Conduction—Basic Equations 2

2.1. Generalised One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation. 2.2. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation—For
the cartesian coordinates—Three dimensional heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates—Three dimensional heat con-
duction equation in spherical coordinates. 2.3. Initial and Boundary Conditions—Prescribed temperature boundary condi-
tions—Prescribed heat flux boundary conditions—Convection boundary conditions : Surface energy balance—Radiation bound-
ary condition—Interface boundary condition. 2.4. Summary—Review Questions—Problems.

The objective of this chapter is to provide a good The element having

understanding of the heat conduction equations and Heat conduction rate into the element = Q(X)
boundary conditions for the use in mathematical Heat conduction rate from the element
formulation of heat conduction problems.
= Q(X + dX)
Net rate of heat conduction into the element
2.1. GENERALISED ONE DIMENSIONAL HEAT Qnet = Q(X) – Q(X + dX)
CONDUCTION EQUATION If the heat is generated within the element due
to resistance heating, chemical or nuclear reactions, etc.,
For the thermal analysis of the bodies having shapes
and the rate of volumetric heat generation is g (W/m3).
such as slab, rectangle, the cartesian coordinates are
used, while for cylindrical and spherical bodies, the polar Then rate of energy generation, Qgen = g (AdX)
and spherical coordinate systems are used. Due to unequal heat transfer rates to and from
In this section, we derive one dimensional, time the element, its internal energy will change. The rate of
dependent generalised heat conduction equation which change of internal energy,
may be obtained in either coordinate system. ∆E ∂T ∂T
= mC = (ρ A dX)C ...(2.1)
Considering one dimensional element as shown ∂t ∂t ∂t
in Fig. 2.1. where, T = F(X, t), temperature of element as
function of time and direction, °C,
g = G(X, t), the function of time and direction,
W/m3,
g(X) k = K(X), the function of direction, W/m.K,
X
C = specific heat of the material (solid having
Q(X) Q(X + dX) only one specific heat), J/kg.K,
Heat flow in Heat flow out
m = mass of the element = (ρ A dX), kg,
A = area of element normal to the heat
0 dX
X
transfer, m2,
ρ = density of the material, kg/m3,
Fig. 2.1. Element for one dimension heat t = time, s,
conduction equation dX = directional thickness of element, m.

24
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 25

Making the energy balance on the element. equation for heat conduction with constant thermal
Net rate of heat gain by conduction + rate of conductivity. It is known as unidirectional governing
energy generation equation for heat conduction.
= The net rate of change of internal energy. If there is no internal heat generation within the
material, the above equation reduces to :
∆E
Qnet + Qgen =
∂t 1 ∂ RS
∂T UV = 1 ∂T
or {Q(X) – Q(X + dX)} + g A dX = ρCA dX
∂T
...(2.2)
A ∂X
A
∂XT W α ∂t ...(2.7)

∂t It is known as unidirectional Fourier equation.

According to Taylor’s series We may write this equation in particular
∂ Q(X) coordinate system by introducing proper area A and
Q(X + dX) = Q(X) + dX directional thickness dX as described below.
∂X
3 Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinate System
∂ 2 Q(X) dX 2 ∂ 3 Q(X) dX
+ + + ..... For rectangular coordinate system,
∂X 2 2! ∂X 3 3!
X = x, directional variable,
If the control volume is considered small enough, A = heat transfer area, does not vary with x
then the higher powers of dX such as dX2, dX3 etc., are direction but remains constant.
negligibly small, therefore, neglected from above Therefore, the eqn. (2.5) reduces to :
equation and it reduces to
RS UV
∂ ∂T g 1 ∂T
Q(X + dX) = Q(X) +
∂ Q(X)
∂X
dX ...(2.3) ∂x ∂xT W+ =
k α ∂t
...(2.8)

It is one dimensional time dependent heat

Substituting this equation in eqn. (2.2), we get conduction equation in rectangular coordinate system.
∂Q(X) ∂T It is used for the analysis of plane wall (slab), with and
– dX + g A dX = ρ C A dX ...(2.4)
∂X ∂t without heat generation for one dimensional steady state
as well as in transient heat conduction.
∂T
Substituting Q(X) = – kA
∂X Cylindrical Coordinate System

Then, –
∂ RS− kA ∂T UV dX + g A dX For cylindrical coordinate system,
∂X T ∂X W X = r, directional variable,
A = heat transfer area, varies with radius;
∂T = 2πrL, for the cylinder element of radius
= ρ C A dX
∂t r and length L.
Rearranging above, we get Using in the eqn. (2.5), we get
1 ∂ RSkA ∂T UV + g = ρ C ∂T 1 ∂ RSr ∂T UV + g = 1 ∂T
A ∂X T ∂X W ∂t
...(2.5) r ∂r T ∂r W k α ∂t ...(2.9)

It is general one dimensional time dependent It is one dimensional time dependent heat
differential heat conduction equation with heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinate system.
generation and directional dependent k. Spherical Coordinate System
If the conducting material is isotropic, its thermal For spherical coordinate system :
conductivity is independent of direction, it is treated as X = r, directional variable
constant quantity, then
A = heat transfer area varies with radius
1 ∂ RSA ∂T UV + g = ρ C ∂T = 1 ∂T = 4πr2, for the spherical element of radius r.
A ∂X T ∂X W k k ∂t α ∂t ...(2.6)
Using in the eqn. (2.5), we get
k 1 ∂ RS
r2
∂T
+
UV
g
=
1 ∂T
...(2.10)
where,
ρC
= α is the thermal diffusivity, a property of
r 2
∂r T ∂r W
k α ∂t
material. It is one dimensional time dependent heat
The above eqn. (2.6) is in general coordinate conduction equation in spherical coordinate system.
system. It is one dimensional time dependent differential
 26 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

In compact form, d
Xn
RS
dT UV = 0 ...(2.17)
1 ∂ RS
Xn
∂T g 1 ∂T
+ =
UV ...(2.11)
dX T
dx W
Xn ∂X T ∂X k α ∂t W In cartesian coordinate,
where, n = 0 and X = x for cartesian coordinate system,
d dT RS UV = 0
n = 1 and X = r for cylindrical coordinate system,
n = 2 and X = r for cylindrical coordinate system.
dx dx T W ...(2.18)

