Units: 4. Spacing, headway, clearance and gap 2.

4. Spacing, headway, clearance and gap 2.8 Highway Capacity and Level of Service - 4 Major aspects of design of roads: 1. overall location of route
s = 5280/k k [veh/mi] - Capability analysis: ability of highway facilities to carry traffic 2. geometric design of road network 3. provision of adequate
h = s/v v [ft/s] - Level of Service analysis: operational characteristics of facilities traffic carrying capacity 4. design of pavements
h = 3600/q q [veh/hr] when serving various levels of demand - 4 elements in geometric designs (visible dimensions to provide
g = (s-L)/v s [ft/veh] - Highway Capacity Method: 1. (design) determine no. of highway safe, efficient & economical movement of traffic): 1. horizontal
= h – L/v h [s/veh] lanes required to satisfy a desired level of service 2. (analysis) alignment 2. vertical alignment 3. cross- sectional elements 4.
c=gxv g [s] estimate level of service prevailing on a highway given its intersections & interchanges
c [ft]
L [ft] geometric design & actual flow conditions - Major Inputs for highway geometric design: 1. functional
5. Lane occupancy (Rs =/= Rt)
- space occupancy (Rs): [%] k [veh/mile]= R x 5280/L [ft] - Traffic Flow Conditions: Composition of traffic using the facilities classification of roadway 2. traffic volume 3. design speed 4.
(proportion of pc/trucks/buses) design vehicle dimensions & performance 5. environmental
- Roadway conditions: geometric characteristics of roadway compatibility, topography 6. driver behavior, safety consideration
Ch2 Traffic Flow Fundamentals (design speed, horizontal & vertical alignment, no. & width of lane) - Location Design: factors to be considered (↓land purchase &
2.1 Introduction - time occupancy (Rt): [%] k [veh/mile]= R x 5280/(L+C) [ft] Level of Service construction costs): 1. cost & operational eff 2. negative impact on
- Purpose of traffic flow analysis: to design and operate = qualitative measure to find degree of congestion; factors: nearby communities & env
transportation systems with greatest possible efficiency and speed/travel time/freedom to maneuver/safety - Functional Classification of Highways: (Principle arterials
safety. (freeways)-> minor A-> collectors -> local roads/streets)
L = length of the vehicles (mi); k: [veh/mi] Local Streets: accessibility>mobility; expressway: mobility> access
- Approach to Examining Traffic Flow: C = loop detector distance (mi) LOS A: Free-flow condition. very
a) Macroscopic approach = studying steady-state phenomenon of high freedom Vertical Alignment
traffic flow; describe the overall (whole) operational efficiency of (no affection by other vehicles). - defines profile of road along its center line
the traffic system LOS B: Stable flow range; slight - Objective: 1. determine elevation (above seaplane) of highway
b) Microscopic approach = considers the response of each decrease in freedom. [to select pts to ensure proper roadway drainage & an acceptable level of
individual vehicle in a disaggregate manner desired speed] safety 2. determine transition of roadway elevations btw 2grades
2.2 Traffic Stream Variables - Greenberg’s Model (Nonlinear Flow Model) LOS C: Stable flow range, sig. affect
- Primary Variables (Stream variables) Adv: better goodness-of-fit by other vehicles
speed (v): mph or ft/s density (k): veh/mi Disa: violate boundary condition when [k→0, v→∞]
volume or rate of flow (q): veh/h
- Other variables (vehicles) vt = 1/N∑[(𝐿 + 𝐶) /𝑡𝑖] LOS D: High density, stable traffic flow. Speed and freedom of
headway (h): sec spacing (s): ft operation are greatly restricted. [require drivers to be cautious]
occupancy (R): % gap (g): sec LOS E: Operating condition at or around capacity level. Vehicle
clearance (c): ft mean veh. length (L): ft speeds are reduced. Operations are unstable. [speed & density
2.3 Time-Distance Diagram of Flow
1. Speed begin to fluctuate when there is a minor increase in traffic vol]
Space Mean Speed Time Mean Speed (measure 2.4 Categories of Traffic Flows LOS F: Congested/forced flow region. Operating conditions within
(measure speed over space) speed over time) - Uninterrupted flow: Traffic flow conditions are the result of the queue [Arrival flow exceeds discharge rate], unstable traffic
(harmonic mean of spot speed; (arithmetic mean; measure interactions among vehicles in the traffic stream, depending on flow. Stop-and-go waves
measure speed over space; speed over time; speed at a the geometric characteristics of roadway systems (e.g. slope) - Basic Definition
speed at a specific time in specific point in a time period)
[EG. Freeways / Multilane highways / Two-lane highways] (V)[veh/hr] Hourly Volume = actual hourly demand volume for
different spot) - Interrupted flow: Fixed facilities or elements to produce highway in veh/h
(for given
interruptions to traffic flow, causing traffic to stop or slow down. (PHF)[no unit] Peak Hour Factor = ratio of peak-hour volume to
