - flooding can lead to an increase in various types of communicable disease such as water-borne
diseases (e.g. cholera, leptospirosis and hepatitis) and vector-borne diseases (e.g. malaria and yellow fever).

Indirect Effects of Flooding

• Damage to roads and other infrastructure - the roadways and associated infrastructure (e.g. bridges, traffic
lights) that support business may be unusable following a flood. As such, goods and raw materials will not be able
to be delivered to a business.
• Clean-up costs/removal of debris - following clean-up after a flood there will be significant amounts of debris
that need to be removed. Additionally buildings, roadways and other infrastructure will need to be repaired or
replaced. Businesses may also have to replace office equipment, raw materials and stock.
• General health and safety issues - flooding may lead to death and serious injury. It also increases the risk of
communicable diseases, as we considered above.

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 Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and Control Measures
9.5 for Flooding

Factors when Assessing Flood Risk

The following are identified as being key risk factors when determining the risk of flooding:
• Identification of the sources of flooding - multiple flood sources will need to be considered such as
groundwater, coastal water, rivers, reservoir failure and failure of storage systems to hold floodwaters.
• Typical climate - the usual climate in an area can result in greater flood risk. Areas that experience predictably
high levels of rainfall at certain times of year will be more prone to flooding than areas that have a more stable
local climate.
• Historical site data - historical records on weather and flooding can often be accessed for many years into the
past. Analysing such records will contribute to predicting the likelihood, scale and location of future flood events.
• Location of floodplains - understanding the location and nature of floodplains is a vital component of flood risk
assessment.
• Severity of damage to property and local habitats/eco-systems - the level of damage to buildings and
infrastructure in addition to damage to flood-sensitive habitats should also be considered.
• Climate change - in assessing flood risk the sensitivity of a catchment to climate change will be determined. This
will include the risk of rising sea levels associated with climate change.
The probability of a flood occurring in an area can be determined by computer modelling. Such modelling will often
take into account some or all of the risk factors identified above.

Control and Mitigation of Flooding

We will now consider the measures that can be implemented to reduce the chances of being affected by a flood, in
addition to mitigating the impacts of a flood should one occur.

Maintenance of Existing Controls

Control measures that can be developed and implemented to deal with a flood might include pumping stations that are
capable of dealing with excess water. Pumping stations operate to ensure that water levels are maintained to acceptable
levels by diverting water to an alternative pathway rather than continuation downstream through the watercourse. It
is important that pumping stations and associated infrastructure (such as roads and holding tanks) are covered by a
planned preventative maintenance schedule so that they operate efficiently when needed.

Emergency Plans
It is important that emergency plans are developed and implemented for flood risk where appropriate. Flooding can
present a significant risk to health and safety, financial security and business continuity for some organisations. For such
an organisation, it is essential that appropriate emergency plans are developed and tested using the techniques that we
considered in Element 3.

Monitoring Flood Updates

In order to increase the chance of being ready for a flood prior to its occurrence, it is important that updates on flooding
from governmental environment bodies are monitored. In England and Wales, for example, the UK Government
operates the flood information service that identifies the likelihood of flooding. The service ranks flooding as follows:
• Flood alerts - flooding is possible - be prepared.
• Flood warnings - flooding is expected - immediate action required.
MORE...
• Severe flood warning - severe flooding - danger to life. Flood information service:
By taking a proactive approach, businesses can implement an emergency plan https://flood-warning-
which could reduce the impact of a flood on the business should it occur. information.service.gov.uk

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 Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and Control Measures
for Flooding
9.5

Flood Defences
Historically, flooding was reduced by the building of flood defences for
communities with little consideration of keeping water in uplands and
floodplains. Such techniques might include building flood walls and installing
levees and bunds. Flood defences such as these provide little protection
unless considered with other measures to reduce water flow.

Land use can sometimes have a significant effect on the amount of water
that finds its way down a river. In rural areas, local run-off can be increased
by agricultural activities such as an increase in farm and field size. This leads
to changes that affect the soil structure, meaning it cannot hold as much
water, leading to increased run-off. Well managed forests have the ability to Water defences protect from
decrease flooding as they can decrease the amount of rain hitting the land flooding
(interception) and take up rainwater. Although good at reducing local flooding for smaller, more common flood events,
forests are not as effective at decreasing run-off for catchment-wide flooding. One analogy used to represent this is
that of a sponge. Even though the sponge can take in water and be made bigger (e.g. by the afforestation and changes
in agriculture), it only has a specific storage capacity. For big flood events, the sponge will fill up and the water will find
its way into a river.

Towns and cities also play an important role in reducing water run-off. Urban areas are largely covered by roads, car
parks and buildings, which have limited capacity to hold water in comparison to vegetation, soil and land surface
depressions. Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) aim to mimic natural drainage processes to decrease the effects of
quality and quantity of run-off from a development, providing biodiversity and amenity benefits. When reviewing a
planning application, the local planning authority will often set planning conditions, where appropriate, that include
SuDS.

Ditches and culverts in urban areas reduce the distance that water travels overland to reach rivers and it tends to flow
at a much faster rate than overland flow. Mechanisms to reduce run-off into rivers covered by SuDS might include
alternatives to hard surfaces such as gravel surface for a car park or using permeable types of paving. Other options
might include installation of perforated pipes which are commonly used to drain roadways, or the use of basins that
hold water back from a river during a storm (at least until the basin becomes full). Constructed wetlands in areas of
high flood risk will also help slow down and reduce water flow for some flood scenarios. It may also be pertinent to
discourage development in high-risk flood areas through changes to the planning system.

Sandbags may also be used as temporary measures to reduce the ingress of flood waters.

Building Design
Buildings can be designed to reduce the impact of a flood. Techniques tend to fall into one of three categories:
• Avoidance - constructing a building in a way to avoid it being flooded.
• Resistance - constructing a building in a way to prevent floodwater entering the building and causing damage.
• Resilience - constructing a building so that, although floodwater may enter, its impact is minimised.

Avoidance Measures
Avoidance measures include:
• Not constructing a building in an area where there is a significant risk of flooding.
• Raising ground or floor level.
• Building localised bunds around the property or area. It is usually unlikely that these will be fully watertight so
pumps may be required to redirect water that has seeped through. Bunds may be appropriate in areas where the
estimated duration and depth of flooding is minimal.

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 Risk Assessment of Flood Areas, Consequences of and Control Measures
9.5 for Flooding

• Landscaping of a development area can be used to direct or divert floodwater away from buildings. This may be
effective when the flood duration is short.
• Boundary wall fencing may be constructed with flood-resistant materials and seals.

Resistance Measures
Resistance measures are those that aim to prevent floodwater entering a building to give occupants time to remove and
relocate ground-floor items. Resistance techniques largely involve using building materials that have low permeability
for foundations, floors, walls, doors and windows.

Resilience Measures
Resilience measures involve using a water exclusion strategy such as construction techniques that facilitate drying and
cleaning. These are useful when low floodwater depths are experienced. A water entry strategy is where water will enter
the building but the building will be designed to drain the water away and dry rapidly. This strategy is favoured for high
floodwater depths.

Examples of flood-resilient design include:

• Ground-supported floors of at least 150 mm thickness.
MORE...
• Hardcore and blinding with good compaction to reduce the risk of
settlement and cracking. For more information on
• Damp-proof membrane to minimise the passage of water through building design and flooding
ground floors. see the guide located at:
• Floor surfaces should be ceramic or concrete-based floor tiles, stone and www.gov.uk/government/
sand/cement screed. uploads/system/uploads/
• Provision of a floor sump and a small capacity pump at a low point on attachment_data/file/7730/
the ground floor. flood_performance.pdf

STUDY QUESTIONS
16. Outline the direct consequences of flooding.

17. Identify the three categories of building design that can assist in reducing the impact of a flood.
(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

9-42 Unit ED1 - Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment © RRC International
 Summary

Summary

Key topics covered in this element:

• Physical, chemical and biological are the key types of water pollutants.
• Reduction of oxygen in water is a key impact of pollution.
• Point sources are distinct, controlled sources. Diffuse sources are those that are uncontrolled in nature.
• Techniques to prevent water pollution include identifying and marking drains, maintenance of the drainage
system, bunding, appropriate drum storage and control on deliveries.
• Legal requirements to monitor water pollutants are stated in permits and consents.
• Water monitoring competency standards exist for monitoring personnel and equipment.
• The Biotic Index identifies a range of species whose presence indicates the quality of the water.
• Effluent is often monitored for chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand, pH, total suspended solids,
total dissolved solids and turbidity.
• Sewage treatment works consist of preliminary sewage treatment, secondary biological sewage treatment and
tertiary treatment.
• Drinking water is treated by screening, aeration, coagulation, clarification, filtration, pH adjustment, disinfection
and softening.
• Desalination has numerous significant impacts on the environment from high energy use and disposal of by-
products from the process.
• Over-abstraction from water sources can have detrimental impacts on aquatic wildlife and humans.
• Water neutrality is a process whereby participants balance their water usage. This is achieved by reducing water
usage and investing in projects that increase the supply of freshwater.
• Reducing water usage can be achieved by measures in toilets, stopping dripping taps, water diffusers and grey
water recycling.
• Water stress is when the demand for water resources exceeds the amount available for usage.
• Flooding causes damage to property, loss of income, increased insurance premiums, pest infestations and damage
to roads.
• Flood risk may be determined by considering identification of flooding sources, typical climate, location of
floodplains and climate change.
• Flood risk can be controlled by maintenance, emergency plans, monitoring of flood updates and the use of
sustainable drainage systems.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment 9-43
ES Exam Skills

Exam Skills

QUESTION
A local resident has complained that a small stream is being polluted by oil from a company’s manufacturing
site.
(a) Outline the actions that the company should take to investigate the complaint. (10)

(b) Outline the practical and managerial means that could be used to prevent such pollution. (10)

Approaching the Question

The answer to part (a) requires an outline of a structured investigation to determine whether the complaint is valid and
to identify specifically the source of the pollution. Part (b) requires the outline of a number of practical and managerial
techniques that can be implemented to reduce the risk of water pollution occurring on the site.

Plan
(a) Validity, source, sampling, fingerprint, leaks, product losses, inventory, off-site sources, other targets.
(b) EMS, identifying drains, marking drains, maintenance, bunding, pipework, drum storage, deliveries.

Suggested Answer Outline

Now you have completed your answer, compare it to the following suggested answer.
(a) One of the first actions to be undertaken would be to confirm the accuracy of the complaint by the local
resident. This could be achieved in numerous ways. For example, the company could take samples from the
stream and arrange for them to be analysed. Should the oil be of a type used by the company then this will
provide an indication that the oil may have originated from the manufacturing site in question.
Another method of determining accuracy would be to discuss the incident with residents. This will allow the
company to determine as to when the pollution incident occurred and how it affected the stream. The stream
itself and the surrounding area might also be affected - this will assist in determining the extent of pollution and
the impacts that it has. Indications of damage such as affected plants and animals should be noted, in addition
to any visible sign of oil staining on stream banks and vegetation. The investigation should also consider on-site
activities such as drainage plans if available - the site may/may not have a link to the stream that has been polluted.
The oil storage areas of the site should be closely inspected for the presence of leaks either now or in the past.
This might include breaches in primary containment, spillage during delivery, etc. The company could also check
inventories to see if greater quantities of oil have been ordered than normal. This, coupled with other evidence,
might help identify the increased loss of oil (so increased quantities would need to be purchased) from leakage/
spillage to a surface water drain.

Other potential off-site sources of oil should also be considered. For example, the presence of any contaminated
land in the area should be determined as this could cause oil to enter a stream if the land is hydraulically connected
to the stream. The Environment Agency should also be informed of the pollution incident whether or not it is
found to have occurred from the manufacturing site. Additionally, other potential receptors of pollution should
also be considered by the company and the impacts on these. Such receptors might include groundwater.

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 Exam Skills ES

(b) The practical and managerial means that could be used to prevent pollution might include:

• EMS
In addition to the practical matters described here, there are other matters that bring about pollution
prevention. Prime among them must be an Environmental Management System. Part of the management
system will be a policy, a risk assessment, operating procedures and appropriate training programmes.
Emergency plans and their testing are also included in an EMS, which will reflect the nature and relative risks
of the particular premises.

• Practical Means - Identifying Drains

Many companies or businesses do not know where the drains are or what type (i.e. SWS or FWS) they are. A
drainage plan of a site is a necessity for effective pollution control. Education as to the uses of different drains
is also important.

• Marking Drains
The Environment Agency recommends that surface-water drains be painted blue and foul- water drains red,
although many companies use alternative colour codes. It is essential to ensure that everyone understands the
colour code and what it means in practice.

• Maintaining the Drainage System

Maintenance of the drainage system used for the discharge of pollutants is required such that discharges do
not contaminate land or cause other environmental impacts. CCTV surveys of drainage are often required
to check integrity. Blockages must all be removed to ensure that discharges do not overflow from drainage.

• Bunding
Storage of bulk chemicals and oil in tanks is a frequent pollution source and the main means of protecting
water from these sources is by bunding.

Bunds should be sturdily constructed of, or lined with, material impervious to the substance to be contained.
Bunds should comprise a base and surrounding walls (with no damp course). Pipework should not pass
through a bund. The capacity of the bund should be the whole capacity of the storage tank, plus 10%.

Hydraulically-linked tanks should be considered as a single tank. If there is more than one tank in the bund, the
volume should be related to the capacity of the largest tank.

There should never be any outlet from the bund to any drain, sewer, ground or watercourse. Any accumulated
water should be pumped out manually after testing. All tanks should be labelled to show the contents.

• Pipework
Pipework should be above ground, where possible. It should be well supported and vulnerable pipework
protected. Filler pipes should be within the bund and vent and overflow pipes positioned to overflow into the
bund. Pipes should be locked. Underground pipework should be protected in a sleeve or duct and protected
from damage from excessive surface loads.

• Drum Storage
Drums should be stored in a bunded area, preferably with a roof. The impervious base should contain any
spillages. Wherever possible, protect against vandalism by use of locked compounds.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment 9-45
ES Exam Skills

• Deliveries
Ensure delivery areas are isolated from the SW drains, in case of spillage. Catch pits may be fitted at the
delivery point, with isolating valves. Automatic cut-off valves should be fitted to oil delivery points to prevent
over-filling. Emergency plans should take account of deliveries, and appropriate means, materials and training
be put in place.

• Spill Kits
The provision of a suitable spill kit in case of emergencies is sound practice. These should be appropriate
to the substances used on-site and training must be given. Spill kits must be accessible, so their location is
important. Spill kits are available to cope with a number of different types of substances, e.g. oils, acids and
alkalis. They should be checked regularly.

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 Element 10
Control of Environmental Noise

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll

understand how to:

 Explain the characteristics of noise

and advise on the measurement and
assessment of environmental noise levels.

 Outline control strategies and methods for

the control of environmental noise.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 10: Control of Environmental Noise 10-1
 Contents

Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10-3

Sources of Environmental Noise 10-3
Basic Acoustics 10-5
Measurement of Environmental Noise 10-10
Study Questions 10-12

The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise 10-13

Effects of Noise on Human Health, Local Communities and Wildlife 10-13
The Need to Control Noise from Industry and Construction 10-14
Engineering and Procedural Control Measures and Strategies 10-14
Study Questions 10-19

Summary 10-20
Exam Skills 10-21

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 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10.1

Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of

Environmental Noise

IN THIS SECTION...
• Common sources of environmental noise include industry and commerce, transport, construction, entertainment
and neighbours.
• Sound is measured as a sound pressure level and is depicted using a logarithmic scale, meaning that an increase of
three dB doubles the sound intensity, and a decrease of three dB halves the sound intensity.
• BS 4142 sets out a method for assessing industrial and commercial sound sources against the existing background
sound to determine the impact of the sound.

Sources of Environmental Noise

Noise may be defined as unwanted sound. People exposed to very high levels
of noise, for example from machinery and equipment in enclosed spaces,
can suffer damage to their hearing, and this is a recognised occupational
health issue. But noise can also be unwanted because it causes disturbance
or annoyance. Most people will have experienced unwanted noise that
interferes with life at home or perhaps has prevented a good night’s sleep
in a hotel room. Noise from a wide variety of sources can travel considerable
distances and affect the peace and enjoyment of life. This type of noise is
referred to as environmental noise, or noise nuisance. Machinery in enclosed spaces can
produce high levels of noise
Manufacturing and Related Commercial Activities
Manufacturing activities, especially traditional heavy industries, may generate significant noise from:
• Pressing and forging metal parts (e.g. shipyards and vehicle assembly plants).
• Turbines (e.g. electricity generation plants).
• General machinery (e.g. motors, grinding and planing, air compressors, conveyor systems).
• Ventilation systems (e.g. motors, fans).
• Public address systems (e.g. in warehouses and distribution centres).
• Materials handling (e.g. conveyors, forklift trucks).
The main problems arise when domestic premises or institutions, such as schools and hospitals, are located in close
proximity to industrial facilities. This is less likely to occur nowadays, with the demise of many traditional heavy industries
and the application of modern planning regulations.

Transport Noise
On- or off-site road traffic, especially heavy trucks, generates considerable noise from:
• Engines.
• Movement over road surfaces, especially from the bodywork of empty vehicles.
• The use of horns.
• Reversing alarms which are often high-pitched and can travel substantial distances.
Large jet aircraft engines are intensely noisy, especially during take-off and landing at airports.

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10.1 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise

Road traffic is a major source of noise in city centres; even in rural areas,
noise from motorways can be detected several miles away, especially at night.
Particular problems can be experienced where distribution centres that
operate around the clock are located in close proximity to residential areas.

Noise around major airports, especially associated with plans for the
development of new airports, has become a significant political issue.

Agricultural Noise
Modern agriculture is highly mechanised. Noise from agricultural activities is
often associated with the use of:
Motorways can be heard from several
• Mobile machinery, e.g. tractors and harvesters, especially when miles away
harvesting is undertaken around the clock.
• Bird-scarers that simulate loud gunshots.
Any source of noise may be more noticeable in the countryside, because background noise levels are generally lower
than in an urban environment.

Construction Noise
Construction work typically involves activities that are potentially noisy, including:
• The use of heavy equipment, such as excavators and cranes.
• Pile driving, especially at larger sites.
• The use of powered tools, such as drills.
• Trucks and vans delivering materials and removing debris.
Construction work often takes place near town centres and in residential areas, and is a major source of environmental
noise complaints. A balance often needs to be struck between the needs of the developer in completing the construction
project and the avoidance of unacceptable disturbance to local residents. BS 5228-1:2009 +A1:2014 Code of practice
for noise and vibration control on construction and open sites - Noise provides guidance to local authorities in the
determination of reasonably acceptable noise levels from specific items of plant and activities.

Quarrying and Mining

The extraction of minerals from the ground also involves activities that are potentially very noisy, including:
• Operation of excavation machinery.
• The use of explosives.
• Operation of rock-crushing equipment.
• Operation of conveyor systems.
• Movements of heavy vehicles on and off the site.
Quarrying and mining can be an important source of noise nuisance in rural areas.

Other Sources of Noise

Noise from Pubs and Clubs
Noise nuisance may be caused by the operation of sound systems at clubs, discotheques and open-air festivals or by
people arriving and leaving. Noise may equally cause problems to residents in proximity to sporting events, such as
motor-racing circuits, or open-air music concerts which are often located in quiet, rural areas.

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 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10.1

Limits may be set in relation to the:

• Number of times such events are permitted.
• Distance from noise-sensitive premises.
• Amplitude of music from loudspeakers.
• Time and duration of such events.

Neighbour Noise
Environmental noise is most likely to disturb us in our own homes. Noise nuisance is often created by the activities of
other residents in the neighbourhood. Sources of noise that commonly cause annoyance include:
• Loud music from radios and other sound systems.
• Televisions.
• Use of equipment such as power drills, lawn mowers and strimmers.
• Dogs barking persistently or late at night.
Noisy neighbours is a problem that is increasingly being dealt with by local authorities and can be exacerbated by:
• People living closer together.
• Modern construction techniques providing limited sound insulation.
• Ever decreasing levels of social tolerance.
• Intruder and vehicle alarms.
Noise from all intruder alarms can be a nuisance. The standards for intruder alarms often relate to how the alarms are
activated, to ensure few false alarms and the silencing of any siren after a period of time (usually 20 minutes).

Rural Noise
Noise nuisance is not restricted to busy urban environments - it can be a
significant problem for the residents of rural areas. While overall noise levels
are likely to be higher in urban environments, individual noises may be more
noticeable in the countryside. Sources of rural noise nuisance, some of which
we have mentioned already, include:
• Mobile farm machinery, especially during harvest time.
• The operation of bird-scarers.
• Noise from motorways and railway lines that traverse the countryside.
• Mining and quarrying activities that are typically located in rural areas.
• Animals with loud and persistent calls, such as dogs, cockerels and Open-air festivals can cause problems
peacocks. to nearby residents
• Open-air festivals and motor-racing circuits.

Basic Acoustics
Sounds are the result of air being continually compressed followed by rarefaction; the frequency or number of times
the compression takes place per second will determine the pitch, and the pressure exerted by the energy input will
determine the loudness.

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10.1 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise

Pressure
Sound is the sensation that the brain perceives when pressure variations in
the air are detected by the ear, i.e. the human ear is a pressure-sensing device.
Sound is best described as a pattern of waves. Pressure is related to amplitude
(see below).