In cylindrical coordinate,
Steady State Conditions
For steady state heat conduction, the temperature
d
r
dTRS UV = 0 ...(2.19)
at each point within the solid does not vary with time,
dr dr T W
but it decreases in direction of heat flow (steady means In spherical coordinate,
no change with time). d
r2
dTRS
=0
UV ...(2.20)
Hence on right hand side of eqns. (2.6) to (2.11) dr dr T W
∂T
= 0 and T = f(X) only
∂t 2.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
Then the one dimensional governing eqn. (2.11) EQUATION
reduces to
The eqn. (2.6) is the generalized one dimensional time
1 d RSX n dT UV
g
+ =0 ...(2.12) dependent heat conduction equation. By similar
Xn dX T dX W
k approach, the above equation can be extended in the
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation. three dimensions.
It can also be written as : 2.2.1. For the Cartesian Coordinates
1 d
A
RS
dT
+
g
=0
UV ...(2.13)
Consider a differential volume element with thicknesses
A dX T
dX k W dx, dy and dz in x, y and z directions, respectively. The
rate of incoming and outgoing energy by conduction in
where area A is constant for plane wall but it is variable
respective direction is as shown in Fig. 2.2.
for cylinder and sphere.
The volume of the element V = dx dy dz
In cartesian coordinate,
Net rate of heat conduction into the element in x,
d dT g FG IJ y and z directions
dx dx
+
k
=0H K ...(2.14) Qnet = Qx + Qy + Qz – Qx + dx – Qy + dy – Qz + dz
...(i)
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation in
the cartesian coordinate. If the heat is generated into the element at the
rate of g(W/m3 ), then volumetric heat generation rate.
In cylindrical coordinate, Qgen = g dx dy dz ...(ii)
1 d
r
RS
dT g
+ =0
UV ...(2.15)
The rate of change of internal energy of the
r dr drT k W differential volume

It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation in ∆E ∂T ∂T

= mC = (ρ dx dy dz) C
the cylindrical coordinate. ∂t ∂t ∂t
...(iii)
In spherical coordinate,
Making the energy balance on the element by
1 d
r2
RS
dT g
+ =0
UV ...(2.16)
using quantities from eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii)
2
r dr T
dr k W Net rate of heat gain by conduction + rate of
It is known as unidirectional Poisson equation in energy generation in the element
the spherical coordinate. = The net rate of change of internal energy
If the heat is not generated within the solid [Qx + Qy + Qz – Qx + dx – Qy + dy – Qz + dz] + g dx dy dz
then eqn. (2.12) is reduced to unidirectional Laplace ∂T
equation, =ρC dx dy dz ...(iv)
∂t
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 27

Using Taylor’s series approximation and ρ = density of the material, kg/m3,

rearranging, we get t = time, s
∂ dx, dy, dz = thicknesses of element in x, y and z
∂
– {Qx dx} – {Qy dy} directions, respectively, m
∂x ∂y
kx, ky, kz = thermal conductivities in x, y, z
∂ directions, respectively, W/m.K.
– {Qz dz} + g dx dy dz g = heat generation rate per unit
∂z
volume, W/m3.
∂T
=ρC dx dy dz ...(2.21) The above eqn. (2.22) is three dimensional
∂t differential equation for unsteady state heat
where the heat conduction quantities in each direction conduction for anisotropic material.
are shown in Fig. 2.2. 1. If the thermal conductivity of the material is
Qy + dy constant in all directions, i.e., for isotropic material,
kx = ky = kz = k (constant value of thermal
Qz
y conductivity)
E
Eqn. (2.22) reduces to,
F
A ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T g 1 ∂T
B + 2 + 2 + = ...(2.23)
dy ∂x 2
∂y ∂z k α ∂t
Qgen Qx + dx
Qx k
= g dx dy dz where, α = = Thermal diffusivity of the material.
H G ρC
dz The eqn. (2.23) is the three dimensional diff-
D C
Qz + dz dx erential equation for the transient heat conduction with
x
constant thermal conductivity. It is also known as
z governing equation for heat conduction.
Qy 2. If there is no internal heat generation
Fig. 2.2. Three dimensional element in cartesian coordinate within the material (i.e., g = 0), the governing equation
reduces to the Fourier equation as :
∂T
Qx = – kx dy dz ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T 1 ∂T
∂x + 2 + 2 = ...(2.24)
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z α ∂t
∂T
Qy = – ky dx dz ∂T
∂y 3. For steady state conditions, =0
∂t
∂T The eqn. (2.23) becomes
Qz = – kz dx dy
∂z
∂2T ∂2T ∂2T g
Substituting in eqn. (2.21) and rearranging, 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ =0 ...(2.25)
we get ∂x ∂y ∂z k

∂RS ∂T ∂ UV ∂T RS UV + ∂ RSk ∂T UV + g The eqn. (2.25) is the three dimensional diff-

W ∂z T W
+
∂x T
kx
∂x ∂y W
ky
∂y T z
∂z
erential equation for steady state heat conduction with
constant thermal conductivity. It is also called the
∂T Poisson equation.
=ρC ...(2.22)
∂t 4. If the solid has no heat generation,
It is three dimensional time dependent, g=0
differential heat conduction equation with heat
The eqn. (2.25) reduces to
generation and direction dependent k.
The functional relations for used parameter are : ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T
+ 2 + 2 =0 ...(2.26)
T = A(x, y, z, t) ∂x 2 ∂y ∂z
g = B(x, y, z, t) The eqn. (2.26) is the three dimensional diff-
k = D(x, y, z) erential equation for steady state heat conduction
where A, B, D are some functions, and without heat generation, with constant thermal
C = specific heat of the material, J/kg.K conductivity. It is also known as Laplace equation.
 28 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

2.2.2. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in and heat conduction rate into the element in z direction
Cylindrical Coordinates i.e., r – θ plane
Consider a cylindrical differential volume element of ∂T
Qz = – k (rdθ dr) ...(iii)
isotropic material (k, is constant in all directions). Its ∂z
thicknesses are dr, rdθ, and dz in r, θ and z directions, Net rate of heat conduction out the element in r,
respectively as shown in Fig. 2.3. θ and z directions, respectively.

z
Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q z + dz ...(iv)
Using Taylor’s series approximation
r
dz dr ∂
rdq Q r + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr ...(v)
∂r
∂
Q θ + dθ = Qθ + (Qθ) rdθ ...(vi)
z r∂θ
∂
and Q z + dz = Qz + (Qz) dz ...(vii)
y ∂z
dq The net rate of heat conduction into the element
in r, θ and z directions
q Qnet = (Qr + Qθ + Qz)
x
– ( Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q z + dz )
Qz + dz Using eqns. (v), (vi) and (vii), we get
Volume
Qnet = –
RS ∂ (Q ) dr + ∂ (Q ) rdθ + ∂ (Q ) dzUV
T ∂r W
element
r θ z
r∂θ ∂z