period)[EG. Signalized streets / Unsignalized streets with stop signs / max rate of flow computed on basis of interval t within peak hour
Arterials / Transits / Pedestrian walkways / Bicycle paths] - Assume Equal Tangent Vertical Curves (PVI in the middle)
[PHF→1.0, more uniform][PHF→0, more peaked] - Ref point: length along horizontal alignment of its centerline
2.5 [Macro] Models of Traffic Flow
- Free Speed: Drivers adopt their desired speed when he is not 𝐕 𝑽 1 station = 100 ft
influenced by other vehicles in the traffic stream. 𝐏𝐇𝐅 = =
ˆVs = average travel speed or space mean speed (mph) 𝒒 𝑵𝒕 (𝟔𝟎/𝒕) -> G1 = -3.5% = -3.5ft/100ft = -3.5ft/sta
L = length of the highway segment (mi) - Free traffic condition: a traffic flow in which each vehicle travels - Parabolic Curve (transition curve)
ti = travel time of the i-th veh to traverse the section (hr) at the desired speed of the driver, each vehicle is not affected by (SF)[veh/hr] Service Flow = actual rate of flow for peak 15-min
expanded to an hourly volume A= G2 －G1 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛃－𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂 [A<0 crest, A>0 sag]
n = number of travel times observed other vehicles, and subject only to the constraints associated with
vi = the spot speed of vehicle vehicle and road characteristics. 𝐝𝐲 𝐝𝟐 𝐲 𝑮𝟐−𝑮𝟏
𝐕 𝐲 = 𝐚𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐛𝐱 + 𝐜 = 𝟐𝐚𝐱 + 𝐛 = 𝟐𝐚 =
- Actual Behavior of Uninterrupted Traffic flow 𝐒𝐅 = 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱𝟐 𝑳
𝐏𝐇𝐅
𝐚 = (𝐆𝟐 − 𝐆𝟏 )/(𝟐𝐋 [𝐬𝐭𝐚]) b = G1 [%]
- Procedure for calculation of capacity & LOS y: the roadway elevation [ft]
1. Under ideal condition: geometrically uniform section of freeway x: stations from the beginning of PVC [sta]
in terms of passenger-car equivalents c: the elevation of the PVC, since x = 0 [ft]
2. Non-ideal condition: calculated by modifying estimate of L: the length of the vertical curve in x-axis [sta]
capacity under ideal conditions by some factors a: [ft/sta^2] b: [ft/sta]
where σs^2 and σt^2 are the variance - Basic Freeway segment under Ideal freeway conditions - Offset
-> section of divided highway having >2 lanes in one direction;
providing for uninterrupted flow conditions away from influence
of ramps, merging, diverging area etc.
[Lane width >= 12 ft / Lateral Clearance >= 6 ft from edge of
pavement / Level roadways (no slope) / vehicular stream consist
entirely passenger cars / Uniform demand (no disruption/Shock w]
- Free Capacity and Level of Service
-> design speed: average highway speed of the whole highway
2.7 Shock Waves in Traffic Introduction MSFi = qmax ( 𝐯/𝐜 )𝒊 [pcphpl] (table 2.1)
- Evaluation Criteria for traffic flow models - Shock wave: exist whenever traffic streams of varying stream MSFi = max SF per lane for LOS i under ideal conditions
1. Relationships of q-k-v were tested in terms of goodness of fit to conditions meet; to a stationary observer, he would see either the qmax = capacity of a freeway lane (i.e.MSF at LOS E) (depend on
actual field data. 1) q~k; 2) v~k; 3) q~v ; = How close the results formation or dissipation of a platoon (group) of vehicles design speed)
predicted by the model are to the actual data measured (v/c)i = max ratio of volume to capacity for LOS i
2. Relationships were supposed to satisfy certain boundary - Convert ideal lane flow into service flow under prevailing
conditions: Usw= (qb- qa)/(kb- ka ) , which is slope in q~k curve
a. Flow is zero at zero density. [k=0 => q=0] q (veh/h); k (veh/mi); U (mph) condions
Y = offset at any distance x, from PVC; (+: sag or -: crest) vertical
b. Flow is zero at maximum density [kj (jam density) => 𝑣𝑠 = 0] Usw > 0: Traveling in the direction of flow q = q* N fw fhv [veh/hr] N: lanes in 1 dir distance from initial tangent to curve [ft]
c. Mean free speed occurs at zero density (free flow condition) Usw = 0: Stationary with respect to the roadway q = prevailing (service) flow, veh/hr fw: obstructions
in the whole Ym = the mid-curve offset [ft]
[k→0, v→𝑣𝑓 ] d. Flow-density curves are concave [i.e., there is a Usw < 0: Moving in the upstream direction q* = ideal flow, in pc/h/lane =MSF Yf = offset at the end of the vertical curve (from PVC) [ft]
N = number of freeway lanes highway
point of maximum flow]. A: the algebraic diff in grades (G2 - G1 in [%])
- Greenshield’s Model (Linear Flow Model) fw = adjustment for the combined effect of lane widths other than L: the length of the vertical curve in x-axis [ft]
Adv: satisfy all boundary conditions 12 ft and for lateral obstructions closer to 6 ft & no. of lanes x: the distance from the PVC [ft]
Disa: bad goodness-of-fit fhv = adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles - K-value (degree of curve): horizontal distance required to affect
qmax = vopt * kopt (1) fw depends on table [N, width, lateral d, side]
At jam density: [v=0, q=0, k=kj] (2) fhv = 1/ [1+ PT(ET-1) + PR(ER-1) + PB(EB-1)] 1% slope
= free-flow condition in front of platoon (PS) PP + PT + PR + PB = 1; fhv <= 1 K = L / |A| [ft/%] where A in %