Sound is the transmission of energy in the form of vibration; it can occur

in solids, liquids or gases, but not through a vacuum. Sound pressure is Sound: continually compressed air
expressed as N/m2. and rarefaction

Loudness depends on the sound pressure and frequency (see below). The higher the number of compressions, the
higher the pitch we hear.

Frequency and Amplitude

The pressure fluctuation of sound may be described as a sine curve or wave, the principal components of which are
shown in the following diagram:

Sine curve for pressure variation in sound waves

In the diagram:
• A = Amplitude (amplitude is proportional to sound pressure).
• λ = Wavelength.
• Frequency = the number of cycles per second.
Amplitude is proportional to the energy of a sound wave.

Wavelength is the distance between the crests of a sine curve. It is the speed of sound divided by the frequency.

Frequency is the number of times a vibrating system completes a cycle of movement in one second, expressed as Hertz
(Hz) or ‘cycles per second’.

Different sounds have different characteristics that affect what we hear.

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 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10.1

Pitch describes the type of sound we hear, such as shrill or piercing (as from a hiss or whistle). High-pitched tones have
high frequencies, and low-pitched tones (rumbles) have low frequencies.

Their wave forms look very different, as shown in the following figure:

Pressure variation in sound waves

Intensity
Sound intensity is the rate of energy flow per unit area transmitted as a sound wave, usually expressed as W/m2.

Power
Sound Power Level (SPL) is the total energy per second expressed in decibels (dB) (see below).

The sound power level can be the actual SPL, or a figure averaged over an eight-hour day. SPL can also be expressed at
different frequency bands.

This is particularly important when measuring exposure to noise in the context of the working environment.

Sound Pressure Levels

Sound is measured as a sound pressure level. This is a relative quantity that expresses the ratio between the actual sound
pressure and a fixed reference pressure, namely the threshold of human hearing. The lowest sound intensity that the
human ear can hear is about 1 × 10-12 Watts per m2 when the sound frequency is 1,000 Hz. The highest sound humans
can hear is about one Watt per m2. As this is too large a scale to be represented linearly, we use a logarithmic scale to
represent the range of normal sound and hearing.

The Bel (B) and deciBel (dB) Scales

One Bel corresponds to an interval of sound intensity that corresponds to a tenfold change in energy. As a Bel is very
large, it is normally divided by 10 to give the decibel, which also gives more units on the measurement scale.

As sound is measured in decibels, which is a logarithmic scale, the decibel values cannot just be added together directly
to give the effect of two sound sources; i.e. 80 dB + 80 dB does not equal 160 dB.

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10.1 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise

It is important to note that an increase of three dB doubles the sound intensity, and a decrease of three dB halves the
sound intensity, and a ten dB change is equal to a tenfold increase in sound intensity.

Typical sound pressure levels

Noise Source Sound Pressure Level (dB)
Jet Engine 140
Pneumatic Drill 120
Busy Street 80
Speech at one metre 60
Quiet countryside at night 20

As an approximation, if you have to shout to be heard at a distance of one

metre, then the background sound level is likely to be 90 dB(A). DEFINITION
dB(A)
Noise-Weighting Scales
Noise is measured in decibels
The human ear cannot hear to an equal extent over the whole frequency (dB). The human ear is,
range, as shown in the following diagram: however, more sensitive at the
frequencies of 1 kHz to 4 kHz.
When the noise is measured,
the equipment is adjusted to
best represent the way the
human ear hears it (dB(A)).

Frequency range sensitivity

The human ear is more sensitive to certain frequencies than to others and so we do not hear equally over the whole
sound range. Consequently, the meters used to measure sound, as it affects humans, are calibrated so that they mimic
the ear’s sensitivity by applying a weighting scale. There are a number of different weighting scales (‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ and
‘D’). For most purposes the weighting scale ‘A’ is applied and that is why decibel units are typically expressed using the
symbol dB(A).

Percentile Sound Levels

Percentile Exceedance Sound Level (Ln)
This is a parameter used to express the amount of time a certain level of noise is exceeded, e.g. L10 is the level exceeded
for 10% of the time period. L90 is the level exceeded for 90% of the time.

If the sound level was 70 dB for an hour, an L10 would mean that 70 dB would be exceeded for 10% of the time (i.e. six
minutes), and would be 70 dB or less for 54 minutes of the hour.

Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level

The most common parameter for noise measurements in the workplace is Leq. This measurement arose from a Code of
Practice issued in 1972, for Reducing the Exposure of Employed Persons to Noise. In the code, it was recommended
that the maximum noise workers should be exposed to was an exposure level of 90 dB(A) eight-hour time-weighted
average. (Note: this recommended maximum level of exposure has since been reduced - see below.) The Leq is an
average of the energy of the sound (as opposed to an arithmetical average of the decibel level). It is also known as the
Equivalent Continuous Sound Level.

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 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10.1

Here is a straightforward example: if noise was steady at 90 dB(A), then an Leq of 90 dB(A) would be measured. This
would also be the case if the noise was 93 dB(A) for half the time and silent for the other half. Similarly, a noise level of
100 dB(A) for a tenth of the time also gives an Leq of 90 dB(A).

The noise dose received by a person is the product of the noise level and the duration of the exposure. The Control
of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 in the UK establish the exposure criteria associated with lower and upper
exposure action values and exposure limit values. These are exposure values at which the employer is required to
take particular steps to protect employees and others from the harmful effects of noise.

The exposure action values and exposure limit values are expressed as ‘equivalent continuous daily personal noise
exposure levels’ (LEPd) or, where exposure may differ markedly from day to day, ‘equivalent continuous weekly personal
noise exposure levels’ (LEPw).
• Lower Exposure Action Values: 80 dB(A) LEPd /LEPw or 135 dB(C) peak sound pressure.
Where it is likely that a lower exposure action value may be exceeded, employers must carry out a risk assessment.

At or above this level, employees must be provided with information about the likely noise exposure and the
associated risk to hearing, the control measures in place to reduce exposure, hearing protection and health
surveillance (hearing tests).
• Upper Exposure Action Values: 85 dB(A) LEPd /LEPw or 137 dB(C) peak sound pressure.
At or above this level the employer must reduce exposure to as low a level as is reasonably practicable by establishing
and implementing a programme of organisational and technical measures. The provision of hearing protectors is a
last resort and is only acceptable when other methods of reducing exposure are not reasonably practicable.

Note: health surveillance (hearing checks) must be provided for all employees likely to be exposed regularly above
the upper exposure action value.
• Exposure Limit Values: 87 dB(A) LEPd /LEPw or 140 dB(C) peak sound pressure.
These limits must not be exceeded. However, if an exposure limit value is exceeded, the employer must investigate
the reason for the occurrence and identify and implement actions to ensure that it does not happen again.

Using 85 dB(A) as an example (the upper exposure action value), the relevant exposure would be 85 dB(A) for eight
hours or 88 dB(A) for four hours, to give the same amount of noise exposure. Further examples are shown in the
following table:

Sound Level dB(A) Exposure Equivalent to 85 dB(A) LEPd

85 8 hours
88 4 hours
91 2 hours
94 1 hour
97 30 minutes

Narrow Band Noise

Narrow band noise is noise that has a limited range of frequencies within the audible range. It tends to present as
screams, whistles or hisses. Due to its nature it tends to have a high nuisance potential.

Low Frequency Environmental Noise

Low Frequency Noise (LFN) is a common nuisance issue for people. LFN tends to incorporate noise that occurs between
20 and 160 times per second (20 Hertz to 160 Hertz). Most sounds fluctuate at a much greater speed (up to 16,000
times per second). LFN is commonly presented as a low rumble. Occasionally there will be a vibration sensation on the
ears.

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10.1 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise

LFN has the ability to travel long distances without a great amount of attenuation (reduction). In some cases the source
of the sound can be several kilometres from the receptor. Some people are found to be more susceptible to LFN than
others; to such people the sound can appear extremely loud. To susceptible people LFN may cause distress, sleep
deprivation and depression.

MORE...
Further information on low frequency noise can be found at:
www.salford.ac.uk/computing-science-engineering/research/acoustics/psychoacoustics/low-frequency-noise/
frequently-asked-questions
Example tracks of low frequency noise are available from:
www.salford.ac.uk/computing-science-engineering/research/acoustics/psychoacoustics/low-frequency-noise/
sound-files

Measurement of Environmental Noise

Noise at Work
The effects of noise have been recognised by industry for many years. Dr Thomas Barr published his work in the late
1880s and, since then, it has been accepted that exposure to noisy workplaces can permanently and irreparably damage
hearing. This damage has been the subject of many studies and reports since; in the early 1930s, pioneering work in this
field was carried out by Brown and Robinson.

The protection of workers’ hearing is often covered in legislation. It is recommended that hearing tests are carried out
periodically for workers in industries where noise is an issue.

Environmental Noise
Methods used to measure environmental noise must be capable of characterising noise impacts from a range of
different sources - for example, rail or road vehicles, aircraft or industrial machinery. In the past, a variety of different
approaches have been used. However, the ISO standard, Acoustics - Description, Measurement and Assessment of
Environmental Noise (ISO 1996), provides a framework for the consistent assessment of environmental noise. The
standard is published in two parts:
• Part 1: Basic quantities and assessment procedures.
• Part 2: Determination of environmental noise levels.
It identifies the preferred noise descriptor for the specification of noise limits as an equivalent continuous A-weighted
sound pressure level or rating level, during given reference intervals.

Assessment of Environmental Noise and Potential

for Complaints DEFINITION
In order to assess the impact of industrial and commercial sound, the British
BS 4142
Standards Institution has published BS 4142:2014 Methods for rating and
assessing industrial and commercial sound. A standard that sets out a
method for assessing industrial
and commercial sound level
against the existing background
sound level, to determine the
likelihood of adverse impacts.

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 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise 10.1

TOPIC FOCUS
BS 4142:2014 Methods for Rating and Assessing Industrial and Commercial Sound

While the standard has no statutory force, it can be used for complaint investigation, assessment of new, modified
or additional sources of industrial and commercial sound and determining the sound at proposed residential
dwellings. The determination of whether a noise is a nuisance or not is beyond the scope of the standard.

A summary of the methodology used to assess sound in BS 4142 is as follows:

• The measuring equipment should conform to BS EN 61672-1 and be calibrated at one or more frequencies
as recommended by equipment manufacturers.
• The measurement location should then be chosen. Measurements should be made outdoors at
representative locations at a height of between 1.2m to 1.5m above ground level and 3.5m away from
reflecting surfaces other than the ground.
• Precautions should be taken so as to reduce interference to the measuring equipment from sources such as
wind passing over the microphone or electromagnetic interference.
• The weather conditions should be recorded such as wind speed, wind direction and precipitation (rain,
snow and hail).
• Determination of the specific sound level should then be undertaken. This is the sound emanating from
the source of interest (e.g. sound from an industrial or manufacturing activity). This should be measured
for an appropriate period such as 1 hour during the day or 15 minutes at night. It is recommended in the
standard that if possible the specific sound is determined by measurement of the ambient sound (specific
sound plus other sound sources) and the residual sound (ambient sound minus the specific sound level).
• Background sound levels should then be determined. Background sound can vary, e.g. in many locations it
will be much reduced at night in comparison to daytime. Therefore the typical sound level over the period
of interest should be measured.
• To take into account elements of the specific sound that can increase the significance of the impact (such
as impulsivity or tonality of the sound) a character correction can be added to the sound. The subsequent
sound level is known as the rated sound. Character corrections can be determined using the following
methods:
–– Subjective
­ method - establishment of a character correction based on a subjective assessment of the
specific sound such as tonality (e.g. a penalty 6 dB could be added where it is highly perceptible) or
impulsivity (e.g. a 9 dB penalty could be added to a highly impulsive sound).
–– Objective
­ one third octave method - tones are identified using a method stated in an annex to the
standard and correction of 6 dB is added if a specified tone is present.
–– ­ Reference method - if certain tones are audible, a penalty is added on a sliding scale of 0 to 9 dB.
• The level of uncertainty in data and calculations should then be determined and steps taken to reduce
uncertainties.
• The difference between the rated sound and the background sound levels is used to assess whether
adverse impacts are likely. Generally the greater the difference, the greater the magnitude of the impact
such that:
–– ­ A difference of +10 dB is likely to have a significant adverse impact.
–– ­ A difference of around +5 dB is likely to identify an adverse impact.
–– Where
­ the rated sound level is at or under the background level, the sound source is likely to have a
low impact.
• Specified information is required to be reported such as measurement locations, sound measuring system,
weather conditions, date and time of measurement and specific sound levels.

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10.1 Characteristics, Measurement and Assessment of Environmental Noise

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Define:

(a) Sound.

(b) Frequency of sound.

2. Describe one way in which sound is measured.

3. What are the key environmental noise sources?

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise 10.2

The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise

IN THIS SECTION...
• Environmental impacts of noise include annoyance, sleep disturbance, cardiovascular problems and negative
performance and educational achievement.
• Noise management controls include control of working hours, controlling the use of radios, public address
systems and re-routeing of vehicles.
• Techniques to abate noise include elimination, substitution, maintenance, isolation, distance, absorption,
insulation, barriers, damping and silencing.

Effects of Noise on Human Health, Local Communities and

Wildlife
The perception of noise can be quite subjective. A particular noise may be
acceptable to one person, but very annoying to another. The main factors
that affect the perception of noise are:
• Loudness: loud noise is likely to be more intrusive.
• Pitch: low-pitched (or ‘low frequency’) sound, e.g. from heavy
machinery or the bass from entertainment sound systems, can travel
substantial distances. Pulsating low-pitched sound was a particular
problem with early wind turbine designs and may also be associated
A noise that is acceptable to one
with heavy road traffic.
person may be very annoying to
• Incidence: noise that happens only occasionally may be tolerable, but another
regular noise may be anticipated by people who are affected, leading to
a greater sense of annoyance and anxiety.
• Background levels: a given sound will travel further and be more noticeable in areas that are generally peaceful,
such as the countryside, than in a busy city street.
Complaints about noise are growing. Many complaints of neighbourhood noise arise as a result of:
• Anti-social behaviour.
• Poor planning controls.
• The juxtaposition of incompatible land uses.
• Specific one-off events, such as clay pigeon shooting, burglar and theft alarms (especially their repeated,
intermittent, high-frequency nature), fireworks, explosives, parties or the use of a jack-hammer on a road surface.
• Sirens or other noise interfering with use of tannoy systems for communication.
Environmental noise can have the following impacts on people:

• Annoyance
This can cause stress and other health problems such as hypertension (chronic high blood pressure). One estimate
suggests that 55% of people in the UK, for example, reside in areas that exceed guideline levels for annoyance as
specified by the World Health Organisation (WHO).

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10.2 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise

However, there are a number of factors that can affect individual attitudes to noise, such as:
–– ­ Personal factors - where people are and what they are doing.
–– ­ Context - a rural area is likely to be less accepting of transport noise than an urban area.
–– ­ Choice - people who have specifically decided to live in a quiet area are likely to be less accepting of high noise
levels.

• Sleep Disturbance
Higher sound levels can lead to poor quality of sleep and awakening.

• Cardiovascular Problems
Loud noise causes an increased heart rate that will soon return to normal following the stopping of the noise. There
is a slightly increased chance of hypertension, heart disease and heart attack for longer-term exposure. Effects are
not totally understood due to the influence of other risk factors, e.g. smoking and pollution.

• Performance and Educational Achievement

Noise is shown to affect the performance of children and adults in tasks that test cognitive functioning.

Environmental noise may also affect wildlife. Wild animals may be disturbed and prevented from feeding in certain areas
because of man-made noise. Certain animals - notably birds - use complex calls to communicate with other members of
the same species, especially during breeding. Man-made noise can interfere with these communication systems.

The Need to Control Noise from Industry and Construction

Noise must be controlled for the following reasons:
• Protect the health of workers.
• Reduce the chance of nuisance for those affected who live in areas close
to a site.
• Comply with environmental, health and safety legislation which, if
breached, can lead to fines, compensation claims, bad publicity, etc.
• Comply with the requirements of a formal environmental management
system standard such as ISO 14001:2015.
• Ensure good relations with those living close to the site.

Engineering and Procedural Control

Measures and Strategies Noise in the construction industry
must be controlled
In this section, we shall consider the range of engineering and procedural
control measures and strategies that can be applied to control noise emissions at source, through propagation and at
the receptor.

The strategy of Source-Pathway-Receptor applies equally well to noise as to other forms of environmental pollution.

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 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise 10.2

TOPIC FOCUS

General Noise Control

Wherever noise is a problem, the order of
priority for dealing with it is:

1. Noise reduction at source - e.g. by

elimination or substitution of the
process or equipment producing the
noise.

2. Attenuation in transmission - e.g. by

engineering controls that limit the
amount of noise transmitted.

3. Target controls - e.g. through use of

double glazing or sound insulation
at a property, only if neither of the
first two approaches results in a
satisfactory solution. Noise spread from point source
Some controls used are identical to those used in the reduction of noise for health and safety reasons.
Environmental noise controls may differ in that controls past the boundary of a site must also be considered.
Hearing protection would not be a relevant control for environmental noise.

Management Controls
Generally, good management is in most cases a source or a pathway control, as it can be used to eliminate or at least
reduce noise problems. Examples include:
• Control of working hours - usually to reasonable daytime hours. Most people are out of the home during the
day and the level of background noise is also higher than at night.
• Controlling the use of radios - radios used for communication and entertainment can cause a nuisance.
Controlling the number of radios on a site and the volume can be important. When using two-way radios, the use
of earpieces is advantageous as they prevent other people from overhearing and therefore any nuisance-causing
potential.
• Public address systems - these must be properly designed so that sound is directed where it needs to be heard
and not past site boundaries. This can be achieved by using more, smaller speakers and being able to reduce the
volume at night when background noise levels are generally lower.
• Vehicle routes - vehicles entering and leaving a site, especially large goods vehicles using air brakes and air-
assisted gear changes, can create high noise levels. Appropriate routing of such vehicles, in addition to signage
indicating any areas or routes not to be taken, can reduce the likelihood of a nuisance being caused. Driver
training can also have a positive effect.
• Loading doors and shutters - ensuring these are kept closed when not in use, especially during the night, can
significantly reduce the noise levels and the potential for nuisance.

Elimination, Substitution and Maintenance

The noise specification of equipment should always be considered and quiet equipment purchased, wherever
practicable. It is always more effective to fit noise-abatement equipment during manufacture than as a retrofit.

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10.2 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise

Noise can be reduced by replacing noisy equipment or parts of equipment with quieter alternatives, including:
• Diesel/petrol engines replaced by electric motors.
• Pneumatic tools replaced by electric tools.
• Solid wheels replaced by pneumatic rubber tyres.
• Metal chutes, buckets, boxes replaced by rubber or plastic ones.
Poor maintenance can also be the source of noise problems. Many machines are noisy because of worn parts, poor
maintenance, inadequate lubrication, or because they are ‘out of balance’. Having such machinery on a Planned
Preventive Maintenance (PPM) system will be required. This should include inspection, which may lead to replacement
of worn parts, and lubrication, leading to a quieter, more efficient machine.

It may also be possible to retrofit an improvement to a machine rather than totally replacing it, e.g. plastic- or rubber-
coated rollers and guides on a conveyor belt may be used for handling glass or metal components.

Engineering Controls
Isolation
Another effective method to reduce noise is to enclose the noise source. Machinery enclosures consist of noise-
reflecting outer surfaces and a noise-absorbent lining (such as mineral fibre). The machine should also be mounted so
that transmission noise to the floor does not occur.

Noise enclosures must be airtight - the smallest gap allows sound to escape and reduces the attenuation of the noise
inside the enclosure. This can be a problem with some types of enclosures as a gap may be needed to allow for entry
or exit of the product.

Pathways
Noise travels at different rates through different materials. The sound heard by the recipient will therefore vary according
to a number of factors, such as the distance between the source and the receptor, any barriers or buildings, the type of
ground (hard or soft), and the weather, including the wind speed and direction.

Distance
In the open air, sound decreases by 6 dB for every doubling of the distance away from the source - for example:

Distance Noise Level

1 metre 112dB
2 metres 106dB
4 metres 100dB
8 metres 94dB

The effect of distance is to decrease the intensity of the sound as the sound travels further from the source. This may
therefore be used as an effective control, often in conjunction with other controls.

Absorption and Insulation

Noise can be transmitted from a noise source by reflection off walls and other internal building structures. In appropriate
areas, noise levels can therefore be significantly reduced by the use of sound-absorbing materials on such internal
structures. This will reduce the reflected noise and have an effect on the overall noise levels.

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 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise 10.2

Any barriers, screens or other enclosures used must, as well as having absorbent properties, be acoustically insulating.
This means that they must transmit very little noise, and as a result they tend to be heavy. The superficial density of the
barrier must be high.

Barriers should be positioned as near as possible to either the receiver or the source; in most cases, the middle area is
the least effective at reducing noise levels. Barriers can reflect noise away from the receiver as well as absorbing it.

Sound insulation at the receiver is also sometimes used to reduce noise levels, although other techniques should be
considered first. For example, fitting double glazing inside a building can significantly reduce sound levels.

