Unit 1.

The Structures of Globalization Intensification refers to the expansion,

stretching, and acceleration of these
Lesson 1. What is Globalization?
networks: social media, international
Learning Outcomes: groups of non-governmental
organizations(NGOs) that
1. agree on a working definition connect a more specific group- social workers
of globalization for the and activists.
course;

2. differentiate the competing

conceptions of Examples:
and globalization; and
1. Strong financial market connecting
3. narrate a personal London and New York such as electronic
experience of globalization. trading.

Globalization: A Working Definition 2. China committed itself to the global

economy in the 1980s.
1. Most accounts view globalization as
primarily an economic process. 3. Shainghai steadily returned to its old
role as a major trading post.
2. Newspaper Reports: It is the
integration of the national markets a 4. Honda plant temporarily ceased
wider global market signified by the increased production of car parts due to monsoon
free trade. rains flooded much Bangkok. This had a strong
negative effect on Honda-USA which
3. Activists: Anti-globalization means relied heavily on the parts being
resisting the trade deals among imported from Thailand, as a result, Japanese
countries facilitated and promoted by global car company’s global profits also fell.
organizations like the World
The final attribute of the definition of
globalization relates to the people perceived
Trade Organization. time and space. Steger notes that “globalization
processes do not occur merely at an objective,
4. Academics: call globalization an material level but they also involve the
interdisciplinary approach used subjective plane of human consciousness.” In
by General Education courses. other words, people begin to feel that the world
5. Manfred Steger: Globalization is the has become smaller place and distance as
expansion and collapsed from thousands of miles to just a
intensification of social relations and mouse-click away. One can now e-mail call a
consciousness world- time and friend in another country and get a reply
across world-space. Expansion refers to both instantaneously, and a result, begins to perceive
the creation of new social their distance as less consequential. Cable TV
networks and the multiplication of and the internet has also exposed one to news
existing connections that cut across traditional from across the globe, so now, he/she has this
political, economic, cultural, greater sense of what is happening in other
and geographic boundaries. places. Much more today, with the occurrence
of CoVID 19 pandemic, DepEd and CHED require consumers and producers with an interest in
all learning institutions to use virtual/on-line collective action designed to solve common
classes as we cannot afford to go face-face problems. Not it is universalism – values that
classes. embrace all humanity.

Steger posits that his definition of

globalization must be differentiated with an
9. Mc Grew (1990) globalization is described as
ideology he calls globalism, a widespread belief
something that is comprised of multiple
among powerful people that the global
sameness and interconnectedness that go
integration of economic markets is beneficial to
beyond the nation-states. It is a process in
everyone, since it spreads freedom and
which individuals and organizations in one part
democracy across the world. It is a common
of the world are affected by the activities,
belief forwarded in media and policy circles.
affairs, and convictions on another part of the
6. Arjun Appadurai, different kinds of world.
globalization occur on multiple and interesting
10. Cerny (1997) globalization is a cluster of
dimensions of integration that he calls “scapes.”
economic and political frameworks and
1. ethnoscape refers to the global procedures deriving from the changing marks of
movement of people the interests and assets that comprise the
foundation of the international political
2. mediascape is about the flow of
economy- specifically, the expanding structural
culture
differences of those interests and assets.
3. technoscape refers to the circulation
11. Freeden ( 2003) posits that globalization
of mechanical goods and software
denotes a range of processes nesting under one
4. finanscape denotes the global rather unwieldy epithet. Its conceptual difficulty
circulation of money to handle or control arises from the fact that
global flows occur in different physical and
5. ideoscape is the realm where mental dimensions.
political ideas move around
12. Economists – globalization means increase
Although they intersect, these five of free trade, speed of trade, global economic
scapes have different logics. They are thus, organization, and regional trade blocks. The
distinct windows into the broader phenomenon expansion of the free trade allows governments
of globalization. not to restrict the importation of products
7. Schottle (1995) states that nor impede the export of local products.
globalization stands for quite a large public Importing and exporting are done just in a
spread across the world as one of the defining millisecond through technology and the
terms of the 20th century social consciousness. internet. There is also the intense establishment
8. Rosenau (1996) states that of economic organizations such as the
globalization is not the same as globalism, International Monetary fund (IMF), World Bank
which points our aspirations for an end state of (WB), World Trade Organization (WTO),
affairs wherein values are shared by or International Labor Organization (ILO),
pertinent to all the world’s five billion people, European Free Trade Area (EFTA), Mercusor, a
their environment, their roles as citizens, customs union among Brazil, Argentina,
Uruguay, Paraguay, and Venezuela, ASEAN Free • The Contemporary World
Trade Area (AFTA) and Trans-Pacific First Semester
Partnership. AY: 2020-2021