- difference = -> location of high/low point: valid only when dy/dx=0 not at ends
length of P = proportions of trucks, rec veh, buses
platoon E = passenger-car equivalent from table X = K |G1| = G1*L / (G1-G2), x >= 0 [x:ft][G:%]
- plantoon frow v/c = q*/qmax = q/vmax
from 0 – 1.32 mi V = q x PHF (q: most peaked 15 min under actual flow
in 10 min and conditions, V: actual traffic mix)
2. Volume and Rate of Flow back to 0 in 12.6 Ch3 Geometric Design of Highways
- Traffic Volume: actual number of veh observed to pass a given min - Planning & Design Process of a Roadway:
nd
point during given time interval [Hourly volume (veh)] - 2 phase:
- Flow Rate (q): number of veh passing given point during a time front & rear of -> Phase 1: establish need for new route & determine basic
interval less than 1 hr [veh/hr] platoon were features of roadway (terminal, general location & LOS)
3. Density or Concentration defined by diff -> Phase 2: establish location of highway & design in details
- Density (k): number of veh occupying a given length lane at an veh at different (geometric dimensions, construct standards, types of mat)
instant of time [veh/mi] k j times as veh at => Conceptual transportation plan (design criteria, eng standards,
- Flow conservation equation (consider uniform movement of front were design procedure) -> engineering drawing & specification
vehicles at the same speed) released &
q = v x k q: rate of flow (veh/hr); v: space mean speed (km/hr or additional veh
mph); k: average density (veh/km or veh/mi) joined at rear
 𝜶: the angle of incline 𝑺𝑺𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∆𝒔/ D <= SSD/∆s = 100/D
W: weight of the veh (in pounds) ∆s = 57.296 SSD / Rv <= D = 5729.6 / Rv
Wn : weight normal to the roadway surface Rv: radius to veh traveled path, taken as radius to middle of
Wp: weight // to the roadway surface innermost lane [ft]
Ff: the side frictional force (centripetal, in pounds) ∆s: angle subtended by arc equal to SSD length
Fc: centrifugal force (lateral m*a, in pounds)
Fcp: centrifugal force acting // to the road surface D: Degree of centerline of innermost lane
Fcn: centrifugal force acting normal to the road surface 𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟓 𝑺𝑺𝑫 28.65 𝑆𝑆𝐷 ∆𝑠
Rv: radius defined to the veh’s traveled path (ft). 𝑴𝒔 = 𝑹𝒗 [𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )] ( )=
Fc = mv2 / Rv = (Wv2) / (gRv) 𝑹𝒗 𝑅𝑣 2
fs: the coef of side
Wp + Ff = Fcp Ff = fs ( Wn + Fcn ) friction 𝐑𝐯 𝐑𝐯 − 𝐌𝐬
−𝟏
𝑊𝑉 2 𝑊𝑉 2 g: the gravitational 𝐒𝐒𝐃 = [𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( )]
w𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝑓𝑠 (𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) = 𝑔 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 constant (ft/s^2) 𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟓 𝐑𝐯
𝑣 𝑣
V: the vehicle speed Ms: mid ordinate necessary to provide enough ssd [ft] = inside
𝑉2 (in ft/s). edge of the inside lane + ½ width of lane
- Minimum and Desirable Stopping-Sight Distances (minimize 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 + 𝑓𝑠 = (1 − 𝑓𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼) tan a = e = super-elevation of SSD: from table 3.1 [ft]
construct cost while provide adequate level of safety) (apply to 𝑔 𝑅𝑣 curve = ft rise/ft
both vertical and horizontal) 𝟐 𝑓𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 0 due to small fs and 𝛼
- Total perception-reaction time: Perception -> Intellectual -> 𝑹𝒗 = 𝑽 ⁄𝒈(𝒆 + 𝒇 ) [ft] , radius of horiz curve
Emotion -> Volition (age, fatigue, physical impairment, alcohol) 𝒔
- f includes poor driver skills, low braking eff, wet pavements 𝒇𝒔 = 0.5 at 25mph; 0.35 at 35 mph
Min SSD : from avg running speed (smaller): vrun e = 0.1 at normal; 0.08 at snow&ice; 0.12 for low-vol gravel surface
Desirable SSD: from design speed (larger): vdesign road to facilitate drainage
- SSD depends on: driver’s reaction time, pavement condition & - Minimum raidius of curve for selected design speed
weather conditions 𝑽𝟐
S = SSD = 𝑽𝟐𝟏 /[𝟐𝒈 (𝒇 ± 𝑮 )] + 𝑽𝟏 𝒕𝒓 𝑹𝒗,𝒎𝒊𝒏 = [𝐟𝐭] *Rv: centre of innermost lane
𝒈(𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 +𝒇𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
= braking + react dist. [ft]
V1 = initial veh speed [ft/s] (1mph = 1.47ft/s) 𝑽𝟐
g = 32.2 [ft/s2] or 9.81 [m/s2] 𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 = 𝒈 𝑹 − 𝒇𝒔 when Rdesign > Rv min
𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏
f = coef of braking friction [0.xx][from table3.1]
G = worst grade (max magnitude) -> Side friction should be sufficient to provide centrifugal force for
tr = reaction time [s] ~ = 2.5s for 90% drivers safe turning movement: fs = V2/(g*Rv) – e < fs max
- SSD & Crest/Sag vertical curve Design - Basic Element of a Simple Horizontal Curve
-> L smaller, lower cost needed but L longer, safer
Crest Curve Design L = f(A,S)
- S governs: length of vertical curve & earthwork required