Proprietary damping compounds may be purchased and used to reduce noise. An enclosure made from a ‘sandwich’,
comprising two separate skins of material separated by an absorbent compound, will provide improved sound
deadening.
Typical values of sound insulation
Material Sound Insulation
Plasterboard 15-20 dB
Double-glazed window 40 dB
Brick 45 dB
200mm concrete 50 dB

There is a British Standard, BS 8233:2014 Guidance on Sound Insulation and Noise Reduction for Buildings, which
gives more detail on this subject.

Purpose-designed double-skinned insulation panels

Noise levels of 85-95 dB(A) inside a building can be related roughly to expected noise outside for a given set of
circumstances. Taking an ‘average’ level of building insulation, such as that provided by lightweight single-skin cladding
and open doorways, the noise will be reduced over distance but will still be appreciable, especially if work takes place at
night, or in the early morning or late evening, when noise levels would normally be expected to be lower:

Noise levels inside Noise levels outside

100 metres 200 metres 400 metres
85 dB(A) 52 dB(A) 46 dB(A) 40 dB(A)
98 dB(A) 62 dB(A) 56 dB(A) 50 dB(A)
(Adapted from Reducing Noise from Forges and Foundries, Bob Davis, 2002)

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10.2 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise

Noise Barriers
Introducing a screen of some kind is another way of preventing/reducing the transmission of noise. In the workplace,
sound barriers may comprise acoustic screens, enclosures and silencers. The issues of access and creation of new
workplace hazards should be considered when developing enclosures. In certain workplaces, the provision of noise
refuges is the most practical answer to a noise problem.

For environmental noise, the same principles apply in that sound contained cannot escape into the environment.
However, there are other considerations to be taken into account.

The design of acoustic barriers is a specialist subject requiring the assistance of a qualified sound engineer.

For environmental noise, common barriers include fences, high walls, earth banks or berms - even other buildings in
the vicinity can be used. You should be aware that unlike light, noise can actually be reflected around corners, so ‘out of
sight, out of mind’ does not always ring true!

Screens can be effective in stopping noise that escapes from a specific direction. They are likely to be used to offer
some ‘protection’ to sensitive areas such as housing and they can sometimes be portable (e.g. on a construction site).

Screens should be placed near to the source; the greater the angle, the better the noise reduction. Such a screen (as
shown in the picture which follows) could reduce noise by 5-10 dB.

An acoustic barrier (which should be close to the source and as high as possible, to increase angle ‘A’ for more
noise reduction)

Damping
Vibration can also be a significant cause of noise complaints. Vibration transmission may occur as a result of transmission
of energy through machinery panels, floors and walls.

These large surfaces act to increase the level of noise. Damping may involve using anti-vibration dampening or rubber
feet and using bolts rather than welds to join sheet metal.

Silencing
For equipment that involves the intake or discharge of air, silencing may be used to reduce noise levels. Silencers are
also used for car exhausts.

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 The Effects and Control of Environmental Noise 10.2

Equipment - Fans, Ventilation, Openings, etc.

Factories were often laid out with the noisiest equipment on their boundary. Often the nuisance is exacerbated by
new developments, particularly residential developments growing up nearby, and inevitably results in sometimes noisy
equipment and houses being in close proximity.

Changes in the layout of buildings or equipment may be possible, even if total reorganisation is not practicable. Some
practical solutions that may be applicable are:
• Shutting off public-address systems and preventing use of radios.
• Repositioning doorways and compressor houses away from residential housing.
• Relocating stockyards away from houses.
• Resurfacing yards, particularly if forklift movements are involved.

Some methods of controlling noise

STUDY QUESTIONS
4. What is the three-step hierarchy for controlling noise?

5. Name the key impacts of exposure to environmental noise on people.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 10: Control of Environmental Noise 10-19
 Summary

Summary

Key topics covered in this element:
• Important sources of environmental noise include industrial activities, transport, agriculture, construction,
quarrying and mining.
• Other sources include noise from pubs and clubs, noisy neighbours, intruder and vehicle alarms and wind farms.
• Sound is the sensation the brain perceives when pressure variations in the air are detected by the ear.
• Loudness depends on the sound pressure and frequency.
• An increase of three dB doubles the sound intensity, and a decrease of three dB halves the sound intensity.
• BS 4142 is a standard that sets out a method for assessing industrial and commercial sound sources against the
existing background sound to determine the impact of the sound.
• Environmental noise has effects on human health, local communities and wildlife.
• Environmental impacts of noise include annoyance, sleep disturbance, cardiovascular problems and negative
performance and educational achievement.
• Noise management controls include control of working hours, controlling the use of radios and public address
systems, re-routeing of vehicles and loading doors and shutters.
• Techniques to control noise include elimination, substitution, maintenance, isolation, distance, absorption,
insulation, barriers, damping and silencing.

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 Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION
A company is planning to construct a new warehouse facility alongside its adjoining factory. Residents living
near to the proposed site have complained that construction-site noise could be a nuisance for them.
(a) Outline typical sources of noise emission that may occur during construction works. (8)

(b) Outline practical measures that could be employed to reduce the risk of nuisance complaints. (7)

(c) Identify the reasons why noise should be controlled at the construction site. (5)

Approaching the Question

Have a go at the question as you would in the exam, writing in full sentences to the necessary detail as indicated by the
action words. Ensure that you write a plan, etc. Limit yourself to 36 minutes.

Plan
(a) Access, deliveries, transport on site, piling, tannoys, radios, people, compaction, mechanical plant, tools and
equipment, impact noise, pumping of concrete.
(b) Controlling working hours, banning use of radios, better vehicle routeing, planned preventive maintenance,
awareness training, barriers and damping.
(c) Health of workers, nuisance, legislation, EMS, good relations.

Suggested Answer Outline

Now you have completed your answer, compare it to the following suggested answer.
(a) Noise may occur from many sources on a construction site. These include lorries and other vehicles making
deliveries to the site and vehicles used on site (e.g. diggers), both of which could cause a nuisance to those living
in nearby housing. Additionally, piling activities could be being undertaken, resulting in loud and distinct banging
sounds as the piles are driven into the ground. Tannoys may also be used on construction sites to pass messages
on to staff and others. Radios may be used by staff and can be a significant source of noise, particularly where
they are used close to site boundaries near to housing. Compaction of ground by both rollers and other vehicles
may also result in high noise levels. Mechanical plant such as tracked vehicles used for excavating or concrete
mixers can also result in high noise levels. Additionally, noise may be emitted to air from the use of various tools
and equipment. Examples might include drills, saws, hammers, etc. There may also be a significant noise impact
from the pumping of concrete or other liquid materials used at the site.
(b) Practical measures include:
–– Controlling the working hours of the construction site so that noisy activities are not carried out at night
when background levels of noise are low.
–– Banning the use of radios at the site or limiting the areas where they can be used.
–– Better routeing of vehicles which may cause high noise levels entering or leaving the site or on routes to and
from the site. This can be achieved via signage identifying routes not to be taken, as well as training.
–– Planned preventive maintenance to help ensure that engine and other parts of vehicles are adequately
maintained and less likely to emit a noise that could be considered to be a nuisance.
–– Ensuring through awareness training that noisy activities are carried out away from areas where complaints
are more likely to occur (such as near to housing).
–– Placing a screen, fence or other barrier close to the noise source to substantially reduce noise levels.
–– Damping panels surrounding generators or other equipment to reduce vibration transmission.

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ES Exam Skills

(c) The reasons for controlling noise at the site are to:
–– Protect the health of workers,
–– Reduce the chance of nuisance for those affected who live in areas close to the site.
–– Comply with environmental, health and safety legislation.
–– Comply with the requirements of a formal environmental management system standard such as ISO
14001:2015.
–– Ensure good relations with those living close to the site.

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 Element 11
Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll

understand how to:

 Describe the environmental requirements

affecting the supply, storage, use and
transportation of hazardous substances.

 Outline the methods for the safe use and

handling of pesticides.

 Outline the hazards with contamination of

soil and groundwater and the options for
remediation.

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 Contents

Supply, Storage and Use of Hazardous Substances 11-3

Need for Safe Supply, Storage, Use and Transportation of Hazardous Substances 11-3
Study Questions 11-6

Use of Pesticides 11-7

Pesticides and Biocides 11-7
The WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) 11-8
Study Questions 11-8

Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11-9

Definition of Contaminated Land 11-9
Environmental Aspects and Impacts Associated with Contaminated Land 11-9
The Risk to Groundwater 11-11
Land Contamination Mechanisms 11-13
Methods of Investigating Contaminated Land and Groundwater 11-14
Remediation Methods 11-20
Study Questions 11-21

Summary 11-22
Exam Skills 11-23

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 Supply, Storage and Use of Hazardous Substances 11.1

Supply, Storage and Use of Hazardous Substances

IN THIS SECTION...
• Hazardous substances have the ability to impact on workers, people near to a source and people at a great
distance from a source, in addition to ecosystems.
• Hazardous substances can be assessed using the source-pathway-receptor model.
• There is usually a strong framework of legislation governing the classification, supply, storage, use and transport of
hazardous substances.

Need for Safe Supply, Storage, Use and Transportation of

Hazardous Substances
Hazardous substances have the ability to impact on workers, people near to a source and people at a great distance
from a source, in addition to ecosystems.

Areas of concern

The use and discharge of hazardous substances can have numerous environmental impacts, as we have seen in earlier
elements. Hazardous substances and their impacts fit in well with the source-pathway-receptor model:
• Point sources - stacks, pipelines discharging to water, air or land.
• Diffuse sources - uncontrolled discharges such as run-off of fertilisers, pesticides, contaminants from old landfills
or other types of contaminated land.
• Pathways - hazardous substances can be transported by numerous means such as through soil, air or water; they
may also enter the food chain through bioaccumulation.
• Receptors - people, farm animals, plants, groundwater, surface watercourses, etc.

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11.1 Supply, Storage and Use of Hazardous Substances

Once they have been emitted to the environment, hazardous substances may then be altered in their state or
constitution. Some chemicals may break down in water, or be broken down by light, giving rise to other substances.
Oxides of nitrogen, for instance, can be broken down by sunlight in a reaction with other substances, causing low-level
or ‘bad’ ozone. Others may undergo biodegradation, which involves chemical breakdown by bacteria into simpler
products, such as carbon dioxide. Chemical reaction may also form breakdown products.

Half-life is classed as the amount of time it takes for a substance to be reduced to 50% of its original concentration.
Radioactivity is a good example, although the concept of half-life could be applied to any substance.

To summarise, the impacts of key substances are outlined in the table below:
Type of Chemical Released Impact
Health effects include neurological damage and effects on mental
Heavy metals, lead and mercury
development, particularly in the young.
Concentrate in food chains, causing egg shell thinning in birds, leading to
Chlorinated pesticides, e.g. DDT
failure of reproduction.
Suspected human carcinogens, impact on aquatic environment and
PCBs
chronic effects.
Reduction in stratospheric ozone leading to higher levels of ultraviolet
CFCs
light on the earth’s surface.
Acidification of upland lakes and rivers, decline in fish population due to
SOx, NOx
changes in pH levels and disruption of ecological balance.
Release of dioxins from uncontrolled
Cancer and reproductive anomalies in humans and other animals.
incineration of certain substances
Non-biodegradable detergents Foaming in rivers and toxic effects on aquatic life.
Oestrogenic activity of some Effects on reproduction, including viability of male fish and possible
chemicals, such as phthalates effects on humans.

Releases of hazardous substances into the environment can have many deleterious effects and this is evidenced by
disasters such as the one that occurred in Bhopal, India in 1984, when a pesticide manufacturing plant released 40 tonnes
of methyl isocyanate, causing the death of thousands of people and leaving many more thousands with permanent
injuries. This and other major disasters involving environmentally hazardous substances are outlined in the table below:

Location and Year Incident Outcome

Minamata Bay, Japan, The Chisso Corporation’s The methyl mercury built up to high levels in fish. When
1953-1960 factory discharged methyl contaminated fish were eaten by humans, it caused
mercury in its waste water chronic mercury poisoning affecting the central nervous
into the bay over a number system, sensory impairment, numbness, dizziness, loss of
of years. vision and hearing, coma and in some cases death. It is
thought to have affected over 3,000 people.
Bhopal, India, 1984 A leak of methyl isocyanate Killed 2,000 people and affected many more. Acute
gas from the Union Carbide effects included burning in the eyes and respiratory tract,
factory. breathlessness, stomach pains, vomiting and choking,
and pulmonary oedema. Many deaths resulted from
choking. Many more people are thought to have died
from the long-term consequences of exposure to the
gas.
Chernobyl, Ukraine, Overheating of a water- 30 people were killed immediately. The radioactive
1986 cooled reactor caused the particles spread across Scandinavia and Western Europe.
release of radiation from a Several thousand people could still die due to the effects
nuclear power plant. of the radiation.
(Continued)

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Basel, Switzerland, 1986 A fire at a chemicals factory Half a million fish were killed and drinking water
resulted in fire water carrying was contaminated and unusable.
mercury and pesticides into
the river Rhine.
Buncefield, UK, 2005 A leak of petrol from an oil Much of the site and buildings in the vicinity
storage depot resulted in an were seriously damaged or completely destroyed.
explosion. Drinking water sources in the area were
contaminated by fire-water run-off. No lives were
lost.
Gulf of Mexico, 2010 Explosion on the Deepwater More than 100 miles of the USA’s Louisiana
Horizon oil well resulted in coastline were affected. Over 60,000 square miles
the spillage of five million were closed to fishing. Long-term economic and
gallons of oil into the Gulf of ecological effects are yet to be assessed.
Mexico.

It is therefore important for governments to ensure that there is a robust legal framework in place so that both people
and the environment are protected and releases of hazardous substances that could cause serious damage are prevented.

There is usually a strong framework of legislation governing the classification, supply, storage, use and transport of
hazardous substances.

A key overarching premise in hazardous substance legislation is the need to correctly classify hazardous substances. For
example, the European Regulation (EC 1272/2008) on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and
Mixtures, abbreviated as CLP, contains a classification, labelling and packaging system, aligned to the United Nations’
Globally Harmonised System (GHS).

Under CLP, manufacturers and suppliers must:

• Classify dangerous chemicals using the new scientific criteria agreed under GHS.
• Provide information to the end user in the form of a label that will make use of new hazard warning symbols
(pictograms) agreed under GHS.
• Package the chemical safely.
CLP consists of Hazard Statements and Precautionary Statements (covering prevention, response, storage and disposal)
which are represented by H- and P-numbers respectively. Examples include:
• H401: Toxic to aquatic life.
• H410: Very toxic to aquatic life with long-lasting effects.
• H420: Harms public health and the environment by destroying ozone in the upper atmosphere.
• P273: Avoid release to the environment.
• P221: Take any precaution to avoid mixing with combustibles.
• P222: Do not allow contact with air.
Under CLP, specific hazard pictograms must also be used. These are in the shape of a red diamond with a white
background, for example:

Hazardous to the aquatic environment pictogram

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11.1 Supply, Storage and Use of Hazardous Substances

The ‘hazardous to the aquatic environment’ pictogram identifies substances that are harmful to the aquatic environment.
In practice, however, most substances labelled toxic, harmful, corrosive, etc. are also capable of harming the aquatic and
other parts of the environment.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What are the environmental impacts of the following substances?

(a) Chlorinated pesticides.

(b) CFCs.

(c) PCBs.

2. Identify the purpose of the CLP Regulation.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Use of Pesticides 11.2

Use of Pesticides

IN THIS SECTION...
• Pesticides and biocides are materials intended to destroy or control harmful organisms.
• The impacts of pesticides surround effects on non-pest species, spray drift, residues in food, groundwater
contamination and poisoning.
• The World Health Organisation Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) promotes and co-ordinates the testing
and evaluation of pesticides of interest to public health.

Pesticides and Biocides

Pesticides and biocides are materials intended to destroy or control harmful
organisms. There is no universal definition of either term and, in practice,
they are often used interchangeably, but in general:
• ‘Pesticide’ usually refers to a product that is used to control insects,
other animals, weeds, or disease-causing micro-organisms that can
damage agricultural crops and garden plants.
• ‘Biocide’ refers to products that control harmful organisms in other
situations, e.g. household insecticides, wood preservatives and
disinfectants.
Pesticides have many uses, such as: 'Pesticide' usually refers to a product
used to protect crops and garden
• Preventing damage to crops by destroying insects and weeds. plants
• Improving animal welfare by controlling parasitic diseases (e.g. sheep
dip).
• Controlling weed growth on non-agricultural land (railway tracks, roads and pathways).
• Moth-proofing of wool.
• Fungicide treatment of some cloths.
• Preservation of timber.
• Treatment of the hulls of boats to prevent fouling by marine organisms.
The key environmental impacts associated with pesticides are:
• Effects on non-pest species - animals that interact with the pest may be affected by the pesticide, which can
significantly alter the biodiversity of an area.
• Spray drift - incorrectly applied pesticides may drift from the area of application and affect other crops, animals,
watercourses and other areas of the environment.
• Residues in food - pesticides may enter food either via direct application on the food or through
biomagnification and can have a harmful effect.
• Groundwater contamination - if persistently used in agriculture, pesticides may reach aquifers.
• Poisoning - those who apply pesticides are at significant risk of being poisoned if they do not follow the correct
handling procedures and personal protective equipment is not worn.

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11.2 Use of Pesticides

The WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES)

The key purpose of the World Health Organisation Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) is to promote and co-
ordinate the testing and evaluation of pesticides in the interests of public health. Its remit includes chemosterilants,
pathogens, hormone-like compounds, repellents and attractants.

WHOPES was established in 1960 to support the Malaria Eradication Campaign and other disease control initiatives
of the WHO. It extended its responsibilities to controlling nuisance insects, disinfection of aircraft and personal
protection. The scheme was originally a collaborative effort with the chemical industry, governments and regulatory
organisations with the remit to identify new insecticides for controlling vector-borne disease. From the 1960s, WHOPES
has provided support for field research in various countries for the testing of insecticides against key disease vectors and
in determining their safety. It has also joined with other WHO programmes in the design and evaluation of large-scale
field trials of the epidemiological effects of insecticide application.

Currently WHOPES has a four-phase testing and evaluation programme. This consists of determining the safety,
efficacy and operational acceptability of public health pesticides, in addition to specifications for international trade
and quality control. WHOPES functions through collaborative efforts of governments, manufacturers of pesticides and
pesticide equipment, WHO collaborating centres and research departments and other WHO programmes (such as the
programme on chemical safety).

WHOPES collects, consolidates, evaluates and disseminates information on the public health uses of pesticides.
Presently the main objectives of WHOPES are:
• To search for alternative pesticide technologies and methods of application that are safe and cost-effective.
• The design and promotion of guidelines, strategy and policies that
promote the correct selection and application of pesticides for public MORE...
health use, and to assist and monitor their application by Member States.
For further information on the
The history of WHOPES shows an adaptation from the development of World Health Organisation
safe and effective public health pesticides to a broader remit to address the Pesticide Evaluation Scheme
health concerns of pesticides through their whole life cycle from production (WHOPES) take a look at:
to disposal. This has been made possible by the development of working
partnerships to harmonise action with the United Nations framework www.who.int/whopes/
(particularly the Food and Agriculture Organisation) and industry. quality/en/

STUDY QUESTIONS
3. What are the key uses of pesticides?

4. What are the disadvantages of the use of pesticides?

5. What is the purpose of the World Health Organisation Pesticide Evaluation Scheme?
(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11.3

Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

IN THIS SECTION...
• In order for land to be contaminated in the UK it must cause, or be likely to cause, harm or water pollution.
• Contaminated land can have many environmental impacts such as water pollution, inhibition of plant growth, fire
and explosion and building damage.
• Land contamination may occur by numerous means such as accidents, leakage and movement of surface and
groundwater.
• Contaminated land is investigated using a three-stage process:
–– ­ Phase I: Preliminary investigation (desk study and site reconnaissance).
–– ­ Phase II: Site investigation.
–– ­ Phase III: Remediation (if required).
• CLEA UK (Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment model) is the main method used to determine the extent to
which land should be cleaned up based on a ‘suitable for use’ approach.
• Contaminated land remediation techniques may be classed as physical, biological and chemical.

Definition of Contaminated Land

The definition of contaminated land will vary around the world. In the UK, contaminated land is defined under the
Environmental Protection Act 1990 Part IIA as being:

“any land which appears to the local authority in whose area it is situated to be in such a condition, by reason of
substances in, on or under the land, that -
(a) significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused; or
(b) pollution of controlled waters is being, or is likely to be caused”.
This means that before land can be declared contaminated, a significant
pollutant linkage must be identified. There must be three separate components MORE...
present for a pollution linkage to be formed:
Further information on the
• a source of contamination;
statutory requirements for
• a receptor for that contamination to affect; and contaminated land in the UK
• a pathway for the source to be able to affect the receptor. can be found at:
www.gov.uk/government/
Environmental Aspects and Impacts uploads/system/uploads/
Associated with Contaminated Land attachment_data/
file/223705/pb13735cont-
The diversity of industrial and commercial activity is vast and, in consequence, land-guidance.pdf
the range of pollutants that may be present is large. They range from heavy
metals, such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium and mercury from the metal www.gov.scot/
industries to corrosive acids and alkalis from the chemical industry, tars and Publications/2000/10/pan33
ferrocyanates from former gas works, and asbestos from shipyards, railway
sites and other factory sites.