Qr ...(2.28)
Qq + dq Using eqns. (i), (ii), (iii), we get
∂ FG∂T IJ
g(r, q, z) =
∂r
kr
H∂r
dr dθ dz
K
∂ FG
∂T IJ
+
r∂θ
k
H
r∂θ
rdθ dr dz
K
Qq ∂ ∂T FG IJ
Qr + dr
∂z
k+
∂z H
dz rdθ dr
K
For an isotropic material k = constant, then
Qz
LM 1 ∂ FG r ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ OP dr rdθ dz
Fig. 2.3. Differential element for cylindrical
coordinate system
Qnet = k
N r ∂r H ∂r K r∂θ H r∂θ K ∂z H ∂z K Q
...(2.29)
The volume of elements V = rdθ dr dz ...(2.27)
If the heat is generated into the element at the
Heat conduction rate into the element in r rate of g(W/m3), then volumetric heat generation rate :
direction i.e., θ – z plane Qgen = g V = g (dr rdθ dz) ...(2.30)
∂T Due to these heat transfer rates into the element,
Qr = – k (rdθ dz) ...(i)
∂r the internal energy of the element may change. The rate
of change of internal energy of the differential volume
Heat conduction rate into the element in θ
element is :
direction i.e., r – z plane
∆E ∂T ∂T
∂T = mC = (ρ dr rdθ dz) C
Qθ = – k (dr dz) ...(ii) ∂t ∂t ∂t
r∂θ ...(2.31)
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 29

Making the energy balance on the differential z

element :
Net rate of heat gain by conduction + Rate of
energy generation dr
= Net rate of change of internal energy df
r q
Using the quantities from eqns. (2.29), (2.30) and q
rdq
sin
r
(2.31) respectively, we get dq

LM 1 ∂ FG r ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ + ∂ FG ∂T IJ OP + g
k
N r ∂r H ∂r K r∂θ H r∂θ K ∂z H ∂z K Q
∂T
= ρC ...(2.32) y
∂t df
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T g
1 ρC ∂T f
or + + 2 + 2 + =
∂r 2 r ∂ r ∂θ
r 2
∂z k k ∂t
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T 2
1 2
∂ T ∂ T g 1 ∂T x
or + + 2 + 2 + =
∂r 2 r ∂ r ∂θ
r 2
∂z k α ∂t
...(2.33) Qq + dq Qr + dr
It is the general heat conduction equation in
cylindrical coordinates.
Qf + df
Note: The eqn. (2.33) can also be obtained by transfor-
mation from rectangular coordinates using
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and z = z

The steady state one dimensional heat conduction Qf

equation in radial direction takes the form
∂ 2 T 1 ∂T g
+ + =0 Qq
∂r 2 r ∂ r k Qr

1 ∂ FG ∂T IJ
g Fig. 2.4. Volume element for spherical coordinate system
or
r ∂r H
r
∂r
+ K
k
=0
The rate of heat conduction into the element in θ
It is the Poisson equation derived earlier by direction, i.e., r – φ plane ;
eqn. (2.15). If no heat is generated within the body, then
above equation is reduced to : ∂T
Qθ = – k (dr × r sin θ dφ) ...(ii)
∂ FG ∂T IJ r∂θ
∂r H
r
∂r K
=0 The rate of heat conduction into the element in φ
direction, i.e., r – θ plane ;
2.2.3. Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in
Spherical Coordinates ∂T
Qφ = – k (dr × rdθ) ...(iii)
Consider a three dimensional spherical differential r sin θ dφ
element of isotropic material. The sides of the element The net rate of heat conduction out the element
are dr, rdθ and r sin θ dφ in r, θ and φ directions, from r, θ and φ directions, respectively.
respectively.
Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q φ + dφ ...(iv)
Volume of element,
V = dr × rdθ × r sin θ dφ Using Taylor’s series approximation :
The rate of heat conduction into the element in r ∂
Q r + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr ...(v)
direction, i.e., θ – φ plane ; ∂r
∂T ∂
Qr = – k (rdθ × r sin θ dφ) ...(i) Q θ + dθ = Qθ + (Qθ) rdθ ...(vi)
∂r r∂θ
 30 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

∂ ∆E ∂T ∂T
Q φ + dφ = Qφ + (Qφ) r sin θ dφ = mC = ρ (dr rdθ r sin θ dφ) C
r sin θ dφ ∂t ∂r ∂t
...(vii) ∂T
= ρC (r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr) ...(2.36)
Net rate of heat conduction into the element in r, ∂t
θ and φ directions : Making the energy balance on the element :
Qnet = (Qr + Qθ + Qφ) Net rate of heat gain by conduction + Rate of
energy generation
– ( Q r + dr + Q θ + dθ + Q φ + dφ )
= Rate of change of internal energy.
Using eqns. (v), (vi) and (vii), we get Using the quantities from eqns. (2.34), (2.35) and
(2.36), respectively :
LM ∂ (Q ) dr + ∂ (Q ) rdθ OP
Qnet = –
MM ∂r ∂ r∂θ
r
P
θ LM 1 ∂ FG r 2 ∂T IJ
1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ OP
MM r ∂r H K H KP
+ sin θ
(Q ) r sin θ dφP
k 2 ∂r 2 ∂θ ∂θ
r sin θ
MN r sin θ dφ
+ φ
PQ FG IJ PP
MM +
1 ∂ ∂T
H K PQ
Using eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii), we have N 2 2
r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ

L∂ R
Q = – M S− k (rdθ × r sin θ dφ)
∂T U
V dr
× r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr + g r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr
net
N ∂r T ∂r W = ρC (r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr)
∂T
∂t
∂ R ∂T U
+
r∂θ T
S − k (dr × r sin θ dφ) V rdθ
r∂θ W
1 ∂ FG
r2
∂T IJ
1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ
or
r 2 ∂r H ∂ r
+
2 K
r sin θ ∂θ
sin θ
∂θ H K
+
∂ RS− k (dr × rdθ) ∂T UV r sin θ dφOP 1 2
∂ T g
r sin θ dφ T r sin θ dφ W PQ +
r sin θ ∂φ 2 k
2 2
+