(eyesight)

-> PC: point of curvature; PT: point of tangency

- Degree of curve (measure sharpness of curve)
D = 5729.6/R [degree] (larger D/small R, sharper)

Sag Curve Design L = (G1, G2, S) - Geometric and Trigonometric Analysis

- controlled by nighttime conditions 𝑻 = 𝑹 𝐭𝐚𝐧(∆/𝟐) [ft] 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎∆/𝑫 = R∆/57.296 [ft]
- criteria for design: headlight sight distance, driver comfort, 𝟏
drainage control, general appearance 𝑬 = 𝑹( 𝒄𝒐𝒔(∆/𝟐) − 𝟏) 𝑴 = 𝑹 (𝟏 – 𝒄𝒐𝒔(∆/𝟐) )

- R measured from centerline of road

- Rv measured from innermost veh lane midpt
- Horizontal curve station measured along road:
STAPC = STAPI – T
STAPT = STAPC + L
- SSD and horizontal curve design
- SSD restrictions on H. curve occur when obstructions are present
- SSD is from center of innermost lane (Ms =/= M)
- Ms is the distance required for clear sight to allow sufficient SSD

- Driver comfort standard L=Av^2/46.5≈0.5 Lm

- Use of K-value (relatively more conservative)
For crest,
S<L, Lm = |A| S^2/1329 = K|A|, K=S^2/1329
S>L, Lm = 2 S – 1329/|A| (cannot use L=K|A|)
For sag,
S<L, Lm = |A| S^2/(400+3.5S) = K|A|, K=S^2/(400 +3.5 SSD)
S>L, Lm = 2S – (400+3.5S)/|A| (cannot use L=K|A|)
- Horizontal Alignment
- horizontal curve provides a transition between 2 st. sections
- depends on design speed. curvature, super-elevation&side frictio
(a) simple curve (tangent -> PC -> circular curve -> PT -> tangent)
(b) curve with transition (tangent -> transition -> circular curve)
- Vehicle Cornering