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11.3 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

Contamination can add constraints on the use of land owing to the possible effects on human health, flora, fauna, water
quality and building materials. Concern over the consequences and implications of contaminated land has increased in
recent years. The profile of contaminated land issues has grown as a result of the:
• Need to develop urban land now derelict after the run-down and decommissioning of primary industries.
• Pressure to recycle urban and inner-city land rather than use green-field sites.
• Need to take emergency action where sites are found to present an immediate hazard, or are causing
environmental damage.
Contaminants from land may travel to human receptors via numerous pathways. These are identified in the diagram
below:

People may be exposed to contaminants via a number of pathways

Environmental Impacts
Contaminated land can cause many environmental impacts, including:
• Direct risk to human health by ingestion, particularly from toxic metals which accumulate in the body, e.g. lead
and cadmium.
• Toxic substances entering the food chain through plant uptake.
• Water contamination - directly by migration through plastic water pipes (especially of phenols and cresols) into
household water supplies; indirectly by leaching into groundwater and surface water.
• Prevention or inhibition of plant growth. Phytotoxicity (plant poisoning) contaminants may affect plant growth at
low concentrations (toxic metals); gases may displace air from soil and impede growth.
• Odours, fumes and effluvia, particularly when gases (landfill gases) percolate the site.

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 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11.3

• Fire and explosion - gas explosions from methane and petroleum vapours and underground fires (responsible for
odour, fumes, etc. and ground subsidence).
• Direct contact with, or inhalation of, certain contaminants - solvents, corrosives, carcinogens, asbestos, etc.
Inhalation of dust, vapours (phenols and other aromatic compounds) and toxic gases may add to exposure. Skin
contact with coal tar residues can cause dermatitis, tar warts and skin cancer.
• Building damage, e.g. high levels of sulphate can occur downwind of brickworks, along with fluorine as dry
deposition on land over many years.
Not only are the contaminants present important, but the type of soil and bedrock is too, e.g. clay will inhibit migration
of mobile contaminants, unlike sand; oils tend to float on groundwater while some solvents, particularly chlorinated
solvents, will sink.

The main environmental impacts of contaminated land are on soil and water quality. Soil refers to ground conditions
beyond the topsoil layer with which most people are familiar. Water includes groundwater and surface waters, e.g.
aquifers, rivers and lakes.

Causes of Contamination
There are a number of routes by which land may become contaminated. Many of the older industries and mineral-
extraction operations gave rise to toxic substances in the soil. Such problems can go back as far as Roman tin and lead
works in the UK. Depositing wastes can also lead to contamination of both the ground and any associated groundwater.
Land can be deemed potentially contaminated owing to the presence of a variety of different contaminants, such
as organic chemicals, acids, toxic metals or hydrocarbons. The nature, distribution (vertical and horizontal) and
concentration of such contaminants will determine the extent to which a site is contaminated.

Since contaminants are chemical substances, they are usually described using chemical terms and groups. For example,
contamination may be caused by significant concentrations of such heavy metals as lead, nickel, arsenic, cadmium,
mercury, zinc, or boron in the soil. Organic contaminants can include oil, fuel and solvents. The latter are also sometimes
referred to as hydrocarbons or chlorinated hydrocarbons, owing to their chemical make-up. Inorganic contaminants
include sulphates, sulphides and asbestos.

Contamination can also be caused by the presence of landfill gas, which includes methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide. At appropriate concentrations the mixture of landfill gases can be explosive and asphyxiant.

The Risk to Groundwater

Groundwater and contaminated land are often interconnected, and pollution from contaminated land can cause
groundwater pollution. This may occur slowly from leaking underground storage tanks or wash-off of contaminated
rainwater from roads or factory yards.

Groundwater pollution is very difficult to detect and is usually first discovered by the abstractor, who notices an
unpleasant taste or odour. If the abstractor is supplying water for the public supply system, he is obliged to carry out
many quality tests, which will detect contamination. By this time, the pollution may have affected a considerable volume
of water over a large area.

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11.3 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

Hazards that pose a threat to groundwater quality

Source: based on Groundwater protection: Principles and practice (GP3), Environment Agency, 2013

There are considerable criminal and civil liabilities associated with groundwater pollution. Groundwater is a vital water
source and polluting an aquifer can have widespread and long-term consequences.

The major groundwater contaminants are nitrates and pesticides from agricultural sources, Dense Non-Aqueous Phase
Liquids (DNAPLs), such as chlorinated solvents, and Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (LNAPLs), such as hydrocarbons.

There is a great potential for contamination from leaking underground storage tanks or spillage. One litre of
trichloroethylene is sufficient to contaminate 100 million litres of groundwater to a level where it is not acceptable for
drinking purposes. The maximum concentration of dissolved or emulsified hydrocarbons allowable in potable supplies
is 10 parts per billion. Thus a small, undetected leakage that continues for a long period of time has the potential to
affect huge volumes of water. Underground storage tanks can also present a greater threat to groundwater in that they
are already several metres below the surface and leaks will not be obvious.

Groundwater pollution can spread further than the original spill of substances and can persist for decades. Remediation
measures are often slow and consequently expensive, and may not be technically feasible.

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 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11.3

Contaminants can associate themselves with the soil by attaching particles to the soil, or by entering the groundwater.
Contaminant behaviour within a soil or water medium varies according to the nature of the soil and the nature of the
contaminant; as we saw earlier, for example, a clay will inhibit migration of mobile contaminants, unlike sand; oils tend
to float on groundwater, while some solvents, particularly chlorinated solvents, will sink. High vulnerability and low
vulnerability aquifers are highlighted in the diagram below:

Factors which control the vulnerability of aquifers to pollution

Source: based on Environment Agency guidance, Protect groundwater and prevent groundwater pollution, March 2017
(www.gov.uk/government/publications/protect-groundwater-and-prevent-groundwater-pollution/protect-
groundwater-and-prevent-groundwater-pollution)

Land Contamination Mechanisms

Land contamination may occur by the following activities:
• Accidents (e.g. spillages when filling, emptying or transporting liquid substances).
• Leakage (e.g. from bulk storage tank or pipeline; the risk is increased when underground).
• Emissions to air (e.g. contaminants can be released to atmosphere and then fall back to ground).
• Transfer of ground or surface water (e.g. leachate may move from a contaminated site by run-off or below
ground movement.
• Movement of toxic or explosive gases underground.
• Building demolition (e.g. fibrous materials such as lead or asbestos may be released to ground).
• Waste disposal (e.g. much historical contamination is from the deliberate burial of hazardous wastes in the land).

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11.3 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

Methods of Investigating Contaminated Land and Groundwater

BS EN 10175:2011+A2:2017 Investigation of potentially contaminated sites:
Code of practice covers the investigation of potentially contaminated sites
and also land with naturally enhanced concentrations of potentially harmful
substances.
The standard is designed for use by those who have some appreciation
of the risk-based approach to sites and site investigations. The document
outlines:
• The process for setting the objectives of an investigation.
• Development of a strategy for the investigation.
• Ways in which to identify risks from land contamination.
• Design of the various phases of the investigation.
• How to undertake sampling, field testing and analysis in a laboratory.
• Techniques for risk assessment of a site that is potentially contaminated.
The guidance is intended to make sure that the objectives of an
investigation are achieved and data to enable an accurate risk assessment is
Collecting soil samples
collected.

Stages in Site Investigations

A brief introduction is provided below.

The investigation and assessment of contaminated land is a phased process, which aims to establish the presence or
absence of a pollutant linkage between a source, pathway and receptor. The whole process is undertaken within the
context of the site’s end use, with clear aims and objectives understood by all parties. Central to the whole process is
the source-pathway-receptor principle, which is outlined as follows:
• SOURCE = source of the contamination, e.g. underground storage tank.
• PATHWAY = means by which the contamination could move and link the source to the receptor, e.g.
groundwater, or gravel strata.
• RECEPTOR = target which would be affected by the source, e.g. humans, groundwater, SSSI.
In order for a site to be contaminated under the statutory definition, the three elements - source, pathway and receptor
- have to be linked.

A phased approach is required to investigate contaminated land:

• Decide on the investigation objectives and establish the investigation strategy.
• Undertake a preliminary investigation (often known as Phase I).
• Site investigation, which may comprise an initial and a supplementary investigation (often known as Phase II).
• Remediation if required (often known as Phase III).

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TOPIC FOCUS
Phase I - Preliminary Investigation (Desk Study and Site Reconnaissance)
This phase comprises the gathering of factual information from a range of sources in order to consider the
potential contamination at the site and potential source-pathway-receptor. Information reviewed at this
stage (the Environmental Records Search or ERS) typically includes details on the historic site uses, ground
conditions, water bodies, landfill sites in the vicinity of the site, presence of groundwater and abstraction
points.
This is followed by a walk-over survey (Site Reconnaissance or SR) of the site to observe the site layout,
conditions, structures, buildings, obvious signs of contamination, drainage system, neighbouring uses, and so
on. Interviews with site occupiers and viewing of records and plans may also take place.
A conceptual site model can then be developed, which would include potentially contaminating activities
associated with the site history and contaminants that may be present, i.e. source; potential pathways (ground
conditions); and potential receptors (end-users and adjacent rivers).
The information is gathered and a preliminary risk assessment carried out to provide a risk rating, i.e. high,
medium or low, according to the issues considered. Phase I assessments are often undertaken as a pre-
purchase survey to identify potential liabilities that might arise from that site. If the risk is acceptable, i.e.
low, then it may be considered unnecessary to proceed to Phase II. However, potential contamination issues
highlighted by Phase I may require investigation in order to establish the actual contamination.
Phase II - Site Investigation
The Phase II assessment generally comprises an investigation to assess ground conditions and obtain samples,
laboratory analysis and subsequent evaluation of nature, extent and risk posed by contamination present. The
scope of Phase II and associated costs are site-specific and depend on the complexity of the site setting and
proposed end use. The findings of Phase I will be used in designing Phase II. As with Phase I, clear objectives
have to be established in order to design the investigation. At the planning stage it is also necessary to
consider the proposed method of investigation, to ensure it is suitable for the ground conditions expected,
will obtain the appropriate type, quality and quantity of samples, and is practical and applicable for use on the
site. In some cases, an exploratory investigation will be carried out prior to the main investigation to reduce
uncertainty of the site and to help design the main investigation.
The investigation can be both intrusive and non-intrusive. Non-intrusive techniques largely entail geophysics,
such as ground-penetrating radar, seismic refraction or conductivity surveys. These are generally used to
understand below-ground structures and other features of a site.
The intrusive part of the investigation generally entails some form of boring or digging in the subsoil. This is
necessary to establish the ground conditions, obtain samples of soil/groundwater for subsequent laboratory
analysis, and for the installation of monitoring wells, as required. Typical samples would comprise soil, water
and gas.
If buildings are present on a site and are to be refurbished or demolished, a building materials survey may form
part of the investigation. This would locate, identify and record asbestos, for example.
(Continued)

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11.3 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

TOPIC FOCUS
Samples are taken for laboratory analysis. The analysis tends to reflect the findings of the Phase I survey and
will test for the potential contaminants suspected at the site.

Monitoring groundwater or landfill gas may also be an integral part of an investigation and is often carried out
for a period after the main investigation has been completed.
The results and findings of the investigation are assessed to determine whether the contamination is likely to
pose unacceptable risks to specific receptors, or present some level of liability. Guidelines are used as part of
this assessment. Part of the assessment is to consider what options are available to reduce, remove, control or
transfer the risks.
Phase III - Remediation

If the level of contamination on a site is unacceptable, i.e. the land is unsuitable for the proposed end use, then
remediation or clean-up of the site is required. The most appropriate remediation strategy has to be selected
and will depend on the nature of the contamination, the site setting and, to some extent, on the time available
and the budget.

Soil and Water Sampling: Further Information

No matter how thorough an Environmental Records Search (ERS) and Site Reconnaissance (SR) are, they cannot
provide sufficient information to declare a site free from environmental liability. There can be, and have been, many
instances where contamination has migrated onto a site from adjacent land. This is particularly true of contaminated
groundwater migrating into an aquifer below the site. To exclude this as a possibility, site sampling must be undertaken.

Several protocols have been introduced for carrying out intrusive site sampling. These represent the minimum level
of investigation in terms of number of sampling points necessary and number of samples required per sampling point
to achieve scientifically accurate and reproducible results within known confidence limits. However, in practice, there
is a balance to be struck between scientific rigour and commercial realities. It is normal to carry out a preliminary
investigation to obtain a small amount of data, which will allow decisions to be made on the design of a more accurate
and representative sampling exercise.

Soil and Water Sampling: Preliminary Investigation

The aim of the preliminary site sampling is to confirm the findings of the ERS
and SR and, where possible, determine the location, nature and extent of
contamination. The preliminary site sampling aims are as follows:
• Locate underground pipes, storage tanks and other structures, and
determine their contents.
• Locate, identify and measure soil contamination.
• Measure groundwater or surface water contamination.
• Detect, identify and measure gas or vapour migration from
underground storage tanks, landfill sites or other sources.
Locate, identify and measure soil
contamination

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 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11.3

The ERS and SR are often carried out as preparatory studies to determine whether intrusive site sampling is necessary.
However, before embarking on a site sampling exercise it is important to establish why the site is being assessed,
the nature of any property transactions and whether demolition or development is envisaged. The understanding
and co-operation of the planning and enforcement authorities may be invaluable in conducting the assessment, the
subsequent remediation and successful property transfer or development.

The ERS and SR will often provide data on the geographical and geological setting of the site, previous uses, possible
location and nature of contaminants, and plans of former structures if they no longer exist. However, on smaller sites
this information may not be complete, or even be unavailable.

The health and safety legislation relating to construction sites also applies to contaminated site sampling exercises.

The preliminary sampling is aimed at providing sufficient information to plan a comprehensive sampling exercise. Thus,
the techniques involve only limited sampling.

In sampling for volatile hydrocarbons from leaking underground storage tanks, one technique involves drilling down
approximately one metre into hard standing or other surfaces and using a portable gas chromatography unit to ‘sniff’
for traces of the contaminant. Such techniques are known as soil vapour surveys and are used successfully for testing
filling station forecourts for leaking petroleum. Similar vapour sampling techniques may be used for methane and
other flammable gases. If large concentrations are measured, the samples should be collected in gasbags or other grab
sampling devices for laboratory analysis.

In order to sample soil for contamination, the principle should be to analyse a large number of samples for a small
number of key substances, rather than analyse a small number of samples for a large number of substances.

Soil sampling can be undertaken by a range of trial pitting, cable percussive boreholes and window sampling. The
method of investigation used should relate to the type and quality of sample required, the existing ground conditions
(i.e. cohesive or non-cohesive), access for equipment and level of disturbance. There are advantages and disadvantages
to each method depending on the specific site characteristics. Trial pits, for example, allow the assessor to observe the
colour and structure of the soil or waste material and to note characteristic odours.

Soil and Water Sampling: Comprehensive Sampling Exercise

The preliminary sampling exercise will indicate the location of underground structures and the nature and approximate
concentration of contaminants. However, the preliminary exercise is, by design, intended only to provide a general
indication of the level of contamination.

The comprehensive investigation is designed to measure the presence of contaminants across the site and to
determine, within stated confidence limits, the location of hotspots or areas of higher concentrations of contaminants.
The location of hotspots and the concentration of contaminants present must be known and characterised in order to
design appropriate remediation measures.

In many instances, it is necessary to carry out ongoing monitoring after completion of the site works and soil sampling
exercise. This can entail monitoring and sampling groundwater to assess groundwater flow and quality, in addition to
monitoring for landfill gases (methane, carbon dioxide gas pressure, concentration and flow). The site investigation
design and methods used should, as necessary, incorporate the appropriate design and installation of such monitoring
wells.

In addition, planning authorities in consultation with the environmental regulators are unlikely to accept preliminary
investigation data as being sufficiently detailed to accept remediation designs based on them. Also banks, insurance
companies, institutional investors and other financial institutions are increasingly requesting comprehensive sampling
investigation reports.

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11.3 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

Assessment of Contamination
How contaminated land is assessed will vary in different countries as no recognised international scheme exists. The
UK has adopted the ‘fitness for purpose’ approach for contaminated land assessment. This is based on risk-assessment
principles to ensure that a site is suitable for a specific purpose or end use. The existing or proposed end use will
determine the extent of investigation/remediation that will be needed. Potential land uses can be divided into the
following categories:

• Industrial.
• Commercial. Least sensitive end use

• Retail.
• Open land.
• Allotments.
• Residential housing without gardens. Most sensitive end use

• Residential housing with gardens.

The risk assessment approach used is based on the source-pathway-receptor methodology. It can be applied to
contaminated land assessment with the following stages:

1. Hazard Identification 2. Hazard Assessment 3. Risk Estimation 4. Risk Evaluation

Contamination risk assessment model

(Source: CIRIA Special Publication 103, 1995, Remedial Treatment for Contaminated Land, Vol. III, Site
Investigation and Assessment)

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 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11.3

Simplified contaminated water cycle model

(Source: CIRIA Special Publication 103, 1995, Remedial Treatment for Contaminated
Land, Vol. III, Site Investigation and Assessment)

Generic Assessment Criteria

Comparison of Generic Assessment Criteria (GACs) to site conditions is a significant part of the risk assessment process
for land affected by contamination. GACs provide screening tools for the assessment of contaminated land. Below we
will consider some key GACs used by contaminated land professionals.

• Category 4 Screening Levels

Category 4 screening levels (C4SLs) have been published by the UK government Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in addition to a methodology for their identification. These are levels that, when
compared to contaminants in the ground, provide a simple test to decide whether the land is suitable for use and
not officially contaminated. C4SLs that have been prepared overrule Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) (see below),
although where they are absent SGVs or other GACs may still be used. Four types of C4SLs have been developed
for residential, allotments, commercial and public open space. Currently C4SLs have been derived for the following
substances:
–– ­ arsenic;
–– ­ benzo(a)pyrene;
–– ­ lead;
–– ­ cadmium;
–– ­ benzene; and
–– ­ hexavalent chromium.

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11.3 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater

• Soil Guideline Values

Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) provide advice on the assessment of risk to human health from land contamination.
They act as guidelines on the level of long-term human exposure to substances present in soil that is tolerable or
poses a minimal risk to health. They are trigger values that show that concentrations above the stated level could
cause significant harm to health. Three types of SGVs have been developed. These are for residential, allotments and
commercial/industrial land use, with the most sensitive use being the residential one. SGVs have been produced
for substances such as:
–– ­ Arsenic.
–– ­ Benzene.
–– ­ Cadmium.
–– ­ Dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs.
–– ­ Ethylbenzene.
–– ­ Mercury.
–– ­ Nickel.
–– Phenol.
–– Selenium.
–– Toluene.
–– Xylene.

Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment (CLEA)

Although the remediation of contaminated land is based on a risk-assessment approach, quantitative guidelines are
considered to serve a useful purpose in encouraging a consistent approach. In order to derive guidelines the CLEA
model has been used that takes into account assumptions about the transport and fate of contaminants, a conceptual
model for site conditions and human behaviour. CLEA uses a series of equations to predict, or simulate, exposure to
receptors from a given soil concentration via a number of exposure pathways. The CLEA model initially derived Soil
Guideline Values (SGVs). However, subsequent modifications to the model have resulted in it being used to determine
C4SLs.

Remediation Methods
The remediation strategy used will depend on the type of contaminant, its depth and concentration, and legal
requirements, as well as on the type of site, access, buildings, etc.

Remediation strategies depend on the Source-Pathway-Target methodology, for example:

• Create a barrier between source and target.
• Remove the source.
• Treat (render harmless) the pollutant.
Remediation methods are still under development. Some examples are as follows:

• Physical Methods
–– Excavating the source and disposal (known as ‘dig and dump’).
–– Membranes or sheet piling can be used to create barriers between pollutant source and target.
–– Organic pollutants may be removed by degassing.

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 Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 11.3

• Biological Methods
–– ­ Bioremediation, the use of bacteria to clean up particularly organic pollutants.
–– Bioconcentration,
­ the use of plants, for example, which take up and concentrate pollutants. The plants can be
harvested and safely disposed of.

• Chemical Methods
–– ­ Solidification, where a binder such as cement is used to encapsulate the contaminated soil.
–– ­ Soil may be treated with chemicals to react with and neutralise the pollutant.

• Incineration
Contaminated soil may be incinerated to destroy contaminants, typical temperatures being 800-1,500°C.

It should be stressed that there are high costs and long timescales associated with many remediation techniques. This is
the reason why the emphasis going forward is on prevention, rather than on remediation.

Groundwater Treatment
The affected water may be subject to chemical or physical treatment depending on the precise contamination; although
groundwater treatment is very difficult and current methods may be too expensive for treatment of the volumes of
water that may be involved.

STUDY QUESTIONS
6. Define ’contaminated land’.