L ∂ F ∂T IJ dr sin θ dθ dφ
= k M Gr
ρC ∂T 1 ∂T
N ∂r H ∂r K
2
= = ...(2.37)
k ∂t α ∂t
∂ F
G sin θ r∂∂θT IJK r dr dφ rdθ
It is a the general heat conduction equation in

r∂θ H
+ spherical coordinates.
In absence of any heat generation, the steady
+
∂ FG ∂T IJ dr rdθ r sin θ dφ state one dimensional heat conduction equation in r
r sin θ ∂φ H r sin θ ∂φ K direction, the eqn. (2.37) reduces to :
or Qnet = k 1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ = 0
LM 1 ∂ FG r ∂T IJ 1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ 2
r ∂r
r2
∂r H K
N r ∂r H K H K
2
+ 2 sin θ
2
∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ It is a unidirectional Laplace equation, derived
earlier by eqn. (2.20).
1 ∂ ∂T FG IJ OP r
H K PQ
+ 2 sin θ dθ dφ dr
2 2
r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ Note: The eqn. (2.37), the general heat conduction equa-
tion in spherical coordinates can also be transformed from
...(2.34) Cartesian coordinates by using
If heat is generated within the element at the x = r sin θ cos φ
rate of g (W/m3), then the volumetric heat generation
y = r sin θ sin φ
rate :
Qgen = g dr rdθ r sin θ dφ z = r cos θ.
= g r2 sin θ dθ dφ dr ...(2.35)
Due to these heat transfer rates into the element, 2.3. INITIAL AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
the internal energy of the element may change. The rate
of change of internal energy of the element is : To determine temperature distribution in a medium, it
is necessary to solve the general heat conduction
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 31

equation. However, such solution depends on physical T

conditions existing at the boundaries of the medium and
if the situation is time dependent (unsteady), some L
initial conditions are needed.
dT
k
The mathematical expressions of thermal dx x=L
qL
conditions at the boundaries of an object are called qo
boundary conditions. The boundary conditions are –k
dT
several common physical effects, which are simply dx x=0

expressed in mathematical form.

The temperature at any point on the medium at
x
a specified time also depends on the condition of the
medium. The initial condition at the beginning of the Fig. 2.6. Prescribed heat flux boundary conditions
heat conduction process is a mathematical expression Heat flux is given by :
for the temperatue distribution of the medium initially
FG dT IJ
i.e., t = 0.
Since the general heat conduction equation is
qx = – k
H dx K x

second order differential equation in spatial coordinates, Suppose, at x = 0, qx = qo = (the left face)
in any direction at least two thermal conditions are
and at x = L, qx = qL (right face)
needed at the boundary surfaces. Because the equation
is first order in time, only one initial condition must be
where, qo = – k
RS dT UV ...[2.39(a)]
specified. T dx W x =0
Following boundary conditions commonly ap-
peared in heat transfer are discussed below. and qL =–k S
R dT UV ...[2.39(b)]
2.3.1. Prescribed Temperature Boundary Conditions
T dx W x=L

For a plane wall of thickness L, whose left face (x = 0) is If the direction of heat flux at the right face is
maintained at uniform temperature of T1 and right face opposites i.e., towards face, then qL should be considered
at x = L at uniform temperature of T2 as shown in negative.
Fig. 2.5. Then the boundary conditions at two faces are There are two special cases of prescribed heat flux
written as : boundary condition.

T
(i) Insulated boundary
In some engineering applications, the system
boundary is insulated in order to minimise the heat loss
L
T(0, t) = T1
from the system. Although this insulation is not perfect,
T2 = T(L, t)
but in thermal analysis, the heat loss is assumed
Q negligible from the boundary with thermal insulation.
FG dT IJ
x
i.e., qx = 0 = – k
H dx K x
...(2.40)

Fig. 2.5. Prescribed temperature boundary conditions

At x = 0, t = 0 T(x, t) = T1 ...[2.38(a)]
and x = L, t = 0 T(x, t) = T2 ...[2.38(b)]
2.3.2. Prescribed Heat Flux Boundary Conditions qx = 0 = 0
Sometimes, the rate of heat transfer to a boundary is x
0
constant. For example, an electrically heated surface, L
the rate of heat supply (capacity of heater) is constant.
Such conditions are called prescribed heat flux boundary
condition as illustrated in Fig. 2.6. Fig. 2.7. Plan wall with left face insulated
 32 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

FG dT IJ T
or
H dx K x
=0

FG dT IJ
T¥ 1
T¥ 2
L
For left face
H dx K x=0
=0 h1 h2

FG dT IJ
For right face
H dx K x=L
=0 Q

x
(ii) Thermal symmetry
Fig. 2.9. Plane wall exposed to convection
In many situations, the boundary conditions im- boundaries at both sides
posed on two sides of plane wall, or solid cylinder or
solid sphere are identical, then heat flow from the centre At the right surface, i.e., x = L
to two sides is also identical and centre of the plane is RS dT UV
treated as plane of symmetry. This plane is equivalent
to insulated boundary.
–k
T dx W x=L
= h2 (Tx=L – T∞2) ...(2.43)

These are the convection boundary conditions at

Centre plane of solid cylinder or sphere as shown the faces of the plane wall. Similarly the boundary con-
in Fig. 2.8 ditions can be written for cylinders and spheres.

2.3.4. Radiation Boundary Condition

r
In some practical cases, for example, in space and
cryogenic applications, the outer surface is surrounded
by evacuated space in order to minimize conduction and
convection heat transfer. In such cases, only radiation
Fig. 2.8. A solid cylinder exposed to convection heat transfer can take place from surface and
environment at its outer surface
surrondings and boundary conditions are specified as :
FG dT IJ Heat conduction to surface = radiation heat
H dr K r=0
=0 ...[2.41(a)] transfer from the surface to surrounding

So for centre plane of plane wall of thickness L ; T

FG dT IJ Radiation Conduction e2

H dr K x = L /2
=0 ...[2.41(b)]
e1 T¥2

T¥1
2.3.3. Convection Boundary Conditions : Surface Energy Conduction Radiation
Balance O
L
x
In most practical applications, the heat dissipates by
convection with a known value of heat transfer coeffi-
Fig. 2.10. Radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces
cient h at one or both boundary surfaces. The energy
balance at any boundary surface can be written as : For one dimensional heat conduction in a plane
Convection flux from the fluid to the surface wall of thickness L and thermal conductivity k, the
radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces can be
= Heat flux conducted into the body
expressed as shown in Fig. 2.10.
from the surface
At left surface
For one dimensional heat transfer in x direction
of a plane wall of thickness L, the convection boundary  dT 
–k  dx  4 4
conditions on both surfaces (Fig. 2.9 ) can be expressed  x = 0 = σε1(T ∞ 1 – T x = 0) …[2.44(a)]
as :
At left surface, i.e., x = 0 At right surface

RS dT UV  dT 
= σε2(T4x = L – T4∞ 2) …[2.44(b)]
h1(T∞1 – Tx=0) = – k
T dx W x =0
...(2.42) –k  
 dx x = L
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 33

Where ε1 and ε2 are the emissivities of left and 3. Uniform heat generation rate in the plate.
right boundary surfaces, respectively. σ = 5.67 × 10–8
W/m2.K4 is the Stefan Bolzmann constant. T