7. Outline the key impacts of land contamination.

8. Identify the three phases of contaminated land investigation.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 11: Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land 11-21
 Summary

Summary

Key topics covered in this element:
• Hazardous substances may cause harm to workers, people near to a source, people at a great distance from a
source and ecosystems.
• The source-pathway-receptor model is used to assess the risk associated with hazardous substances.
• The classification, supply, storage, use and transport of hazardous substances are usually controlled by legislation.
• Key environmental issues surrounding pesticides are impacts on non-pest species, spray drift, residues in food,
groundwater contamination and poisoning.
• The World Health Organisation Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) is an international initiative that
promotes and co-ordinates the testing and evaluation of pesticides of interest to public health.
• Contaminated land is defined as land that is causing, or is likely to cause, harm or water pollution.
• The environmental impacts associated with land contamination are water pollution, inhibition of plant growth,
fire and explosion and building damage.
• Accidents, leakage and movement of surface and groundwater can all cause land contamination.
• The three stages of contaminated land investigation are preliminary investigation, site investigation and
remediation.
• The clean-up of contaminated land may be achieved by physical, biological and chemical methods.

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 Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION
A company has recently discovered that an area of land at the rear of its factory is contaminated by a wide
range of substances as a result of tipping of laboratory waste many years ago. Some of the substances are
migrating to cause pollution of a nearby stream.
Advise management, in the form of a briefing note, of the different types of remediation techniques that could
be used in this situation. (20)

Approaching the Question

Have a go at the question as you would in the exam, writing in full sentences to the necessary detail as indicated by the
action word. Ensure that you write a plan, etc. Limit yourself to 36 minutes.

Plan
Description of problem, aim of briefing note.

Source techniques - excavation and disposal, bioremediation (including bioconcentration), incineration, soil washing,
binders, encapsulation.

Pathway techniques - cover/cap, vertical/horizontal barrier, interception and treatment.

Receptor techniques - absorbent booms, dispersant.

Suggested Answer Outline

Now you have completed your answer, compare it to the following suggested answer.

Management Briefing Note on Contaminated Land Issue

I have recently become aware of an area of land to the rear of the site that is heavily contaminated by a number
of different substances due to the historical disposal of laboratory waste. It has also come to my attention that the
contamination is migrating to cause pollution of a stream close to the land. The aim of the briefing note is to briefly
discuss the techniques available to remediate the land to reduce the significant liabilities present.

When dealing with contaminated land, techniques that can be used can be classed as dealing with the source, providing
some form of barrier to block the pathway or protecting the receptor.

• Source Techniques
The best techniques for dealing with the land contamination would be those that consider the land itself. One
option is to excavate the land that is contaminated and dispose of it at a landfill site, replacing the lost soil with
fresh topsoil. This can, however, be expensive due to the excessive cost of landfilling waste due to Landfill Tax (tax
charged on wastes disposed of at a landfill site). Bioremediation of the site may be another option. This can be
achieved by planting species that take contaminants from the soil and concentrate them in their structure. The
plant can then be harvested and responsibly disposed of. For example, willow can be planted to remove metal from
contaminated soils. Other methods of bioremediation involve the use of bacteria to break down pollutants into
safer substances. This technique has been used to successfully treat land that has been contaminated by organic
pollutants such as diesel.

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ES Exam Skills

Physical treatment may also be used; this includes removing the soil and incinerating it to destroy contaminants.
Typically temperatures required are around 800 to 1,500°C. Soil may also be removed and washed to remove some
contaminants. A binder can be added to the contaminated soil so that the contaminants are trapped in a solid and
cannot be mobilised, which would prevent the pollution of the nearby stream.

• Pathway Techniques
Pathway techniques include providing a cover or capping system to stop precipitation entering the area of land and
washing contaminants into groundwater (recharging the stream with contaminants) or directly into the stream. This
can be achieved by covering the site with concrete, for example. Similarly, a vertical or horizontal barrier could be
used to ensure that the contaminants do not migrate from the land. Any run-off from the area of land can also be
intercepted and collected. The water, depending on contaminant concentration, could then either be discharged
to the foul sewer (if the level of contaminants is within consent conditions) or for a higher level of contaminants
the water could first be treated to reduce concentrations of pollutants and then discharged to the foul sewer or
tankered from the site.

• Receptor Techniques
The use of receptor techniques is only really a short-term solution. In this case absorbent booms may be used to
stem the spread of the pollution. Additionally, oil-dispersant chemicals may be used to reduce oil levels, although
they can consist of hazardous substances.

11-24 Unit ED1 - Element 11: Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land © RRC International
 Element 12
Energy Use

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll

understand how to:

 Explain
 the advantages and disadvantages
of different sources of energy.

 Explain the need for energy efficiency.

 Describe an energy monitoring strategy
and the benefits and limitations of carrying
out monitoring.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 12: Energy Use 12-1
 Contents

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12-3

Sources of Energy 12-3
Study Questions 12-12

The Need for Energy Efficiency 12-13

Carbon Footprint 12-13
Energy Efficiency: Relationship to Cost and Profit 12-14
Provision of Information Regarding Energy Efficiency 12-15
Building Design and Assessment 12-17
Product Design and Assessment 12-18
Benefits of Managing Energy Use 12-19
Barriers to Good Energy Management 12-19
Measures to Reduce Energy Consumption 12-20
Study Questions 12-25

Energy Auditing and Monitoring 12-26

Energy Auditing 12-26
Energy Monitoring 12-28
Benefits and Limitations of Energy Monitoring/Auditing 12-28
Study Questions 12-29

Summary 12-30
Exam Skills 12-31

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12.1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy

IN THIS SECTION...
• Non-renewable energy sources include fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and gas) and nuclear energy.
• Renewable energy sources are those that are replaced by natural processes and include biomass, hydropower, solar
energy, wave, wind and geothermal.
• The combustion of fossil fuel leads to numerous environmental impacts, including acid rain, smog, dwindling
resources, negative effects on health and welfare, deforestation, climate change and thermal pollution.

Sources of Energy
Fossil and nuclear fuels are classed as non-renewable energy sources; this is
because, although they are available in very large quantities, they are finite
and so will ‘run out’ in the future.

Hydropower and wind power are two examples of renewable energy sources,
as they are replaced by natural processes. There has been a significant
increase in the use of renewable energy sources, as their use results in no, or
few, greenhouse-gas emissions, so they do not contribute to global climate
change.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources Fossil fuels are classed as non-

renewable energy sources
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are attractive as energy sources. Being very concentrated, they allow significant amounts of energy to be
trapped in relatively small volumes. They also allow easy distribution.

Fossil fuels originate from the growth and decomposition of plants and organisms from the Earth’s distant past. Coal was
produced when decaying trees and other vegetation became trapped under water and were subsequently compressed
into concentrated layers below the surface of the Earth. Oil and natural gas result from the decay of marine organisms
that slowly formed into layers below oceans and were gradually transformed, through geological forces, into liquid
and gaseous reserves. Incidentally, fossil fuels are composed of carbon and hydrogen, which is why they are called
hydrocarbons.
• Coal combustion produces massive emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) compared with other fuels. It also results in
sulphur dioxide and particulate discharges, although these can be reduced by using various abatement methods.
Coal use for heating has now been superseded by natural gas, but significant quantities of coal are used for
electricity generation.
• The combustion of natural gas produces lower CO2 emissions in comparison with coal. The relative cleanliness
and convenience of natural gas have made it the preferred fuel for heating and for electricity generation in
Western Europe.
• Oil is the world’s most used energy source. Its high energy yield and convenience of use ensure that it is the
dominant fuel for transport. The combustion of oil results in reduced CO2 per unit of energy released in
comparison with the combustion of coal, but greater CO2 than burning natural gas. World oil reserves are
sufficient for about 40 years of use at current rates.

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12.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy

Fossil-fuel formation on land

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12.1

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy results from release of the large quantities of energy stored in the nuclei of atoms such as uranium-235
and plutonium-239. These are split (known as fission) to produce large quantities of energy. The fission of a kilogram
of uranium-235 produces the same amount of energy as the combustion of around 3,000 tonnes of coal. Nuclear fuels
are highly concentrated sources of energy, even more so than fossil fuels. The heat resulting from nuclear fission is used
to raise high-pressure steam, which then drives steam turbines coupled to electrical generators.

Another nuclear technology is nuclear fusion. This involves the fusing together of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) nuclei.
This is a similar process to the way in which energy is generated within the Sun. In order to create fusion, however, it is
necessary to create conditions in which hydrogen interacts in a very confined space at extremely high temperatures - so
far, this has only been achieved for a few seconds.

There are probably sufficient deposits of uranium to last for several centuries. In addition, Fast Breeder Reactors
(FBRs) enable uranium deposits to be used even more effectively, thus extending the lifetime of reserves. Most nuclear
reactors have operated safely, although there have been major accidents, such as those at Windscale (UK, 1957), Three
Mile Island (USA, 1979) and Chernobyl (Ukraine, 1986). Such accidents have led to a negative public perception of
nuclear power.

A distinct advantage of nuclear power is that no CO2 emissions occur from its generation. Indirect emissions do,
however, occur from uranium mining and the construction of nuclear power plants. Concern is often expressed about
the continual emission of small quantities of harmful radioactivity that accumulate in the atmosphere and oceans from
the day-to-day operation of nuclear power plants, fuel manufacturing facilities and disposal operations. There are also
problems with regard to the disposal of nuclear waste.

Despite these difficulties, the nuclear industry is attempting to develop more advanced types of nuclear reactor, which,
it claims, will be cheaper to build and operate and inherently safer than existing designs. These are being promoted as
an improved technological option for generating carbon-free electricity, which is necessary if global climate change is
to be mitigated.

Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing (also known as ‘fracking’) is a technique that is used to release natural gas and oil from shale
rocks. It involves drilling into the earth, either horizontally or vertically, and introducing a high pressure mix of water,
proppants (such as sand or ceramic beads) and chemicals. The pressurised mixture causes the rock layer to crack.
Once the injection has ceased, the fracturing fluids flow back to the surface. The fissures formed are held open by the
proppants such that natural gas from the shale can flow up the well to the surface. The flowback liquid can contain
a number of pollutants such as radioactive materials, heavy metals and hydrocarbons. The key issues associated with
hydraulic fracturing are identified in the diagram below:

© RRC International © RRC International Unit ED1 - Element 12: Energy Use 12-5
 12.1

12-6
Unit ED1 - Element 12: Energy Use
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy

Environmental risks of shale gas extraction

Source: Based on An Environmental Risk Assessment for Shale Gas Exploratory Operations in England, Environment Agency, 2013 (www.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/296949/LIT_8474_fbb1d4.pdf)

© RRC International
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12.1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy

Non-Renewable Advantages Disadvantages
Energy Sources
Fossil fuels Straightforward combustion process. Major contributor to climate change.
Relatively inexpensive. Cause acid rain.
Easily transported. Non-renewable sources that are not
sustainable in the long term.
Large amounts of electricity can be generated Prices are susceptible to changes in global
in one place, quite cheaply. politics so may rise significantly at short notice.
Gas-fired power stations relatively efficient. Extracting the raw materials can be dangerous
and damaging to the environment.
Power stations can be built almost anywhere. Emissions may contribute to poor air quality
locally, thereby affecting people’s health.
Nuclear Relatively small amounts of fuel produce a lot Generates significant volumes of potentially
of power. dangerous radioactive wastes.
Output is reliable and not weather- Expensive and time-consuming to construct
dependent. and decommission.
Very low emissions of carbon dioxide and Inflexible in terms of the ability to ‘turn on and
other greenhouse gases. off’ in response to changing power demands.
High-profile accidents have created a
significant degree of public and political
opposition.

TOPIC FOCUS
The adverse environmental impacts resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels are significant, ranging from
acid rain to effects on health and welfare.

• Acid Rain
Acid gases resulting from fossil-fuel combustion combine with water vapour to create acid rain, which
corrodes buildings, damages and kills trees and destroys life in rivers and lakes. Road transport produces
around 51% of acidic oxides of nitrogen (NOx), while power stations produce 72% of acidic sulphur dioxide
(SO2) and a further 28% of NOx.

• Smog
When gases from vehicle exhausts react with sunlight, smog is formed over cities, damaging trees and crops
and affecting health. Road transport produces 90% of carbon monoxide (CO), which contributes most to
this effect.

• Dwindling Resources
Fossil fuels cannot be rapidly reproduced - it takes millions of years to produce coal, gas and oil, and existing
reserves will eventually run out. At current rates of consumption, proven world reserves for fossil fuel are
estimated to be 44 years for oil, 56 years for gas and 250 years for coal. It has been estimated that by 2020
energy consumption in the UK will be around 30% greater than in 1990.

(Continued)

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12.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy

TOPIC FOCUS
• Health and Welfare
Energy production from fossil fuels can have significant effects on health, particularly energy used by
transport, which results in traffic fumes. Such emissions have acute effects on certain people, e.g. streaming
eyes, coughing, breathing difficulties and asthma attacks. Smog can irritate the lungs, cause bronchitis and
pneumonia and decrease resistance to respiratory infections.

• Climate Change
A number of gases are emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels, the most significant being carbon
dioxide, which traps heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. It has been estimated that over the past 150 years, the
burning of fossil fuels caused a 25% increase in the quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels
also result in increased concentrations of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide.

Since collection of reliable records began in the later part of the 1800s, the world’s global average temperature
has risen by around 0.5°C. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) identified in a 1995
report that “this is unlikely to be entirely natural in origin” and that “the balance of evidence suggests that
there is a discernible human influence on global climate”. Scientists have predicted that if temperatures
continue to increase, sea levels will rise as a result of glacial melting, leading to inundation of low-lying areas
such as coastal wetlands.

• Thermal Pollution
Fossil-fuel combustion for electricity production results in heat, which is used to generate electricity. As the
process is relatively inefficient, much of the heat is emitted to air or to water, which is used as a coolant.
Heated water can have effects on the aquatic systems to which it is released.

Renewable Energy Sources

TOPIC FOCUS

Types of Renewable Energy Sources

Biomass
As you may be aware, photosynthesis involves the conversion of atmospheric carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates in the leaves and stems of plants. This is known as biomass and may be used as an energy source
(biofuels).

If wood-fuel forests are replanted at the same rate as they are removed then biofuels are sustainable, as the
CO2 absorbed in growing replacement trees is the same as the CO2 given off when they are burned. When
combustion is not complete, however, such as in open fires, other gases involved in combustion are produced,
such as methane, which have a higher global warming potential per unit than CO2. Significant quantities of
particulates, in the form of smoke, are also emitted.

On an industrial scale, bioenergy power plants offer clean, efficient combustion of straw, forestry wastes, or
wood chips. The heat that results from burning can be used directly, or for generating power - in some cases, in
both ways.

(Continued)

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12.1

TOPIC FOCUS
In addition to wood, various agricultural crops are increasingly being grown specifically to generate biomass
for use as fuel, including special grasses (Miscanthus) and hemp. Simple sugars from crops such as sugar cane
and sugar beet can also be fermented to produce ethanol, which can be used either directly as a fuel or as an
additive in petrol. Vegetable oils from crops such as rapeseed can also be converted to biodiesel through the
chemical process of transesterification. However, the use of land for growing energy crops rather than food is
controversial, especially in developing countries, which may experience food shortages as a result. As with any
agricultural crop, artificial fertilisers may also be used heavily to generate high yields and may result in negative
environmental impacts, especially diffuse pollution of watercourses with nitrates.
Hydropower
This is currently the source of 2.3% of the world’s primary energy. The
source of hydropower is the hydrological cycle. Heating of the oceans
causes water to evaporate from them. This results in clouds, and
precipitation from clouds flows down into streams and rivers, where
the flow can be used to power turbines to generate electricity. On a
small scale, hydropower does not result in any significantly adverse
environmental impacts.

However, some hydropower plants have been built on a very large

scale, involving the construction of large dams and flooding of massive
areas. This often requires the relocation of indigenous residents. Other
impacts include:
• Negative impacts on fish and other wildlife.
Hydropower
• A decrease in nutrients used in agriculture downstream.
• Increased prevalence of disease in the water.
• Trees and other vegetation trapped below water when a reservoir is flooded, which decay ‘anaerobically’
(i.e. in the absence of oxygen) and produce methane, a powerful greenhouse gas.
Solar Energy
This provides heat to support life on the Earth’s surface. The Sun releases large quantities of energy into the
surrounding space, with a small percentage intercepted by the Earth’s atmosphere. If buildings are specifically
designed to capture the Sun’s energy, the requirement for extra heating and lighting can be significantly
decreased.

Solar power can be captured via solar collectors to produce hot water for washing or space heating in buildings.
Such collectors are in widespread use in sunny countries, such as Spain and Italy.

Solar photovoltaics (PVs) are produced from layers of semi-conducting materials (e.g. silicon) and they directly
generate electricity when the Sun shines on them. PV modules are usually placed on roofs or walls of buildings
and result in enough electricity for all, or a portion, of the building’s needs. PVs are likely to make a large
contribution to future energy needs, but at the moment their use is relatively minimal owing to the relatively
high cost of PV modules.

PVs are an example of direct collection and use of the Sun’s energy. However, the Sun’s energy can also be
harnessed indirectly, e.g. via hydropower, wind energy and wave power.

(Continued)

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12.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy

TOPIC FOCUS
A significant drawback of solar energy is that it is only effective during the hours of daylight, whereas peak
energy consumption is often after nightfall, especially in the winter months. Large surface areas are also required
for photovoltaic arrays and, as with wind power, this has led to concerns that renewable energy infrastructure is
damaging the landscape and amenity value of previously undeveloped countryside.
Wave
When winds blow across the ocean, they form waves, which can have massive power. Various methods have
been designed to capture wave energy. For example, oscillating water columns make use of the rise and fall of
waves in a closed chamber to blow and suck air through an air turbine, which when connected to a generator,
produces electricity.

Technologies for collecting tidal energy include construction of a low dam/barrage across an estuary. The
barrage has inlets manufactured in its wall, which allow the tide to rise up behind it. At the point of the highest
tide, the inlets are closed and the impounded water flows back to the sea in a controlled manner via a generator
system. A cutting-edge tidal-power system is the construction of underwater turbines (similar to wind turbines),
which collect tidal currents that flow in certain coastal areas.

Most waves are driven by the wind and, in calm conditions, the height and power of waves can decrease
considerably. The equipment and infrastructure for capturing wave and tidal power can also be intrusive in
coastal landscapes and interfere with other water users, especially vessel operators.

At present, wave-energy technology is not as developed as wind power or photovoltaics, but has great potential
for generating large quantities of power in the future.

Example of a wave turbine generator

(Continued)

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy 12.1

TOPIC FOCUS
Wind
Solar radiation warms separate parts of the atmosphere to differing levels - most at the equator and least at the
poles. As air flows from warmer to cooler areas, this results in winds that can be used to power wind turbines
to produce electricity. Wind turbines can be installed on land and offshore. In the UK, for example, numerous
offshore wind farms have either been built or are planned to be built in the near future.

Advantages of wind power include:

• Wind is a free energy source; wind farms do not need fuel, unlike fossil-fuel-produced energy.
• No waste or greenhouse gases produced during generation.
• The land around turbines may still be used for agriculture.
• Wind farms can be tourist attractions, e.g. the UK’s first commercial wind farm at Delabole received
350,000 visitors in its first ten years of operation.
• A particularly good method for supplying energy to remote areas.
Perceived disadvantages of wind power include:
• Wind is sometimes not predictable; not every day will have enough wind.
• Some people view wind turbines as unsightly, spoiling the look of the land.
• Can kill and cause disruption to birds - however, wind farms are always subject to an Environmental Impact
Assessment and the RSPB has reported that it has not witnessed any major effects on bird populations.
• May affect television reception for people living near a turbine.
• Can be noisy - however, the development of wind-turbine technology has reduced mechanical noise from
turbines to an almost undetectable level, with the most noticeable sound being the aerodynamic swoosh
of the blades passing the tower. There are also guidelines on wind turbines and noise emissions to ensure
the protection of residents of domestic housing and others.
Geothermal
Geothermal energy harnesses the Earth’s internal heat, which is generated from the decay of long-lived
radioactive elements. The most useful geothermal resources occur where underground bodies of water
(aquifers) are heated by areas of volcanic or tectonic activity, which brings the heat close to the surface. The
resulting hot water, or, in some cases, steam, is used for electricity generation, where possible. If geothermal heat
is taken in a particular area at a rate that is not greater than the rate at which it is being replenished from the
Earth, it is a renewable energy source.

Effective exploitation of geothermal energy is really only feasible in particular regions, where geological
conditions are favourable - for example, volcanic areas in countries like Iceland.

Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy Sources

All alternative energy sources have the benefit of:
• Reduced or zero CO2 production and therefore:
–– Reduced adverse impact on the environment.
–– Less contribution to climate change.
• Being ‘renewable’ or ‘comparatively renewable’.
Other advantages and disadvantages are summarised in the following table.

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12.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sources of Energy

Renewable Advantages Disadvantages

Energy Sources
Solar • Remote areas. Major contributor to climate change.
• Close to where energy is required.
• No emissions.
Wind • No emissions. • Unable to control how much and when.
• Remote areas. • Only generates power when there is wind.
• Free form of motive power. • Susceptible to damage in very strong
• Small-scale operation as a local source of winds (over 25m/sec.).
energy. • Noise generated by turbines.
• Plant can be prefabricated off site. • Loss of visual amenity.
• Construction and maintenance costs can
be significant.
• Have to be large to provide sufficient
energy for large-scale demand.
• Remote from demand means that long
supply cables required with subsequent
energy transmission loss.
• Objections by some to turbines.
Hydroelectric • Dams and reservoirs provide additional • Construction and loss of habitat (e.g. by
recreational resources. flooding valleys).
• Long useful life of plant. • Reservoirs can generate methane from
anaerobic decomposition (tropical
regions).
Wave and Tidal • No emissions. • Unable to control how much.
Power • No waste products. • Only produce power when there is wave
• Limited running costs. or tidal action.
• Ensuring the generator and associated
equipment remain anchored in place.
Geothermal • No emissions to air. • Often relatively large amounts of land
• Remote locations. required.
• Reliable fuel source.
Biomass • Biomass crops can be grown widely in • Uses land that could be used for growing
many locations. food.
• Indirect pollution associated with high
inputs of artificial fertilisers.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Outline the meaning of a non-renewable energy source.