Note: The temperature in radiation calculations must

be used in kelvin (K) (not in °C).
T1 = 180°C k
2.3.5. Interface Boundary Condition g0
T2 = 120°C
When one or more layers in perfect contact made a com-
Q
posite wall, then both body will have same temperature
L = 25 mm
at interface, because flow rate will be same through both
layers. (Fig. 2.11)
FG dT IJ FG dT IJ x
– kA
H dx K A
= – kB
H dx K B Fig. 2.12. Schematic for example 2.1
and TA(x) = TB(x) ...(2.45) The governing one dimensional steady state heat
conduction equation with heat generation in cartesian
coordinates
d dT FG IJ
g ( x)
kA
dx dx
+H Kk
=0
Assuming uniform heat generation at g0 W/m3,
kB
then
d dT FG IJ
g
qA qB
dx dx H K
=– 0
k
Subjected to boundary conditions as shown in
L1 L2 Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.11. Boundary condition at interface of two layers At left face i.e., x = 0, T = T1 = 180°C
These are some boundary conditions at the faces At right face i.e., x = L = 0.025 m, T = T2 = 120°C
of the plane wall, these boundary conditions can also be where T = f(x) only.
written on surfaces of cylinders and spheres.
Example 2.2. Develop the mathematical formulation
The boundary conditions explained above do not of one dimensional steady state heat conduction for
cover all possible boundary conditions, that may be hollow cylinder with constant thermal conductivity k.
imposed on the surfaces. However, in other situations, The heat is supplied into the cylinder at inner surface at
the boundary conditions can be designed by applying r = r1 at a rate of q W/m2 and heat is dissipated by
the energy balance at the surface that is : convection from the surface at r = r2 into an ambient at
Rate of heat entering in = Rate of heat going out. temperature T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h.
Example 2.1. The temperatures on two sides of a 25 mm Solution
thick steel plate with constant thermal conductivity Given :
having uniform heat generation are at 180°C and 120°C. 1. Steady state heat conduction in radial direction.
Develop a mathematical formulation of one dimensional 2. Constant properties.
steady state heat conduction in the plate.
3. No energy generation.
Solution
Given : A steel plate with constant thermal con-
ductivity and uniform heat generation
L = 25 mm = 0.025 m
r1
T1 = 180°C, T2 = 120°C
r2
Mathematical Formulation :
Recognition of Problem : hT
¥
q
1. Constant thermal conductivity.
2. Specified temperatures at two faces of plate. Fig. 2.13. Schematic for example 2.2
 34 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Mathematical Formulation : T

The governing heat conduction equation in steady

state without heat generation for a cylinder Air

RS UV = 0
– bx
Insulation g(x) = g0 e
d dT h
dr
r
T
dr W k = Const.
T¥
Subjected to boundary conditions as shown in
Fig. 2.13 L

F dT IJ
x

–k G
At r = r1,
H dr K r = r1
=q Fig. 2.14. Schematic for example 2.3
(i) For insulated surface, at x = 0

FG dT IJ FG dT IJ
and At r = r2, –k
H dr K r = r2
= h(Tr = r2 − T∞ ) H dx K x =0
=0

(ii) For convection heat transfer from right face

where T = F(r).
FG dT IJ
Example 2.3. The volumetric heat generation in a plane –k H dx K x=L
= h (Tx=L – T∞).
wall is given by
Example 2.4. In a cylindrical fuel element for a gas
g(x) = g0 e–βx (W/m3)
cooled nuclear reactor, the heat generation rate within
where g0 and β are constants. The left face of the wall is the fuel element can be approximated as :
insulated, while right face dissipates heat by convection
into an ambient air at T∞. Formulate the problem
LM F r I 2 OP
MN1 − GH r JK
mathematically.
Solution.
g(r) = g0
o PQ W/m 3

Given : For a plane wall with volumetric heat

where ro is outer radius of fuel element and g0 is a
generation as,
constant. The outer surface is maintained at a uniform
g(x) = g0 e–βx temperature To.
1. Boundary conditions. Develop a mathematical formulation assuming
one dimensional heat flow.
2. Constant thermal conductivity of wall.
Solution
Mathematical Formulation :
Given :
Recognition of Problem : (i) A cylindrical fuel element with heat
1. Heat is generation as a function of x in the generation
wall.
LM F r I 2 OP
MN1 − GH r JK
2. No time dependent quantity is given.
3. Boundary conditions at two faces.
g(r) = g0
o PQ W/m
3

4. No information regarding status of thermal (ii) Outer surface at uniform temperature To.
conductivity thus assuming it as constant. These Mathematical Formulation :
conditions indicate for steady state heat conduction with
heat generation in the wall. The differential equation Recognition of Problem :
for steady state heat conduction in x direction is : (i) Heat is generated in the fuel element.
d dTFG IJ
g ( x) (ii) No time dependent quantity is given.
dx dxH K
+
k
=0 (iii) The outer surface of fuel element is
maintained at uniform temperature To.
d dT FG IJ g0 e −βx (iv) Heat conduction in one dimension.
or
dx dx H K =–
k These conditions indicate for one dimensional
Applying boundary conditions. steady state heat conduction with heat generation.
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 35

Its governing equation in radial direction is given by 3. Uniform internal heat generation at the rate
eqn. (2.15) of g0 W/m3.
1 d FG
dT IJ
g ( r) Analysis :
r dr
r
H
dr
+
k K =0
(a) Since the temperature distribution is given
as :
d FG
dT IJ r LM F I OP2
T(x) = 900 – 300x – 50x2
MN GH JK PQ
g
or
dr
r
drH K
= – 0 r 1−
k ro and temperature gradient
dT
Subjected to boundary conditions = – 300 – 100x (°C/m or K/m)
dx
(i) At r = ro, T = To
(i) Using boundary condition of prescribed heat
(ii) For solid rod in steady state, the temperature flux entering the left face of the wall :
gradient at centre is always zero due to symmetry
RS dT UV
i.e., at r = 0,
dT
dr
=0
qx = 0 = – k
T dx W x =0