2. Identify six renewable energy sources.

3. List the adverse effects of burning fossil fuels.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

The Need for Energy Efficiency

IN THIS SECTION...
• A carbon footprint can be defined as the total emissions of greenhouse gases produced both directly and
indirectly from an individual, organisation, event or product.
• There are many reasons for wanting to improve energy efficiency such as cost, improved environmental
performance and enhanced public image.
• Information on energy efficiency can be provided on labels, energy performance certificates and sankey diagrams.
• Considering energy efficiency at the design stage is key in making buildings more energy-efficient.
• Barriers to effective energy management include insufficient top-level support, inadequate resources and a lack of
targeting.
• Measures to reduce energy consumption are insulation, choice of equipment, maintenance and control systems,
initiatives, and information, instruction, training and supervision.

Carbon Footprint
A carbon footprint can be defined as the total emissions of greenhouse gases produced both directly and indirectly
from an individual, organisation, event or product. Carbon footprints tend to be calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent
(CO2e) so that they take into account other greenhouse gases as well as CO2.

There are many types of carbon footprint. A product carbon footprint refers to greenhouse gases produced over
the full life cycle of a product from the extraction of raw materials to the final disposal, recycling, recovery, etc. of
the product as waste and all stages in between. An organisation carbon footprint, however, includes greenhouse gas
emissions from activities across the organisation such as energy used for powering buildings, vehicles or industrial
activities. The differences between the two types of carbon footprint can be seen in the following figure:

Organisational footprint

Distribution
Production of Distribution The of products and Consumption
raw materials of raw materials Organisation retail

Product footprint
Product and organisational footprint compared
(Based on original source CTV043 Carbon Footprinting, The Carbon Trust, 2012)

Greenhouse gas emissions covered by a carbon footprint may include:

• Scope 1 - direct emissions from the organisation such as greenhouse gases from the combustion of fuel in vehicles
or boilers or production processes.
• Scope 2 - indirect emissions from electricity, heat or steam bought and used by an organisation.

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12.2 The Need for Energy Efficiency

• Scope 3 - other indirect emissions out of the direct control of an organisation such as outsourced transportation
or employee commuting.
A carbon footprint can be prepared by undertaking the following steps:

1. Decide on the method to be followed.

2. Define organisational and operational boundaries.

3. Collate the data.

4. Apply emissions factors.

5. Verify results (optional).

6. Verify emission reductions (optional).

Energy Efficiency: Relationship to Cost and Profit

There are many reasons for wanting to improve energy efficiency, but perhaps the most compelling for industry is
that wasting energy costs money and this is reflected in the bottom line. Improvements can often be made at little
or no cost, and involve making minor changes to the operation of a process or equipment in order to optimise its
performance, rather than having to purchase expensive equipment.

Saving energy has many benefits, including:

• Reduced energy costs (increasing profits or releasing resources for other activities).
• Improved environmental performance due to reduced carbon-dioxide and other emissions.
• Improved competitiveness of products or services.
• Enhanced public image with customers and other stakeholders.
• Reduced exposure to Government drivers such as the carbon taxes.
You should be aware that energy costs do not usually stay the same. In a relatively short time period energy costs may
change. Therefore, when determining savings from improved energy management, the immediate cost of energy in
addition to an estimation of the future costs of energy should be taken into account when calculating energy savings.

Governments have progressively introduced a variety of fiscal mechanisms to penalise high energy consumption and
to encourage energy efficiency, and these provide an additional financial incentive to reduce consumption, especially in
energy-intensive sectors. Key measures in the EU and UK include:

• EU:
–– The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), which requires energy-intensive operations to monitor and
report their CO2 emissions and purchase allowances to cover excess emissions.

• UK:
­ he Climate Change Levy (CCL) - a tax on UK business energy use that is added to bills for electricity, gas
–– T
and solid fuel consumed by larger businesses.
–– Climate
­ Change Agreements (CCAs) - provide discounts from the CCL for companies that can demonstrate
improved energy efficiency.

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

Provision of Information Regarding Energy Efficiency

Energy Label
It has been widely recognised that consumers need access to accurate
and simple information about the energy-consumption characteristics of
equipment and appliances, so that they can make informed purchasing
decisions and thereby reduce their energy consumption. EU Regulation
2017/1369, setting a framework for energy labelling and repealing
Directive 2010/30/EU, operates to provide a credible and consistent
approach to labelling of a number of categories of household products,
including:
• Refrigerators, freezers and fridge-freezer combinations.
• Washing machines.
• Electric tumble-dryers.
• Combined washer-dryers.
• Dishwashers.
• Lamps.
• Electric ovens.
• Air conditioners.
Advertisements and manufacturers’ literature are required to have this
information. It must be provided wherever these products are bought or
hired.
The Regulation establishes a timeframe for the replacement of the current
A+, A++ and A+++ energy classes introduced by Directive 2010/30/EU
with energy classes based on an A to G scale. It also identifies a procedure
for the rescaling of labels based on technological advances such that the
excessive application of higher energy efficiency classifications will be EU energy efficiency label
avoided in the future. It is hoped that this will also provide an incentive to
innovation and provide a mechanism whereby inefficient products are pushed out of the market. Rescaled labels must
be shown from the following dates:
• Household equipment - November 2019.
• Heaters and boilers - labels displayed between 2027 and 2032.
• Other product groups - 2024/2025.
The Regulation will also enable the general public to access product labels and information from a product
registration database so as to ease the comparison of the energy efficiency of electrical items. The Regulation also
makes it a legal requirement for manufacturers to provide information to consumers if a software or firmware update
decreases a product’s energy efficiency. It also bans the use of devices that alter a product’s performance during
testing.
The key requirements of the Regulation from their introduction on 1 August 2017 are:

• Manufacturers:
–– Luminaires to be accompanied by a printed energy efficiency label.
–– Manufacturers to provide free printed labels.
–– Efficiency classes and range of classes to be provided in advertisements (not radio advertisements).
–– Suppliers not allowed to place products on the market whose performance changes under test conditions.

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12.2 The Need for Energy Efficiency

• Dealers:
–– Traders can request printed energy efficiency labels from manufacturers, which must be provided within five
days of request free of charge.
–– Efficiency classes and range of classes to be provided in advertisements (not radio advertisements).

Energy Star
Energy Star is an initiative for electrical appliances. The label indicates that the energy consumption of an appliance is
under an agreed level when the appliance is in standby mode. It can be found on office equipment such as printers,
monitors and computers. The Energy Star initiative is a US scheme, but is used as a voluntary initiative within the EU.

Vehicle Efficiency
Information for consumers about car fuel efficiency and related CO2 emissions is covered under EU Directive 1999/94/
EC (as amended), which requires that:
• New cars carry a standard label that shows fuel economy and CO2 emissions.
• A poster or similar display is exhibited at the point of sale, showing prominently the official fuel consumption and
CO2 emissions data of all models of new cars offered for sale.
• All promotional literature must contain official fuel consumption and CO2 emission data.

Energy Performance Certificates

Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) are a means of providing information to consumers on buildings which they
may purchase or rent. In the EU, under Directive 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings, certificates
are required to be present in advertisements in commercial media when a building is put up for sale or rent. More
specifically, the Directive requires the following:
• EPC to include the energy performance of buildings and a reference value (such as the minimum energy
performance requirement to ensure that owners or tenants can compare and assess energy performance).
• EPC may include other information such as the annual energy consumption for non-residential buildings and the
percentage from renewable sources in the total energy consumption.
• EPC must include recommendations for the cost-effective improvement of energy efficiency of the building,
unless there is no potential for reductions in energy use.
• The validity of the certificate will not exceed 10 years.
• EPCs are required for buildings that are constructed, sold or rented out to a new tenant or public buildings of over
250m2.
• EPC for a public building over 250m2 must be displayed in a prominent place clearly visible to the public.

Sankey Diagrams
A sankey diagram provides a graphical summary of the energy transfer taking place within a system. The greater the
amount of energy then the thicker the line or arrow. A sankey diagram is essentially a form of mass balance as we
considered earlier for water. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transferred, stored or dissipated. The
initial energy consumption levels entering a process will need to be accounted for by activities that consume and release
energy. It is highly useful to supplement quantified energy consumption information in the form of tables with sankey
diagrams, as these provide an easy-to-understand graphical representation of the use and losses of energy within a
system. Such a visualisation of energy flow and impact of improvements is likely to support a case for improvements in
energy management.

A simple sankey diagram is shown below.

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

Sankey diagram for an energy-saving lamp

Building Design and Assessment

Design
Considering energy efficiency at the design stage is key in making buildings more energy- efficient. For example, natural
ventilation (rather than ventilation forced by a fan) can lead to considerable energy savings. Fresh air is required in
buildings to provide oxygen, prevent odours and increase thermal comfort. Natural ventilation can be achieved in
numerous ways, such as using windows that can be opened or trickle vents. More complex methods include designing
buildings to allow warm air to move upwards to upper openings; this will force cool air to be drawn in from outside.
In very warm climates, natural ventilation may not always be possible and more conventional air-conditioning systems
will be needed.

Another design option is to provide passive solar heating, which uses windows, floors and walls to collect and
distribute heat during cool periods and reject heat during hot periods. This is a passive system as it does not involve any
mechanical or electrical equipment. It takes advantage of the climate in the location of the building. Elements often
considered in such systems in temperate regions include:
• Windows facing the midday sun in winter and being shaded in the summer.
• Reducing windows on other sides.
• Using suitable insulation to reduce seasonal excessive heat loss and gain.
• Using thermal mass (the ability of the building to soak up heat before it reaches the interior during the day and
release it at night).

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12.2 The Need for Energy Efficiency

Assessment
Energy assessments play an important role in determining the energy efficiency of buildings. Such assessments may
be undertaken as a result of legal and voluntary initiatives. As we saw above, for example, it is a legal requirement in
the EU to prepare and display EPCs for buildings. In order to determine the data that must be present on the EPC, an
assessment must be undertaken. The development of an energy rating for an EPC is determined by using a complex
calculation which takes into account factors such as:
• Type of building (flat, house, detached or not).
• Age of the building.
• Amount and type of glazing.
• Heating system and fuel used.
• Building dimension and number of floors.
The assessment must be carried out by a trained and accredited energy assessor. Such energy assessors will need to
be qualified for the type of building being assessed. To become an accredited energy assessor the following must be
undertaken:
• Demonstrate competence by possessing a qualification from an approved body or prior experience and learning
equivalent to national occupational standards.
• Have appropriate professional indemnity insurance.
• Update skill and knowledge on a regular basis.
• Be aware of, and participate in, accreditation scheme assurance procedures, and abide by scheme guidance and
advice.
There are many other energy assessment schemes and all will have their own
specific codes of practice to be followed when undertaking a building energy MORE...
assessment. For example, the Building Research Establishment Environmental
Further information on
Assessment Method (BREEAM) is a general sustainability assessment method
BREEAM is available at:
for infrastructure and buildings that includes energy. BREEAM assessments
are undertaken by BREEAM licensed organisations using assessors who have www.breeam.com
been trained through nationally or internationally recognised competency
schemes to assess against various life-cycle stages of the built environment. From an energy perspective, BREEAM
requires the calculation of the energy performance of the building.

Product Design and Assessment

Products can also be designed with energy efficiency in mind. This may form part of a clean design process. Cleaner
design can be defined as the design of a product to minimise its environmental impacts over its entire life cycle. Cleaner
design involves initially determining how a product impacts on the environment during its life cycle (raw materials,
manufacturing, transportation, use and end of life) and then determining how these impacts could be reduced through
better design.

Measures to improve energy efficiency resulting from clean design might include:
• A reduction in the material intensity of goods or services.
• A reduction in the energy intensity of goods or services.
• Improved recyclability.
• Maximum use of renewable resources.
• Greater durability of products.
• Increased service intensity of goods and services.

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

The assessment of energy efficiency of products is sometimes required by law. In the EU, for example, under Directive
2009/125/EC, eco-design criteria have been specified for energy-related products, including:
• Household electrical and electronic equipment.
• Office equipment.
• Televisions.
• Boilers.
• Refrigerators
• Computers.
• Vacuum cleaners.
The assessment of the energy efficiency of electrical products is required to produce energy efficiency labels such as
those required by the Energy Labelling Framework Directive 2010/30/EU covered earlier in this element.

Benefits of Managing Energy Use

There is now a strong focus on the need to reduce energy consumption as well as develop new ways to provide energy.
Clearly, if we do not use as much energy then less needs to be generated and therefore the environmental impact is
reduced. Even the renewable energy supplies discussed earlier have some environmental impact from the:
• Production of the equipment.
• Need to travel to maintain it.
• Energy used in these activities.
It should therefore be clear that improving energy efficiency should be at the top of any hierarchy of controls regarding
energy use.

CO2 is considered to be a major contributor to climate change. Reducing emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases is essential if the detrimental effects of climate change are to be prevented or reduced. Some of the main control
measures available are discussed in more detail later in this element. These are:
• Insulation to prevent heat loss.
• Choice of equipment, such as the type of fuel used or the efficiency of the equipment.
• Maintenance to ensure equipment remains efficient.
• Adequate control systems so equipment is only active when needed and only using the amount of power
required.
• Providing suitable information, instruction, training and supervision to those who will operate the equipment.

Barriers to Good Energy Management

If energy management is to be successful, it is important to be aware of the barriers that may be faced. These include:
• Insufficient top-level support - visible and real commitment is required from senior managers. This may range
from the switching off of unwanted appliances, to ensuring budgets are available for training and that staff are
released to attend the training.
• Funding - if significant savings are identified but require funding then suitable funding must be available. Some
energy reduction measures require almost no investment, such as switching off equipment. However, there may
be a case for investing in new equipment or new controls for existing equipment.
• Inadequate resources - there will inevitably be many issues and questions raised by the implementation of an
energy efficiency programme. Suitable resources in terms of time and equipment should be allocated to deal with
these issues.

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• Lack of co-ordination across an organisation - failure will be more likely if different strategies are followed by
different parts of an organisation, as staff may well be confused about what they are supposed to be doing. If this
occurs, they will likely default to doing what they have always done in the past.
• Lack of targeting - it is important to identify where the biggest gains can be made first. In a large industrial
organisation, major savings may be made through investment in new equipment or training in managing existing
equipment. For instance, conveyor belts are often left running while empty, thereby consuming large amounts of
energy. Focusing on getting these switched off when they are not required will achieve far greater savings than
fitting automatic light switches in the offices.

Measures to Reduce Energy Consumption

There are a number of control measures available to manage and reduce energy use. None of these is likely to provide
a full solution to the issue of energy management within an organisation. There must be an objective assessment
of where energy is being used and/or lost or used inefficiently, so that a suitable combination of controls can be
implemented and any spending required can be targeted effectively. Such a system of energy management can be
found in ISO 50001:2018 Energy management systems - Requirements with guidance for use, which sets standards
for measurement, documenting, reporting, design/procurement practices for systems and people that contribute to
energy performance.

An example of an effective energy management framework is provided in the following table.

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

Step Description
Step 1: Gaining commitment from senior management of an organisation, e.g. the managing director,
Management highlights the importance of energy efficiency to the entire business. Such support empowers
Commitment managers who are involved on a day-to-day basis in implementing the strategy.
To gain commitment, senior management will require a clear understanding of the benefits of an
energy-saving programme. The most important of these is likely to be cost.
Step 2: This step involves determining and assessing current patterns of energy use, as this will provide a
Understand benchmark to assist in tracking and measuring future improvements and identify energy-saving
the Issues opportunities.
Organisational strengths and weaknesses should be assessed against six main areas of energy
management:
• Policy - publication of an organisation-wide policy statement, issued by the most senior
person in the organisation.
• Organising - allocation of energy management roles and responsibilities.
• Training - all employees must understand the benefits of energy management and be trained
in the actions they can take.
• Performance measurement - measure and monitor energy use and report performance.
• Communication - all employees and stakeholders need to be kept informed of progress.
• Investment - investing in energy-saving activities and equipment can decrease energy costs.
Step 3: Plan Develop an energy policy.
and Organise
An energy policy should be developed to:
• Communicate the commitment of senior management to everyone in the organisation.
• Raise awareness throughout the organisation.
• Demonstrate commitment outside the organisation to key stakeholders (e.g. investors,
customers and suppliers).
• Provide a foundation for the organisation’s energy strategy.
• Provide a structure for the implementation of the strategy.
Set objectives and targets.
The majority of organisations will probably identify many actions to reduce energy. It is therefore
of high importance to prioritise actions and set achievable targets. The following must be taken
into account:
• Assessing waste-reduction targets to calculate the cost and potential return on investment.
• Building on management strengths and identifying any gaps in resources.
• Expressing objectives and targets in ways that provide incentives for people at all levels in the
organisation.
Senior management should agree objectives to ensure they are given high status and receive
sufficient funding and staff resources.
Produce an action plan.
Following agreement of objectives and targets, tasks should be defined in an action plan.
To be effective, the action plan should be produced with agreement and approval by the
appropriate level of line management. Relate actions to individual objectives and targets, which
should come in turn from specific policy commitments.
(Continued)

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12.2 The Need for Energy Efficiency

Step Description
Step 4: Following identification of all the actions an implementation plan should be developed, based
Implementation on the organisation’s priorities.
Short-term and low-cost measures are usually a good way to begin, as they can make an
immediate impact and generate interest. However, planning must also be in place for longer-
term actions, as these can often have significant savings potential and sustain the momentum
of the initiative.
Step 5: Control Assess the programme.
and Monitor Many organisations include management assessments as part of their energy policy,
Energy by ensuring that progress is measured on a regular basis and results reported to senior
Management management. This allows unsatisfactory performance to be identified immediately, before it
and Performance begins to have a detrimental impact.
Planning and reporting.
Designing the reporting procedure is crucial to understanding energy use, and to be able to
note changes, season to season, year on year.
Monitoring and targeting.
An on-going energy strategy will involve collecting and analysing consumption data, such
as from meter readings. This process is called monitoring and targeting (M&T). On-going
monitoring may identify both improvements and areas of weakness. There should be a plan to
undertake regular, detailed M&T assessments. How frequent these are depends on the nature
of the organisation - M&T can be straightforward or involve complex analysis.

Insulation
Effective insulation is a medium-cost measure that can usually be implemented relatively easily. Common insulation
techniques are loft or roof space insulation and cavity wall insulation. These can be as effective on commercial premises
as they are in domestic ones.
Difference in heat loss between insulated and uninsulated houses
Route % Heat Loss from % Heat Loss from
Uninsulated House Insulated House
Roof 25% 5%
Walls 35% 10%
Doors 10% 5%
Floor 10% 5%

Choice of Equipment
Choosing the right equipment is likely to have a major impact on energy consumption. For instance, electric motors
must be matched to the demand required of them:
• Buying one that is too small will mean it is running at full capacity most of the time and is likely to require more
current.
• One that is over-sized will be running at too low a capacity and therefore not running efficiently.

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

If lighting systems are to be changed or installed in new buildings, designing the system correctly and installing the right
equipment can ensure significant savings over the life of the building. The common causes of wasted energy with regard
to lighting systems are:
• Lights being used unnecessarily.
• Lighting unoccupied buildings or rooms.
• Using lights when daylight provides sufficient light levels.
Significant savings can be made through the use of low energy lighting, as can be seen in the table below:

Typical lamp efficacies

Lamp Type Efficacy lumens/Watt

Incandescent - tungsten filament 6-14

Incandescent - tungsten halogen 13-26
Compact fluorescent 45-70
Tubular fluorescent 38-106
Low pressure sodium 100-168
High pressure sodium 70-150
High pressure metal halide 70-113
25-100 Variable depending on colour and increasing as
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
technology develops
Based on typical lamp efficacies, Display Lighting, Carbon Trust, 2012 (www.carbontrust.com/media/147025/
ctg010_display_lighting_aw.pdf)

Maintenance and Control Systems

A system will only remain operating efficiently if it is properly maintained. Whether it is servicing heating boilers,
or ensuring lights are cleaned regularly, the same principles apply. An effective Planned Preventative Maintenance
system will help avoid expensive and inconvenient breakdowns and should, over time, reduce the operating costs as the
equipment is kept in the most efficient operating condition.

Heating
Unless heating equipment is very old and unreliable, consideration should be given to improving the control of existing
systems before the purchase of new equipment is considered.

There are three main types of controls for heating systems:

• Simple switches - may be manual or automatic and simply switch equipment on or off. Automatic switches can
be used to preset the time at which the heating will turn on and off.
• Complex time switches - will often be able to compare indoor and outdoor temperatures and be set to bring
a building up to a certain temperature by a specific time. This is especially useful where buildings such as offices
are not occupied during the night but occupants do not want to come in to a cold building. With correct control
systems, the start time can be varied depending on outside conditions.
• Continuous controllers - these will constantly monitor and adjust the system to maintain an even temperature
within defined limits. They are likely to be more complex to set up, but also the most efficient system.