= – k (– 300 – 100 x)x = 0

where T = f(r).
or qx = 0 = – (40 W/m.K) × (– 300 K/m)
Example 2.5. The temperature distribution across a
wall, 1 m thick at a certain instant of time is given as : = 12,000 W/m2
T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x2 The heat entering the left face

where T is in degree Celsius and x in metres. = A qx=0 = 10 × 12,000

The uniform heat generation of 1000 W/m3 is = 1,20,000 W = 120 kW. Ans.
present in wall of area 10 m2 having the properties (ii) Similarly using temperature gradient, the
ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K and C = 4 kJ/kg.K heat flux at the right face :
(a) Determine the rate of heat transfer entering
RS dT UV
the wall (x = 0) and leaving the wall (x = 1 m).
(b) Determine the rate of change of internal energy
qx = L = – k
T dx W x=L

of the wall. = – k (– 300 – 100 x)x = L

(c) Determine the time rate of temperature change or qx = L = – 40 × (– 300 – 100 × 1)
at x = 0, 0.5 m. = 16,000 W/m2
Solution The heat leaving the right face
Given : Temperature distribution across a wall = A qx = L = 1,60,000 W = 160 kW. Ans.
T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x2 (b) The rate of change of internal energy
g0 = 1000 W/m3, A = 10 m2,
= Rate of heat entering the left face
L = 1 m,
ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K, + Rate of heat generation
C = 4 kJ/kg = 4000 J/kg K – Rate of heat leaving right face
To find : = Qx = 0 + g0 A L – Qx = L
(a) (i) The rate of heat transfer at left face (x = 0)
= 120 kW + 1(kW/m3) × 10(m2)
(ii) The rate of heat transfer at right face
(x = L). × 1(m) – 160 kW = – 30 kW. Ans.
(b) The rate of change of internal energy. (c) The rate of change of temperature in the wall
(c) The time rate of temperature change at x = 0 can be calculated by using eqn. (2.8)
and 0.5 m. RS UV
∂ ∂T g
+ 0 =
1 ∂T
Assumptions : T W
∂x ∂x k α ∂t
1. One dimensional conduction in x direction. dT d dT LM RS UV
g
+ 0
OP
2. Medium with constant properties. or
dt
=α
dx dx N T W
k Q
 36 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

k 40 W/mK (ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length,

where, α= =
ρC 1600(kg/m 3 ) × 4000 (J/kg.K) (iii) Rate of change of temperature at

= 6.25 × 10–6 m2/s r = r1 and r = r2.

Assumptions :
d g 1000
and {– 300 – 100x} + 0 = (– 100) + (i) No heat generation within the element.
dx k 40
2 (ii) Heat flow in radial direction only.
= – 75°C/m
Hence, (iii) Constant properties.
Analysis :
dT
= 6.25 × 10–6 × (– 75) (i) For given temperature distribution in cylinder,
dt
the temperature gradient at any radius r :
= – 4.6875 × 10–4°C/s. Ans.
The change of temperature is independent of dT
= 1000 – 10,000 r
position. Ans. dr
Example 2.6. At a certain time, the temperature distri- Rate of heat transfer at inside surface (r = r1)
bution in a long cylindrical tube with an inner radius of
250 mm and outside radius of 400 mm is given by FG dT IJ
T(r) = 750 + 1000 r – 5000 r2 (°C)
Q r = r1 = – kA
H dr K r =r1

where r in metres. Thermal conductivity and thermal = – k 2π r1 L 1000 − 10,000 r r = r1

diffusivity of the tube material are 58 W/m.K and
0.004 m2/h, respectively. Calculate :
FG Q IJ
(i) Rate of heat flow at inside and outside surfaces
per unit length,
or
H LK r = r1
= – 58 × 2π × 0.25

(ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length, and × 1000 − 10000 × 0.25
(iii) Rate of change of temperature at inner and = 13.66 × 104 W/m. Ans.
outer surfaces.
(in radial outward direction)
Solution Rate of heat flow at outer surface (r = r2) :
Given : Temperature distribution in hollow
cylinder : FG dT IJ
T(r) = 750 + 1000 r – 5000 r2 (°C)
Q r = r2 = – kA
H dr K r =r2

k = 58 W/m.K,
= – k 2π r2 L 1000 − 10,000 × r r = r2
α = 0.004 m2/h
r1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m, FG Q IJ
r2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
or H LK r = r2
= – 58 × 2π × 0.4

× [1000 – 10000 × 0.4]

= 4.37 × 105 W/m. Ans.
(in radial outward direction)
r1
r2 (ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length

FG Q IJ FG Q IJ
Fig. 2.15. Schematic of cylindrical tube
= H LK r = r1
– H LK r = r2

To find : = 13.66 × 104 – 4.37 × 105

(i) Rate of heat flow per metre length at = – 3.0 × 105 W/m. Ans.
r = r1 and r = r2. (It is decrease rate of internal energy)
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 37

(iii) Rate of change of temperature at inner and Analysis : The one dimensional governing heat
outer surfaces conduction equation without heat generation in
One dimensional Fourier equation in radial cartesian coordinate
coordinate FG IJ
∂ ∂T 1 ∂T ρC ∂T
1 d FGdT 1 dT IJ ∂x ∂xH K
=
α ∂t
=
k ∂t
r dr
r
Hdr
=
α dt K The temperature gradient from temperature
dT α d dT FG IJ distribution
or
dt
=
r dr
r
dr H K ∂T d T
= = 12x + 10
For given temperature distribution ∂x dx

FG IJ FG IJ = ∂ T = d T = 12
∂ ∂T 2 2
d
r
H
dT
=
d
K
[1000 r – 10,000 r2] H K ∂x dx
∂x ∂x 2 2
dr dr dr
Using above equation with the numerical values
= 1000 – 20,000 r 580 × 420 ∂T
and at inner surface 12 = ×
300 ∂t
FG dT IJ α ∂T d T
H dt K r = r1
=
r1
[1000 – 20,000 r1] or
∂t
=
dt
= 0.147 °C/s. Ans.
The heat flux is given by
0.004
= [1000 – 20,000 × 0.25] dT( x)
0.25 qx = – k
dx
= – 64°C/h. (decrease) Ans.
dT
At outer surface Using , we get
dx
FG dT IJ 0.004
qx = – k (12x + 10)
H dt K r = r2
=
0.4
[1000 – 20,000 × 0.4] At left face, x = 0
qx = 0 = – 300 × (12 × 0 + 10)
= – 70°C/h. (decrease) Ans.
= – 3000 W/m2. Ans.
Example 2.7. The temperature distribution in a plate of
At the right face,
thickness 20 mm is given by T(°C) = 6x2 + 10x + 4. Assume
no heat generation in the plate, calculate heat flux on x = L = 0.02 m
two sides of the plate. Also calculate rate of temperature qx = L = – 300 × (12 × 0.02 + 10)
change with respect to time, if k = 300 W/m.K,
= – 3072 W/m2. Ans.
ρ = 580 kg/m3 and C = 420 J/kg.K.
Solution Example 2.8. A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod of 50 mm
diameter has uniform heat generation of 5 × 107 W/m3.
Given : Temperature distribution in the plate as : Under steady state conditions, the temperature
T(x) = 6x2 + 10x + 4 (°C) distribution in the rod is given by
L = 20 mm = 0.02 m T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2,
k = 300 W/m.K where T in deg. celsius and r in metres. The fuel rod
ρ = 580 kg/m3 properties are :