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A modern Building Energy Management System (BEMS) can significantly reduce the energy used to heat and cool
a building. It also has the advantage that it is usually controlled centrally and so is less likely to be misused with
temperatures set too high or too low. A centralised system also allows a more consistent temperature throughout a
building, preventing the situation where different sections of a system are conflicting with each other to maintain a set
point temperature.

Lighting
Lighting systems account for a significant amount of energy used in most buildings, and the fitting of suitable control
systems can play a major role in reducing this energy consumption. There are two main categories of lighting controls:
• Manual - the simple on/off switch we are all familiar with. Proper labelling allows people to know which lights
can be switched off when not required. Combined with the correct layout, so the layout of the switches matches
that of the lights, this means people are more likely to switch off those lights not required. Significant savings
are possible if lights are switched in rows running parallel to the windows and lights nearest the windows can be
switched off separately from those further away.
• Automatic - controls such as timers and sensors can be used to automatically turn off lights when not required.
Sensors can be for movement or light levels but the best systems combine the two. This way, even when people
are in the room, if light levels are sufficient, the lights will not be switched on. It is important that automatic
controls are set correctly to ensure that people are not left in darkness; this involves correct positioning of the
sensors, correct sensitivity of sensors and correct timing before lights are switched off. This is especially important
where people may not be moving around the room all the time and it may be necessary to have a manual override
available. Occupancy sensors can also be used in other applications, such as urinal flush control. The system would
be able to control lighting, ventilation and flushing relative to occupancy and therefore produce savings in energy
and water.

Initiatives
Energy efficiency initiatives can be a positive way to reduce energy consumption in an organisation. At a local level,
initiatives may be poster campaigns focused on specific issues, such as switching off unused equipment and lighting.
Many offices now have large numbers of computers and, while it may not be desirable to keep switching off the PC
itself, the monitor can usually be turned off easily and quickly, therefore saving a considerable amount of the energy
used by the PC.

Information, Instruction, Training and Supervision

Measures such as insulating buildings, ensuring optimum control systems and ensuring the right equipment, are likely to
prove to be ineffective if the staff who use the building or the equipment are not provided with the right information,
instruction, training and supervision. It is important to understand the difference between these requirements:
• Information - can be provided verbally or in written format; it may be through the use of posters, notices on
payslips, memos or e-mails, etc. Information is often one-way communication in that it requires no specific and
direct response, and there are often no checks to ensure the information has been successfully received.
• Instructions - usually given by a senior person to a more junior person in the organisation. May be written or
verbal but should be clear and unambiguous about what is required of the person being instructed.
• Training - is more involved than simply passing information from one person to another. There should be clear
aims and objectives about what the training will achieve and some means of checking that those objectives have
been achieved and that learning has taken place. This would usually be through either an exam or some form of
continuous assessment.
• Supervision - where a more qualified or senior person actually observes the work that is or has been done
and ensures it is to the correct standard. With the development of ’flatter’ organisations, i.e. fewer levels of
management, levels of supervision in many organisations are lower than they would have been in the past. This
gives increased importance to ensuring that staff are competent through the provision of information, instruction
and training.

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 The Need for Energy Efficiency 12.2

STUDY QUESTIONS
4. What are the benefits to an organisation of saving energy?

5. List the control measures available to manage and reduce energy use.

6. What are common causes of wasted energy associated with lighting?

7. List the barriers to good energy management.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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12.3 Energy Auditing and Monitoring

Energy Auditing and Monitoring

IN THIS SECTION...
• The aim of an energy audit is to understand where and how energy savings can be made.
• The stages of an energy audit are baseline study, analyse findings, identify opportunities, cost-benefit analysis and
reporting.
• The benefits of energy auditing and monitoring include reduced costs, reduced environmental impact, increased
comfort and fulfilment of compliance obligations.
• The key limitations of monitoring and auditing energy surround cost, lack of implementation of actions, time and
perception.

Energy Auditing
The aim of an energy audit is to understand where and how energy savings can be made.

The key objectives of an energy audit are:

• Quantification of energy consumption for the audit scope (this could be
site, area or equipment).
• Identification of opportunities to reduce energy consumption.
• Quantification of savings in terms of energy and cost.
An energy audit will include the need to monitor energy usage.

Undertaking an Energy Audit

Baseline Study Energy audit

The initial objective of an energy audit is to quantify the amount of energy that is consumed on site. This will help
determine a baseline and allow the current position to be assessed. It will also enable the setting of improvement
objectives.

The two key elements of a baseline study involve determining the amount of energy being consumed (quantity) and
where and how the energy is being consumed (quality).

• Quantity Element
The key quantity factors that need to be investigated include:
–– Sources of energy - all fuel types and energy sources consumed on site (e.g. gas, electricity, fuel oil).
–– Amount of energy - quantification of the amount of energy for each fuel type. Fuel types will need to be
quantified into the same unit (e.g. kWh) to enable comparison. If possible, energy consumption for individual
areas or machinery should be gained.
–– Energy cost - the annual energy cost for the site is required.
–– Energy breakdown - the costs for each fuel type should be established in addition to breaking down cost by
area or equipment to enable targeting.

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 Energy Auditing and Monitoring 12.3

The quantity of each fuel may be determined from utility providers or from meters on site. Sub-meter information
will also be useful as it will provide data for specific areas or equipment. The utility suppliers will be able to provide
the energy cost information.

• Quality Element
Having determined the cost and amount of each energy source, the next stage is to determine where and how energy
is actually being used. The key aim of this stage is to understand for each fuel type the key users in terms of cost
and consumption and break down the usage as much as possible. Once complete, this will allow for identification
of areas to target for efficiency improvements. The next stage will be to find out how and why energy is being used
inappropriately.

In order to assess the means by which energy is being used on the site, a walk around the site will be required. The
objectives are to determine areas where:
–– Energy could be reduced - is energy actually required? (Inappropriate use or waste might be heating and
cooling a room simultaneously or lighting switched on in an empty room.)
–– Energy efficiency measures could be implemented - can it be done more efficiently? (An example would
be use of more efficient lighting.)

Analyse Findings
Once the baseline study has been undertaken, the next stage is to analyse the findings and determine the most significant
areas of energy use on the site. A list of the key energy users will assist in determining the areas of greatest focus for
energy savings initiatives. If sub-metering is available then it is useful to understand the exact energy consumption for
each use of energy.

Identify Opportunities
The next stage is to determine measures to reduce energy. Such measures must be technically feasible. To determine
feasibility the cost of the energy-saving project needs to be understood. Having an accurate cost estimate will enable the
estimation of the payback period of the project and as such develop a business case for the improvement. Additionally,
feasibility will need to consider the operational pattern of the plant. Some changes will have an impact on, or depend
on, operational patterns. For example, recovering heat is only feasible if the heat can be recovered at a time when it is
needed.

Cost-Benefit Analysis
It is also important to establish priority areas such as no/low cost measures that may bring rapid results but where savings
may be limited, or bigger projects that can bring significant savings but require greater time and capital investment.

Reporting
The report from an energy audit is usually required to address a number of different audiences. For example, top-level
management will want headline figures on cost and specific energy consumption, whereas energy managers are more
likely to be interested in a more detailed analysis of energy consumption and production managers will be interested in
information on their specific area of responsibility.

A common structure for an energy audit report is:

• Executive summary.
• Review of site energy consumption (including breakdown of energy usage by department).
• Discussion of current energy reporting procedures.
• Process energy reporting performance by department.

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12.3 Energy Auditing and Monitoring

• Site services energy performance such as boilers, refrigeration, compressed air.

• Summary of opportunities.
• Action plan/recommendations.
• Metering and measurement of energy identifying use and any gaps or assumptions made.
• Appendices (e.g. detailed calculations, spreadsheets, etc.).

Energy Monitoring
As we considered previously, a key part of energy management is energy
monitoring and targeting. This will involve a continuous strategy of collecting
and analysing consumption data, such as from meter readings. This process,
as you might remember, is called monitoring and targeting (M&T). Ongoing
monitoring may identify both improvements and areas of weakness. There
should be a plan to undertake regular, detailed M&T assessments. How
frequent these are depends on the nature of the organisation - M&T can be
straightforward or involve complex analysis.

Energy monitoring can:

• Understand the reasons for excessive energy use. Energy monitoring is a key part of
• Detect times when energy use is higher or lower than expected. energy management

• Provide a visualisation of trends in consumption.

• Assist in forecasting future energy usage and costs when planning business changes.
• Diagnose specific parts of the organisation which are wasting energy.
• Quantitatively understand the impact of improvements implemented to reduce energy.

Benefits and Limitations of Energy Monitoring/Auditing

The key benefits of monitoring and auditing energy are:
• Reduced costs - reducing costs is a compelling reason for reducing energy. Without undertaking monitoring or
auditing, the key areas with the potential for significant cost savings would be difficult to identify.
• Environmental impact - an energy audit will allow the environmental impacts associated with energy
consumption to be minimised. For example, an organisation’s carbon footprint and other energy-related impacts
(see earlier for further details) will be lessened.
• Comfort - an energy audit may reveal poorly heated or cooled workplaces. For example, poorly insulated doors
or windows could be identified.
• Competitiveness - by spending less on energy an organisation may be more competitive.
• Equipment - ensuring that equipment uses the correct amount of energy can increase the operational life of that
equipment.
• Unaccounted consumption - an audit may reveal areas of significant energy usage that were previously
unknown.
• Productivity - productivity may be increased as a result of optimisation of equipment and processes.
• Compliance obligations - for certain organisations it is sometimes a legal requirement to monitor energy. For
example, a mandatory energy audit is required for larger organisations in the EU as part of the Energy Efficiency
Directive (2012/27/EU). Management system standards such as ISO 14001 and ISO 50001 also often require
energy monitoring and auditing to be undertaken.

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 Energy Auditing and Monitoring 12.3

The key limitations of monitoring and auditing energy are:

• Cost - the cost of undertaking an audit or setting up a monitoring system can be prohibitive. Employing an
external contractor or training staff can be costly.
• Actions - energy audits and monitoring are forms of performance review. They will highlight ways to save energy
which may be poorly implemented or not at all.
• Time - completing an energy audit or setting up a monitoring system will require the time of staff from their
regular duties.
• Perception - some will see an audit, particularly one that is a legal requirement, as being a burden rather than an
activity that will assist in reducing costs.

STUDY QUESTIONS
8. Identify the key objectives of an energy audit.

9. Identify the constituent parts of an energy audit.

10. Outline four benefits of energy auditing.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)

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 Summary

Summary

Key topics covered in this element:
• Renewable energy sources are those that are replaced by natural processes; non-renewable energy sources include
fossil fuels and nuclear energy.
• Fossil-fuel usage has significant environmental impacts such as smog, dwindling resources, and climate change and
thermal pollution.
• A carbon footprint is the total emissions of greenhouse gases from an individual, organisation, event or product.
• Being energy-efficient has many benefits such as cost, improved environmental performance and enhanced public
image.
• The provision of information on energy efficiency can be a legal or voluntary requirement. Such information can
be provided on labels, energy performance certificates and sankey diagrams.
• Designing buildings and products to be energy-efficient is key to reducing energy consumption.
• The barriers to effective energy management need to be identified and mitigated to ensure significant energy
savings.
• Many measures are available to reduce energy consumption, including insulation, maintenance and control
systems and information, instruction, training and supervision.
• An energy audit will help understand where and how energy savings can be made.
• An energy audit is undertaken by progressing through the following stages: baseline study, analyse findings,
identify opportunities, cost-benefit analysis and reporting.
• There are many benefits to undertaking an energy audit such as reducing costs, increasing comfort and
compliance with legal requirements. Limitations of energy auditing include the costs of the audit, time taken and
perception.

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 Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION
(a) The burning of fossil fuels has many impacts on the environment. Outline the potential impacts of such
activities. (10)
(b) Identify five advantages and five disadvantages of using fossil fuels as an energy source. (10)

Approaching the Question

An outline of the impacts on the environment (including human health) is needed for part (a). An answer should not
concentrate solely on one or two impacts (e.g. climate change) but should cover a number of potential impacts from
the burning of fossil fuels.

Part (b) requires five advantages and five disadvantages of using fossil fuels as an energy source. This is an ‘identify’
question so a limited amount of information for each advantage and disadvantage would be required.

Plan
(a) Acid rain, smog, dwindling resources, health and welfare, deforestation, climate change, thermal pollution.
(b) As this is an ‘identify’ question and therefore little text is required for each advantage and disadvantage, the
production of a plan would be optional. If a plan was prepared it would be identical to the answer.

Suggested Answer Outline

Now you have completed your answer, compare it to the following suggested answer.
(a) Acid gases resulting from fossil-fuel combustion combine with water vapour to create acid rain, which corrodes
buildings, damages and kills trees and destroys life in rivers and lakes. Substances that cause acid rain are sulphur
and nitrogen oxides which can be released from the burning of fossil fuels.
Gases from vehicle exhausts such as oxides of nitrogen react with sunlight to form low level ozone (photochemical
smog). Ozone is an irritant and allows passage of other pollutants into the body. Additionally, smog (made up
of particulates and gases from burning of fossil fuels) can block stomata on plant leaves, not allowing them to
photosynthesise.

Fossil fuels cannot be rapidly formed - it takes millions of years to produce coal, gas and oil and existing reserves
will eventually run out. It has been predicted that most forms of fossil fuels will last about another 200 years.

The extraction of fossil fuels can also cause various impacts on the environment. It may result in removal of large
areas of forest. Forests act as a carbon sink, as trees will take in carbon dioxide into their structures from the air,
which will help reduce the intensity of climate change.

Energy production from fossil fuels can have significant effects on health, particularly energy used by transport
which results in traffic fumes. Such emissions have acute effects on certain people, e.g. streaming eyes, coughing,
breathing difficulties and asthma attacks. Smog can irritate the lungs, cause bronchitis and pneumonia and
decrease resistance to respiratory infections.

Carbon dioxide is taken from the air by vegetation, which helps regulate the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Deforestation can involve large-scale burning, increasing global warming. In addition to reducing the amount of
CO2, trees can help to reduce the energy demand of buildings by providing shelter from winds that cause cooling.

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ES Exam Skills

A number of gases are emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels with the most significant being carbon
dioxide, which traps heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. Scientists have predicted that if temperatures continue to
increase, sea levels will rise as a result of glacial melting, leading to inundation of low-lying areas such as coastal
wetlands.

Fossil-fuel combustion for electricity production results in heat, which is used to generate electricity. Heated water
discharged from the process can have impacts on the aquatic systems to which it is released. This includes reducing
oxygen levels in the water, which will reduce biodiversity. Additionally, certain plants and animals can only survive
in limited temperature ranges. For example, game fish (e.g. salmon) can only survive in water of a relatively low
temperature.
(b) Five advantages from:
–– Straightforward combustion process.
–– Relatively inexpensive.
–– Easily transported.
–– Large amount of electricity can be generated in one place quite cheaply.
–– Gas-fired power stations are efficient.
–– Power station can be built almost anywhere.
Five disadvantages from:
–– Major contributor to climate change.
–– Causes acid rain.
–– Non-renewable resources that are not sustainable in the long term.
–– Prices are susceptible to changes in global politics and may rise significantly at short notice.
–– Extraction can be dangerous and damaging to the environment.
–– Emissions may contribute to poor local air quality.

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 NEBOSH Environmental Diploma
Revision and Examination

The Last Hurdle

Now that you have worked your way through

the course material, this section will help
you prepare for your NEBOSH examination.
This guide contains useful advice on how to
approach your revision and the exam itself.

© RRC International Revision and Examination 1

 Environmental Diploma Revision and Examination

Your NEBOSH Examination

You will need to complete successfully a three-hour examination, as well as a workplace-based project (practical
application) in order to achieve the Environmental Diploma.

The examination will account for 75% of the total marks, with the project accounting for the remaining 25%.

Your examination will consist of one exam paper containing eight 20-mark questions, from which you must choose
five to answer.

You are allowed three hours in which to complete the exam and are given ten minutes’ reading time before the exam
begins.

As a guide, you will need to achieve a minimum of 45% to pass the exam (Unit ED1), and 50% in the project (Unit N/
IDEM2). When you have passed Unit ED1 you will then be issued with a unit certificate, showing a pass grade.

Once you have been awarded a unit certificate for both Units (ED1 and N/IDEM2), you will receive an overall grade
from adding together the marks achieved for each of the units, as follows:

Pass 95-114 Marks

Credit 115-134 Marks

Distinction 135 Marks or more

The overall grade is determined by applying the weighting factors (75% for ED1 and 25% for N/IDEM2) to your marks
for each Unit and adding the marks together.
If your performance in either Unit is less than the pass mark (which is 45% for ED1 and 50% for N/IDEM2) then you
will be “referred” in that Unit. If you are referred in one Unit you may resit that Unit, providing you do so within five
years of passing the other Unit. You may resit as many times as you want within that five-year timescale.

Revision Tips
Using the RRC Course Material
You should read through all of your course material once before beginning your revision in earnest. This first read-
through should be done slowly and carefully.

Having completed this first revision reading of the course materials, consider briefly reviewing all of it again to check
that you understand all of the elements and the important principles that they contain. At this stage, you are not trying
to memorise information, but simply checking your understanding of the concepts. Make sure that you resolve any
outstanding queries with your tutor.

Remember that understanding the information and being able to remember and recall it are two different things. As
you read the course material, you should understand it; in the exam, you have to be able to remember and recall it. To
do this successfully, most people have to go back over the material repeatedly.

Re-read the course material and make notes that summarise important information from each element. You could use
index cards and create a portable, quick and easy revision aid.
Check your basic knowledge of the content of each element by reading the Summary. The Summary should help
you recall the ideas contained in the text. If it does not, then you may need to re-visit the appropriate sections of the
element.

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 Environmental Diploma Revision and Examination

Using the Syllabus Guide

We recommend that you download a copy of the NEBOSH Guide to this course, which contains the syllabus for your
exam. If a topic is in the syllabus then it is possible that there will be an examination question on that topic.
Map your level of knowledge and recall against the syllabus guide. Look at the Content listed for each element in the
syllabus guide. Ask yourself the following question:
If there is a question in the exam about that topic, could I answer it?

You can even score your current level of knowledge for each topic in each element of the syllabus guide and then use
your scores as an indication of your personal strengths and weaknesses. For example, if you scored yourself 5 out of 5
for a topic in Element 1, then obviously you don’t have much work to do on that subject as you approach the exam. But
if you scored yourself 2 out of 5 for a topic in Element 3 then you have identified an area of weakness. Having identified
your strengths and weaknesses in this way you can use this information to decide on the topic areas that you need to
concentrate on as you revise for the exam.

You could also annotate or highlight sections of the text that you think are important.

Another way of using the syllabus guide is as an active revision aid:

• Pick a topic at random from any of the Environmental Diploma elements.
• Write down as many facts and ideas that you can recall that are relevant to that particular topic.
• Go back to your course material and see what you missed, and fill in the missing areas.

Exam Hints
Success in the exam depends on averaging half marks, or more, for each question. Marks are awarded for setting down
ideas that are relevant to the question asked and demonstrating that you understand what you are talking about. If
you have studied your course material thoroughly then this should not be a problem.

© RRC International Revision and Examination 1-3

3
 Environmental Diploma Revision and Examination

One common mistake in answering questions is to go into too much detail on specific topics and fail to deal with the
wider issues. If you only cover half the relevant issues, you can only achieve half the available marks. Try to give as wide
an answer as you can, without stepping outside the subject matter of the question altogether. Make sure that you
cover each issue in appropriate detail in order to demonstrate that you have the relevant knowledge. Giving relevant
examples is a good way of doing this.

We mentioned earlier the value of using the syllabus to plan your revision. Another useful way of combining syllabus
study with examination practice is to create your own exam questions by adding one of the words you might find at
the beginning of an exam question (such as ‘explain’ or ‘identify’ or ‘outline’) in front of the syllabus topic areas. In this
way, you can produce a whole range of questions similar to those used in the exam.

Before the Exam

You should:
• Know where the exam is to take place.
• Arrive in good time.
• Bring your examination entry voucher, which includes your candidate number, photographic proof of identity,
pens, pencils, ruler, etc. (Remember, these must be in a clear plastic bag or wallet.)
• Bring water to drink and sweets to suck, if you want to.

During the Exam

• Read through the whole exam paper before starting work, if that will help settle your nerves. Start with the
question of your choice.
• Manage your time. The exam is three hours long. Your examination will consist of one exam paper containing
eight 20-mark questions, from which you must choose five to answer.
• Check the clock regularly as you write your answers. You should always know exactly where you are, with regard
to time.
• As you start each question, read the question carefully. Pay particular attention to the wording of the question to
make sure you understand what the examiner is looking for. Note the verbs (command words), such as ‘describe’,
‘explain’, ‘identify’, or ‘outline’ that are used in the question. These indicate the amount of depth and detail
required in your answer. As a general guide:
–– ‘Explain’ means to provide an understanding. To make an idea or relationship clear.
–– ‘Describe’ means to give a detailed written account of the distinctive features of a subject. The account should
be factual, without any attempt to explain.
–– ‘Outline’ means to indicate the principal features or different parts of.
–– ‘Identify’ means to give a reference to an item, which could be its name or title.
• Pay close attention to the number of marks available for each question, or part of a question – this usually
indicates how many key pieces of information the examiner expects to see in your answer.
• Give examples wherever possible, based either on your own personal experience, or things you have read about.
An example can be used to illustrate an idea and demonstrate that you understand what you are saying.
• If you start to run out of time, write your answers in bullet-point or checklist style, rather than failing to answer a
question at all.
• Keep your handwriting under control; if the examiner cannot read what you have written, then he or she cannot
mark it.
• You will not be penalised for poor grammar or spelling, as long as your answers are clear and can be understood.
However, you may lose marks if the examiner cannot make sense of the sentence that you have written.