C = 420 J/kg.K. k = 30 W/m.K, ρ = 1100 kg/m3

To find : (i) Heat flux on two sides of the plate and C = 800 J/kg . K

dT (a) What is the rate of heat transfer per unit length

(ii) , rate of temperature change with of rod at its centre and outer surface?
dt
time. (b) If reactor power is suddenly increased to
Assumption : No heat generation in the plate. 2 × 10 8 W/m 3 , what is the initial time rate of
temperature change at its centre and its outer surface?
 38 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Solution At outer surface of the rod (ro = 0.025 m)

Given : A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod with uniform
Q
heat generation.  
 L r = ro = – 30 × 2π × [0.025
g0 = 5 × 107 W/m3,
× (– 8.4 × 105 × 0.025)]
ro = 25 mm = 0.025 m
= 98960.2 W/m. Ans.
The temperature distribution in the rod
(ii) For initial rate of cooling, using eqn (2.9) with
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2
uniform volumetric heat generation g0,
and properties
1 ∂  ∂T  g 0 1 ∂T ρC ∂T
k = 30 W/m.K, r + = =
r ∂r  ∂r  k α ∂t k ∂t
ρ = 1100 kg/m3,
∂T k  1 ∂  ∂T  g0 
C = 800 J/kg.K or = r +
∂t ρC  r ∂r  ∂r  k 
To find :
(i) Rate of heat transfer per unit length of rod at k  ∂2 T 1 ∂T g0 
its centre and outer surface. =  2 + + 
ρC  ∂r r ∂r k
(ii) Initial rate of temperature change at centre Using eqn. (i) and (ii) then
and outer surface of the rod, when reactor power is
suddenly raised to 2 × 10 8 W/m3.. ∂T dT 30
= =
Assumptions : ∂t dt 1100 × 800
1. Heat generation rate is uniform throughout
 1 2 × 108 
the nuclear rod. ×  − 8.4 × 105 + ( − 8.4 × 105 r ) + 
 r 30 
2. Constant properties.
At centre (r = 0)
Analysis : The temperature distribution in the
nuclear fuel rod is given by  dT 
  = 3.409 × 10–5
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2  dt t = 0
Its first order derivative with respect to r is :
 5 2 × 108 
×  − 8.4 × 10 +  = 198.63°C/s. Ans.
dT  30 
= – 8.4 × 105 r …(i)
dr At outer surface (ro = 0.025 m)
and second order derivative w.r.t. r is :  dT 
  = 3.409 × 10–5
 dt t = 0
d2T
= – 8.4 × 105 …(ii)
dr 2  5 −5 2 × 108 
×  − 8.4 × 10 − 8.4 × 10 + 
(i) The heat transfer rate per unit length in the  30 
rod is : = 170°C/s. Ans.

Q  dT  Example 2.9. A long conducting rod of diameter D and

= – k 2π  r  electrical resistance per unit length Re, is initially in
L  dr r
thermal equilibrium with the ambient air and its
At centre of the rod (r = 0) surroundings. The equilibrium is disturbed, when an
electric current I is passed through the rod. Develop an
Q expression that could be used to compute the variation
  = – 30 × 2π × [0 × (– 8.4 × 105 × 0)] of rod temperature during passage of electric current.
 L r = 0
Consider all possible types of heat transfer.
= 0. Ans. (N.M.U., May 2000)
 CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 39

Solution 2.4. SUMMARY

Considering a rod exposed to convection and radiation
1. The generalised one dimensional heat conduction
environment. The energy transfers are :
equation for isotropic material can be expressed
Qg = energy generation rate as :
= (current)2 × (resistance per metre) × length
of the conductor 1 ∂
A
RS
∂T
+
g
=
ρC ∂T UV
= I2Re.L, A ∂X T
∂X k k ∂t W
2. The generalised one dimensional heat conduction
∆E equation in cartesian coordinate system :
= rate of change of internal energy in the rod
dt
∂ ∂T RS UVg
+ =
1 ∂T
= mass × specific heat × rate of temperature
change with time
∂x ∂x T W k α ∂t
3. The generalised one dimensional heat conduction
dT πD 2 L F I dT equation in cylindrical coordinate system :
= ρVC
dt
=ρC
4 GH JK dt 1 ∂ ∂T RS g
+ =
1 ∂TUV
Qout = energy discharge rate by convection and
r ∂r
r
∂r T k α ∂t W
radiation : 4. The generalised one dimensional heat conduction
equation in spherical coordinate system :
= h (πDL) (T – T∞) + εσ(πDL) (T4 – T4∞ )
At anytime, the energy balance on the control
1 ∂
r2
∂T RS
+
g 1 ∂T UV
volume r 2
∂r ∂r T k
=
α ∂t W
5. For steady state conditions :
∆E ∂T
Qg – Qout = =0
dt ∂t
and the generalised differential equation reduces
Control volume to Poisson equation
1 ∂
δA
∂T
+
g RS
=0
UV
Qg A ∂X ∂X k T W
DE
D
6. For steady state and without heat generation
dt (one dimensional Laplace equation) :
∂
A
∂TRS UV = 0.
T W
T¥
Qout
Air h ∂X ∂X
The three dimensional governing heat conduction
equation for isotropic materials in cartesian coordinate
Fig. 2.16. Schematic for example 2.9
system is :
or I2ReL – h(πDL)(T – T∞) – εσ(πDL) (T4 – T∞4) ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T g 1 ∂T
FG
π 2 dTIJ 2
∂x ∂y
+
∂z 2
+ 2
+ =
k α ∂t
= ρC
4 H
D L
dt K Cylindrical coordinate system
or I Re – πDh(T – T∞) – εσπD(T4 – T∞4)
2
∂T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T ∂T g 1 ∂T
Fπ I
= ρC GH D JK
2 dT
+ + + + =
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
4 dt Spherical coordinate system

or
dT
1 ∂ FG
r2
∂T IJ 1 ∂ ∂T RS UV
dt
r 2 ∂r H ∂r K+
2
r sin θ ∂θ
sin θ
∂θ T W
4{I 2 R e − πDh(T − T∞ ) − εσπD(T 4 − T∞ 4 )} 1 2
∂ T g 1 ∂T
= . Ans. + + =
ρC(πD 2 ) r sin θ ∂φ2 k α ∂t
2 2
 40 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

REVIEW QUESTIONS PROBLEMS

1. Derive one dimensional time dependent heat 1. The thermal conductivity k, the density ρ, and the
conduction equation with internal heat generation specific heat C of steel are 61 W/m.K, 7865 kg/m3, and
and variable thermal conductivity in cartesian 0.46 kJ/kg.K, respectively. Calculate the thermal
coordinate system. diffusivity of the material. [Ans. 1.686 × 10–5 m2/s]
2. Write an energy balance for a differential volume 2. The thermal conductivity k, the density ρ,
element in r direction, derive one dimensional time and specific heat C of an aluminium plate are
dependent heat conduction equation with internal 160 W/m.K, 2790 kg/m3 and 0.88 kJ/kg.K respectively.
heat generation and constant thermal conductivity. Calculate the thermal diffusivity of the material.

3. Simplify the three dimensional heat conduction [Ans. 6.516 × 10–5 m2/s]
equation in cartesian coordinates to obtain one 3. Consider a plate fuel element of thickness L for a
dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat water cooled nuclear reactor. The energy is generated
generation and constant thermal conductivity. in the fuel element at the rate of g = g0 cos (x) W/m3.
The thermal conductivity of the material is constant.
4. Derive an expression for one dimensional time
Write steady state heat conduction equation
dependent heat conduction with internal heat
governing the temperature distribution in the fuel
generation and constant thermal conductivity in
element.
cartesian coordinate system. Reduce it as :
4. A copper bar of radius ro is suddenly heated by
(i) Poisson equation,
passage of an electric current, which generates heat
(ii) Fourier equation, in the rod at the rate of g0 e–αt. The thermal
(iii) Laplace equation. conductivity of the rod varies with radius, k = k(r).
Write the transient heat conduction equation
5. Derive generalized one dimensional heat conduction governing the temperature distribution in the rod.
equation and deduce it for
5. Consider a plate of thickness L. The boundary surface
(i) Cartesian coordinate in x direction, at x = 0 is subjected to forced convection with heat
(ii) Cylindrical coordinate in r variable, transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperat-
ure T∞. The boundary surface at x = L is insulated.
(iii) Spherical coordinate in r variable. Write the boundary conditions for both the surfaces.
6. A plane wall of thickness L is subjected to a heat
flux q0 at its left surface, while its right surface LM Ans. h(T FG dT IJ FG dT IJ OP
dissipates heat by convection with a heat transfer N ∞ − Tx =0 ) = − k
H dx K x =0
and
H dx K x =L
=0
PQ
coefficient h into an ambient at T ∞. Write the
boundary conditions at the two surfaces of the wall. 6. One of surface of a marble slab (k = 2 W/m.K) is
7. A spherical shell is electrically heated at the rate of maintained at 300°C, while other boundary surface
q1 (W/m2) at its inner surface at radius r1, and its is subjected to constant heat flux of 5000 W/m2. Write
outer surface dissipates heat by convection with heat the boundary conditions.
transfer coefficient h into an ambient at T∞. Write
LM Ans. T FG dT IJ OP
boundary conditions at two surfaces of shell.
N x =0 = 300° C and
H dx K x =L
= 2500° C/m
PQ
8. A copper bar of radius r = R, is heated by the passage
of an electric current. It dissipates heat by convection 7. Energy is generated at a constant rate g0 W/m3 in a
from its outer surface with convection coefficient h copper rod of radius ro by passage of an electric
into an ambient at T∞. Write boundary condition for current. The heat dissipation is by convection at
its outer surface. boundary surface at r = ro into an ambient air at
9. A plane wall of thickness L is insulated at its left temperature T∞ with the heat transfer coefficient h.
face, while its right face dissipates heat by convection Develop the mathematical formulation for steady
with convection coefficient h into an ambient at T∞. state conditions.
Write boundary conditions at two faces of the wall.
LM Ans. at r = 0,
dT
= 0 and
OP
10. A long hollow cylinder has its inner radius r1 and
outer radius r2. It is insulated at its inner surface MM
dr
dTFG IJ PP
and its outer surface is maintained at constant
MN
at r = ro , − k
H K
dr r =r
= h (Tr =ro − T∞ )
PQ
temperature Ts. Write boundary conditions. o
CONDUCTION—BASIC EQUATIONS 41

8. A tomato with diameter D and thermal conductivity in order to obtain the temperature distribution as a
k, initially at uniform temperature Ti is suddenly function of position and time.
dropped into boiling water at T∞ with very large
LM 2
Ans. ∂ T + g = 1 ∂T , T
OP
( x, 0) = T0 , T(0, t) = T0
convection coefficient. Develop a mathematical
formulation of the problem for determining the MM ∂x2 k α ∂t PP
MN ∂T FG IJ PP
temperature distribution within the tomato. and − k
∂x x = L H K
= h(Tx = L − T∞ )
Q
LM Ans. T FG dT IJ OP 11. Steam at 200°C flows through a pipe. The inner and
N ( x , 0) = Ti and − k
H dr K r =ro
= h (Tr =r T∞ )
o PQ outer radii of pipe are 8 cm and 8.5 cm, respectively.
The outer surface of the pipe is heavily insulated. If
the convection heat transfer coefficient at the inner
9. A spherical shell has an inside radius r1, an outside surface of the pipe is 65 W/m2.K, express the boundary
radius r2 and thermal conductivity k, the inside conditions at inner and outer surfaces of the pipe.
surface is heated at a rate of q W/m2, while the outside
surface dissipates heat by convection with heat LM  dT 
Ans. at r = r1, – k  
 dr r = r1
= h [T∞ − Tr = r1 ] 
transfer coefficient h into an ambient T∞. Develop MM 

mathematical formulation for determining the
temperature distribution within the body. MN and at r = r2, 
 dT 

 dr r = r2
= 0 


LM FG dT IJ and OP 12. A spherical metal ball of radius ro, initially at 600°C

MM
Ans. at r = r1 ; q = − k
H dr K r = r1 PP
is allowed to cool in an ambient at 38°C. The
heat transfer coefficient on outer surface of the ball

MN F dT IJ = h (T
; − kG − T )P
is 15 W/m2.K and emissivity of outer surface of ball
at r = r2
H dr K r = r2
r = r2 ∞
PQ is 0.6. Thermal conductivity of the ball material is
30 W/m.K. Express initial and boundary conditions
for cooling process of the ball.
10. A long, rectangular copper bar of thickness L is [Ans. Initial condition = T(r, 0) = Ti = 600°C
maintained at a temperature T0 at its lower surface
 dT 
throughout the bar. Suddenly an electric current is Boundary condition at centre   =0
passed through the bar and its upper surface is  dr  (0, t )
exposed to an air stream at T∞, with convection  dT 
coefficient h, while its bottom surface continues to be Boundary condition at outer surface – k   =h
 dr  ( ro , t )
maintained at T0. Obtain differential heat conduction
4 4
equation and write initial and boundary conditions [T( ro ) − T∞ ] + εσ [T(ro ) − T∞ ] ]