4 Revision and Examination © RRC International

 Unit ED1
Suggested Answers - Part 2

No Peeking!

Once you have worked your way through the
study questions in this book, use the suggested
answers on the following pages to find out
where you went wrong (and what you got
right), and as a resource to improve your
knowledge and question-answering technique.

© RRC International Unit ED1: Suggested Answers 1

7 Suggested Answers to Study Questions

Element 7: Waste Management

Question 1
The waste hierarchy is prevention, prepare for re-use, recycling, other recovery and disposal.

Question 2
Clean design may consider:
• Reduced raw material use.
• Elimination of hazardous materials.
• Reduced use of energy and water.
• Less pollution and waste.
• Increased service life.
• Greater potential for recycling.

Question 3
Waste can be prevented from escaping by:
• Prevention of:
–– Corrosion or wear of containers.
–– Accidental spills or leakages.
–– Breach of containment by weather.
–– Blowing away or falling from vehicles or storage.
–– Scavenging by vandals, thieves, children, trespassers or animals.
• Protection of waste while it is held (cover skips, store liquids in bunded enclosures).
• Ensuring that waste reaches the next holder intact. (If the next stage is a waste transfer station, it will be sorted
and mixed so that excessive packaging is not needed.)
• Segregating incompatible wastes (preventing cross-contamination of waste).
• Ensuring security (secure against waste attractive to scavengers, e.g. building materials). Waste left for collection
should be adequately secured and left for a minimum of time.
• Labelling waste where appropriate and in accordance with the hazardous substance legislation.

Question 4
The reasons why waste minimisation is beneficial include:
• Raw material reduction.
• Corporate image.
• Pollution minimisation.
• Morale.
• Energy reduction.
• Cost.
• Employment.
• Legal compliance.

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 Suggested Answers to Study Questions 7

Question 5
It is often a requirement to see the actual registrations held by the transporters and disposers of the waste. Registrations
to transport waste can be time-limited, so regular checking should be part of the waste producer’s duties.

Some waste producers also arrange to follow the trucks of the waste transporters to the disposal site.

The waste producer must ensure the proper and safe disposal of waste, even after it has been passed on to another
party, such as a waste contractor, recycler, or local authority.

Question 6
The waste constituents that should be monitored as part of a permit include:
• the physical and chemical composition of the waste;
• its hazard characteristics; and
• handling precautions and substances with which it cannot be mixed.

Question 7
Parameters include:
• Physical appearance.
• Colour.
• Presence of oxidants.
• Acidity and alkalinity (pH).
• Ammonia.
• Flashpoint.
• Presence of sulphide.
• Presence of cyanide.
• Priority substances (stated in Directive 2008/105/EC).
• Additional substances of environmental significance.

Question 8
The six steps of a resource efficiency scheme are:

Step 1 - Assessing scope for savings - determining the potential for savings by estimating resource costs.

Step 2 - Gaining management commitment - this will allow the scheme to be fully implemented and operated.

Step 3 - Mapping of activities/processes - enabling a good understanding of what actually goes on at the business and
a more detailed estimate of where savings can be made.

Step 4 - Quantifying and cost determination - considering purchasing records for raw materials and bills, etc. The true
cost of waste should be determined.

Step 5 - Understanding and generating options - considering how to reduce inefficient use of resources or waste
production.

Step 6 - Opportunity assessment - determining whether the improvements are technically or economically feasible.

© RRC International Unit ED1: Suggested Answers 3

1-3
7 Suggested Answers to Study Questions

Question 9
Incineration is advantageous over other disposal methods because of:
• Reduction in waste volume.
• Destruction of hazardous components.
• Creation of an ash that can be disposed of easily.
• Small size of plant.
• Immediate and measurable effects.
• Possibility of raising energy by using calorific value of waste.

Question 10
Type 1 mechanical biological treatment involves the following:
• Mechanical extraction - dry processes are used for the mechanical treatment. Waste is fed into a mechanised
front-end to remove the metals, glass, plastics and contaminants, such as batteries, still left in the waste stream.
• This maximises the diversion of recyclable materials, leaving a mainly organic fraction for the next stage of the
process.
• Biological decomposition - this usually takes place in an enclosed, in-vessel composting system. The aim of this
stage is to reduce the waste and stabilise any biologically active materials.
• Some MBT systems may propose anaerobic digestion for the biological treatment, capturing the methane
produced to provide energy for the plant.
• The residue produced can then be landfilled, or, in some cases, made into refuse-derived fuel to be burnt.

Question 11
Composting is a means of biologically treating solid wastes. It is a process which stimulates the decay of organic materials
by aerobic means. It is usually undertaken on green waste but the process can be applied to mixed household waste.
Green waste composting involves converting garden and other green waste into usable compost by the natural aeration
process. The green waste is shredded then heaped in long rows and regularly turned (windrows). The composting of
mixed household waste can be undertaken either totally or partially enclosed in an industrial-type building. Composting
initially involves the fragmenting and screening of waste by either wet or dry pulverisation, followed where possible by
the extraction of ferrous metals and glass. The waste is then composted under controlled conditions including aeration
and mechanical turning of the material.

Question 12
Nuisance issues associated with the landfilling of waste are:
• Emissions of odours and dust.
• Wind-blown materials.
• Noise and traffic.
• Birds, vermin and insects.
• The formation of aerosols.
• Fires.

4 Unit ED1: Suggested Answers © RRC International

 Suggested Answers to Study Questions 8

Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere

Question 1
‘Smog’ is a term used to describe particulate matter and gases and substances that can be breathed in by people,
causing adverse health effects.

‘Photochemical smog’ is the term used to describe the reaction of primary pollutants with sunlight and other chemical
pollutants to produce air pollution such as low-level ozone (‘bad’ ozone).

Question 2
The impacts of acid deposition are as follows:
• Impacts on fish - this can be as a result of the lowering of pH of watercourses as well as release of harmful
substances into watercourses from the dissolving of toxic elements, e.g. aluminium, from the soil and rocks.
• Impacts on other species - other species can also be affected such as birds which live near affected lakes or rivers
due to bioaccumulation of pollutants released by acid rain in food chains. Harmful metals (such as aluminium) can
also be released into drinking water.
• Forest and crop damage - acid deposition can affect forests and crops both directly and indirectly. Direct damage
can occur from the effects of acidity on the leaves or needles of trees; e.g. brown spots can occur on leaves,
reducing the amount of area available for photosynthesis. Indirect impacts of acidity include dissolving important
nutrients and minerals from the soil the trees grow in. It can also release toxic substances into soil, such as
aluminium, which is normally chemically-bound and not available for uptake.
• Damage to buildings and other man-made structures can occur, leading to a significant amount of expenditure in
maintenance costs.

Question 3
The Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone 1999 is made under the
Geneva Convention. It sets national emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, VOCs and ammonia.
(Annex 1 gives the emission ceilings for 2010 up to 2020.) It builds on previous protocols that addressed these
pollutants. Such ceilings have been developed based on scientific assessment and the abatement options for the
pollutants. Those countries whose emissions have the greatest impact and whose emissions can be reduced in a cost-
effective manner must make the largest cuts. The Protocol also sets emission limits for specified emission sources such
as combustion plants, dry cleaning and vehicles. VOCs from paints and aerosols must also be reduced. Parties must
report their progress on an annual basis. An amendment to the Protocol in 2012 sets emission reduction commitments
to be achieved by 2020 and beyond. The revised Protocol is also extended to cover fine particulate matter emissions
(including black carbon).

Question 4
The main elements of a monitoring strategy are:
• Which substances to sample.
• When to sample, how long, how many samples.
• Which techniques, method and equipment to use.
• Where to sample from.
• Collection, interpretation and reporting of data.
• Quality assurance and control.
• Safety.

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Question 5
Isokinetic sampling is same speed sampling. It involves drawing a sample of air through a probe at the same speed as the
gas flow in the stack. This reduces the risk of concentrating either larger or smaller particles and ensures that the sample
taken is representative of the spectrum of particles found in the stack emission.

Question 6
The two main approaches to stack emissions monitoring are periodic measurement and continuous emissions
monitoring.

Question 7
The text of the element describes a number of particulate capture devices, including cyclones, fabric filters, wet
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and water walls. You should select two such devices, describe them and draw
outline sketches of them.

Question 8
Abatement techniques for gases and vapours include:
• Absorption devices.
• Adsorption devices.
• Incinerators.
• Dry scrubbers.
• Coolers and chillers.
• Peat beds.
• Bio scrubbers.

Question 9
A solvent emission is likely to be in gas or vapour form; it could be captured for recycling by absorption devices, such
as packed columns (for gases), or adsorption devices, such as activated carbon or molecular sieves (for gas or vapour).
Usually, a recovery system will incorporate both methods.

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Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment

Question 1
Eutrophication is caused by excessive nutrients (for example, run-off of fertilisers from agricultural land containing
nitrates and/or phosphates) greatly enhancing the growth of aquatic plants, especially microalgae that live suspended
in the water column. As the plants grow and multiply, they also consume the oxygen in the water, greatly reducing the
oxygen that is available for animals such as fish. The ‘blooms’ of microalgae created by eutrophication may also reduce
the light available for plants that live on the bottom of the lake or river, restricting their growth.

Question 2
Raised temperature can have the effect of reducing the amount of oxygen in the water and altering the biodiversity.

Question 3
Examples of diffuse sources include agricultural use of fertilisers and pesticides and discharges from contaminated land
or landfill sites.

Question 4
Ways of controlling fire-water include:
• Containment lagoons.
• Penstock valves.
• Emergency plans.
• Bunding.
• Fire-fighting strategies.
(Only four were required.)

Question 5
A common ecological method of classifying river quality uses invertebrate species as a basis for measurement. Known
as the Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) score, it attaches a score between 1 and 10 to species of aquatic
invertebrates depending on their tolerance to pollution (the less tolerant a species is, the higher the score). Sensitive
species, such as stonefly nymphs, attract a score of 10, while more tolerant species, such as worms, have a much lower
score. Such a rating system is known as the ‘biotic index’. By using a simple hand net, a sample can be obtained and
examined and scores given for the number of species found in the sample. Scores are for number of species, not
number of individuals found.

Question 6
BOD is the biological oxygen demand exerted by organic matter in sewage and is used as a quantifiable standard.

Question 7
The measurement of total dissolved solids is undertaken by filtering a known volume of a sample through a glass fibre
filter paper. The sample is then moved to a pre-weighed ceramic dish and placed in a drying oven at a high temperature.
Once finished, the sample and dish are weighed, which gives the overall weight of the TDS when taken away from the
weight of the dish. When compared to the volume of the original aqueous sample the concentration of TDS can be
determined in mg per litre.

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Question 8
Turbidity is a term used to describe the cloudiness of a fluid which is caused by particles in the water that are individually
invisible to the naked eye (in a similar manner to smoke in air).

Question 9
The reasons for effluent treatment are:
• Recovery of expensive materials.
• Protecting sewage pipes.
• Protecting sewage system workers.
• Protecting sewage works.
• Reducing sewage treatment charges.
• Protecting the receiving water.

Question 10
Three biological treatment methods for sewage are:
• Percolating filter treatment.
• Activated sludge treatment.
• Oxidation ponds.

Question 11
Any five physical treatment methods from:
• Screening.
• Sedimentation.
• Air stripping.
• Filtration.
• Centrifuging.
• Flotation.
• Ion exchange.
• Evaporation.
• Reverse osmosis.
• Sumps.
• Oil-water separators.

Question 12
The advantages of desalination are:
• Provides clean freshwater for drinking and agriculture where no source exists.
• It uses tried and tested technology that has been in use for many years.
• Creating water from the sea means that land-based surface and groundwater is not extracted. This means there is
less impact on land-based aquatic systems such as lakes and rivers.

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Question 13
‘Water neutrality’ is a term that was first coined during the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002. It is
used to imply a process whereby participants try to balance their water usage by reducing water usage and investing
in projects that increase the supply of freshwater. It therefore involves balancing the demand and supply of water by
intervention of the user. It pertains to the amount of water being used being broadly equal to the amount put back.

Question 14
The purpose of undertaking a water balance is to:
• Understand and manage water use and effluent production.
• Identify areas that have a significant cost-saving potential.
• Detect areas of leakage.

Question 15
Water exploitation index = Total abstraction of freshwater / Long-term average freshwater resources.

Question 16
The direct consequences of flooding are:
• Damage to property/equipment/stock - such material items may be damaged, e.g. floor carpets, wallpaper and
the foundations of buildings.
• Loss of income - significant loss of income may occur after a flood due to damage to stock, buildings and business
infrastructure. This may lead to laying-off staff or making redundancies in order to reduce costs.
• Business continuity issues - a business may cease trading or trade on a more limited basis following a flood due to
operational disruption, incurrence of financial losses, loss of business to competitors and impacts on reputation.
• Increased insurance premiums - those businesses at risk of flooding may not be able to gain flood insurance or
will have to pay a high insurance premium. Generally premiums for all insurance policies will increase due to more
frequent flood events.
• Pest infestations - common pest problems following a flood include ants and rodents entering buildings as their
homes are flooded and flies and cockroaches being attracted to buildings by floodwater containing sewage.
• Health issues - flooding can lead to an increase in various types of communicable disease such as water-borne
diseases (e.g. cholera, leptospirosis and hepatitis) and vector-borne diseases (e.g. malaria and yellow fever).

Question 17
The three categories of building design to reduce the impact of a flood are:
• Avoidance - constructing a building in a way to avoid it being flooded.
• Resistance - constructing a building in a way to prevent floodwater entering the building and causing damage.
• Resilience - constructing a building so that, although floodwater may enter, its impact is minimised.

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Element 10: Control of Environmental Noise

Question 1
(a) Sound is the sensation the brain perceives when pressure variations in the air are detected by the ear. It is energy
transmitted in the form of vibration and can travel through solids, liquids and gases.

(b) In a vibrating system, the completion of a cycle of motion is quantified over time as cycles per second, expressed
as Hertz.

Question 2
Sound may be measured by an electronic meter calibrated to display, record or analyse sound according to Standards.
Various correction factors may be employed according to the circumstances or purposes of the assessment.

Question 3
The key environmental noise sources are: industry and commerce, transport, construction, entertainment and
neighbours.

Question 4
The three-step hierarchy for controlling noise is:
• Noise reduction at source.
• Attenuation in transmission.
• Target/receptor controls.

Question 5
Exposure to environmental noise may cause annoyance leading to hypertension, sleep disturbance, cardiovascular
problems and effects on performance and educational achievement.

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 Suggested Answers to Study Questions 11

Element 11: Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land

Question 1
The impacts of the listed substances are:

(a) Chlorinated pesticides - egg-shell thinning in birds, following bioaccumulation.

(b) CFCs - stratospheric ozone depletion, leading to increased levels of UV light.

(c) PCBs - carcinogen.

Question 2
The purpose of the CLP Regulation is:
• Classify dangerous chemicals using the new scientific criteria agreed under the Globally Harmonised System
(GHS).
• Provide information to the end user in the form of a label that will make use of new hazard warning symbols
(pictograms) agreed under GHS.
• Package the chemical safely.

Question 3
The key uses of pesticides include:
• Preventing damage to crops by destroying insects and weeds.
• Improving animal welfare by controlling parasitic diseases (e.g. sheep dip).
• Controlling weed growth on non-agricultural land (railway tracks, roads and pathways).
• Moth-proofing of wool.
• Fungicide treatment of some cloths.
• Preservation of timber.
• Treatment of the hulls of boats to prevent fouling by marine organisms.

Question 4
Disadvantages of the use of pesticides include:
• Effects on non-pest species - animals that interact with the pest may be affected by the pesticide, which can
significantly alter the biodiversity of an area.
• Spray drift - incorrectly applied pesticides may drift from the area of application and affect other crops, animals,
watercourses and other areas of the environment.
• Residues in food - pesticides may enter food either via direct application on the food or through biomagnification
and can have a harmful effect.
• Groundwater contamination - pesticides may reach aquifers if they are persistently used in agriculture.
• Poisoning - those who apply pesticides are at significant risk of being poisoned if they do not follow the correct
handling procedures and PPE is not worn.

Question 5
The purpose of the World Health Organisation Pesticide Evaluation Scheme is to promote and co-ordinate the testing
and evaluation of pesticides of interest to public health.

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Question 6
Contaminated land is described in the Environmental Protection Act 1990 as:

“any land which appears to the local authority in whose area it is situated to be in such a condition, by reason of
substances in, on or under the land, that -
(a) significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused; or

(b) pollution of controlled waters is being, or is likely to be caused.”

Question 7
The key impacts of land contamination are:
• Direct risk to human health by ingestion, particularly from toxic metals which accumulate in the body, e.g. lead
and cadmium.
• Toxic substances entering the food chain through plant uptake.
• Water contamination - directly by migration through plastic water pipes (especially of phenols and cresols) into
household water supplies; indirectly by leaching into groundwater and surface water.
• Prevention or inhibition of plant growth. Phytotoxicity (plant poisoning) contaminants may affect plant growth at
low concentrations (toxic metals); gases may displace air from soil and impede growth.
• Odours, fumes and effluvia, particularly when gases (landfill gases) percolate the site.
• Fire and explosion - gas explosions from methane and petroleum vapours and underground fires (responsible for
odour, fumes, etc. and ground subsidence).
• Direct contact with, or inhalation of, certain contaminants - solvents, corrosives, carcinogens, asbestos, etc.
Inhalation of dust, vapours (phenols and other aromatic compounds) and toxic gases may add to exposure. Skin
contact with coal tar residues can cause dermatitis, tar warts and skin cancer.
• Building damage, e.g. high levels of sulphate can occur downwind of brickworks, along with fluorine as dry
deposition on land over many years.

Question 8
The three phases of contaminated land investigation are:
• Phase I - Preliminary investigation (desk study and site reconnaissance).
• Phase II - Site investigation.
• Phase III - Remediation.

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 Suggested Answers to Study Questions 12

Element 12: Energy Use

Question 1
Fossil and nuclear fuels are classed as non-renewable energy sources. Although they are available in very large quantities,
they are finite and so will ‘run out’ in the future.

Question 2
Examples of renewable energy sources include wave, geothermal, wind, hydro and solar power, and biomass.

Question 3
The adverse effects of burning fossil fuels include:
• Acid rain.
• Smog.
• Dwindling resources.
• Health and welfare.
• Deforestation.
• Climate change.
• Thermal pollution.

Question 4
The benefits of saving energy include:
• Reduced energy costs (increasing profits or releasing resources for other activities).
• Improved environmental performance due to reduced carbon dioxide emissions.
• Improved competitiveness of products or services.
• Enhanced public image with customers and other stakeholders.
• Reduced exposure to Government drivers, such as carbon taxes.

Question 5
Control measures to manage and reduce energy use include:
• insulation;
• choosing the right equipment;
• maintenance;
• control systems;
• initiatives; and
• information, instruction, training and supervision.

Question 6
Common causes of wasted energy associated with lighting are:
• Lights being used unnecessarily.
• Lighting unoccupied buildings or rooms.
• Using light when daylight provides sufficient light.

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Question 7
The barriers to good energy management are:
• Insufficient top-level support.
• Lack of funding.
• Inadequate resources.
• Lack of co-ordination across the organisation.
• Lack of targeting.

Question 8
The key objectives of an energy audit are:
• Quantification of energy consumption for the audit scope (this could be site, area or equipment).
• Identification of opportunities to reduce energy consumption.
• Quantification of savings in terms of energy and cost.

Question 9
An energy audit consists of:
• Baseline study.
• Analysis of findings.
• Opportunities identification.
• Cost-benefit analysis.
• Reporting.

Question 10
Any four benefits of energy auditing from:
• Reduced costs - reducing costs is a compelling reason for reducing energy. Without undertaking monitoring or
auditing the key areas with the potential for significant cost savings would be difficult to identify.
• Environmental impact - an energy audit will allow the environmental impacts associated with energy consumption
to be minimised. For example, an organisation’s carbon footprint and other energy-related impacts will be
lessened.
• Comfort - an energy audit may reveal poorly heated or cooled workplaces. For example, poorly insulated doors or
windows could be identified.
• Competitiveness - by spending less on energy an organisation may be more competitive.
• Equipment - ensuring that equipment uses the correct amount of energy can increase the operational life of that
equipment.
• Unaccounted consumption - an audit may reveal areas of significant energy usage that were previously unknown.
• Productivity - productivity may be increased as a result of optimisation of equipment and processes.
• Compliance obligations - for certain organisations it is sometimes a legal requirement to monitor energy, e.g. a
mandatory energy audit is required for larger organisations in the EU as part of the Energy Efficiency Directive
(2012/27/EU). Management system standards such as ISO 14001 and ISO 50001 also often require energy
monitoring and auditing to be undertaken.

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