13. McLuhan ( 1964) a Communication Expert- • Carolina G. Alberca , PhD

globalization refers to the concept of a global
• Professor
village. Through globalization, the world has
become a borderless world. Communication Welcome to Remedios Trinindad
technology makes the world shrink. He believes Romualdez Medical Foundation (RTRMF) first
that media have connected the world in ways semester, academic year 2020-2021.
that created a global village.
Vision: The center for academic excellence in
the fields of Medicine, Arts and
Science and the bastion for integrated
14. Culture Experts- globalization is
formation of role model, and top
referred to as cultural imperialism. It is the
performing professionals.
conviction that there is a “better” culture. Some
cultures see other cultures as superior to theirs, Mission: To develop competent, value-driven
forming inferior or non-dominant cultures. In and globally competitive professionals
cultural globalization, therefore, the spread of and leaders who are responsive to the changing
popular culture ( e.g., music, art, literature, needs of the society by providing
fashion, lifestyle, etc.) flows from dominant to quality transformational
non-dominant cultures ( i.e., from developed to education.
developing countries.
Learning Outcomes:

1. Globally competitive professionals

2. Passionate Learner

3. Articulate

4. Research-oriented practitioner

5. Team player/effective collaborator

6. Leader and critical thinker

7. Ethically conscious and socially responsive

professional

8. Nationalistic and value-centered

Program Outcomes

1. Employ the latest development

in the specific field of practice;

2. Internalize the passion for life-

long learning and culture for
excellence;
 3. Demonstrate effective • General Objectives of the Course:
communication skills orally and
1. Distinguish different interpretations
writing using both English and
of and approaches to
Filipino;
globalization.
4. Conduct research and promote
its utilization;
2. Describe the emergence of global economic,
5. Engage in inter, intra-
political, social, and cultural systems.
professional and multicultural
collaboration; 3. Analyze the various contemporary drivers of
globalization.
6. Demonstrate leadership
qualities and analytical and 4. Identify the issues confronting the nation-
critical thinking skills; state.
7. Practice the specific field of 5. Assess the effects of globalization on
discipline in accordance with different social units and their responses.
professional, social and ethical
standards; and 6. Analyze the contemporary news events in the
context of globalization.
8. Preserve and promote Filipino
values, heritage and culture, 7.Analyze global issues in relation to Filipinos
and responsible citizenship and and the Philippines.
dynamic leadership. 8. Write research paper with proper citations on
• Course Description: The Contemporary a topic related to globalization.
World is a 3-unit lecture subject recited 9. Articulate personal positions on various
for 18 weeks for the entire semester. global issues.
The course introduces the students to
the contemporary world by examining 10. Identify the ethical implications of global
the multifaceted phenomenon of citizenship.
globalization. Using various disciplines • Plan for the First Semester, Academic
of the social sciences, it examines the Year 2020-2021
economic, social, political, technological
and other transformations that have RTRMF will utilize Blended Learning
created an increasing awareness of the Platforms ( Synchronous, Asyncronous, On-line
interconnectedness of peoples and and Off-line Modalities) through the Learning
places around the globe. To this end, Management System (LMS) depending on the
the course provides an overview of the following:
various debates in global governance,
1. Suitability to the course/subject and
development and sustainability. Beyond
the preference of the faculty member-in-charge
exposing the student to the world
of the subject.
outside the Philippines, it seeks to
inculcate a sense of global citizenship 2. Classification of the students in terms
and global ethical responsibility. of connectivity (excellent, moderate, poor or no
connectivity).
 The College will have the following We will explore the places, peoples,
options in the delivery of lessons, prescription ideas, and cultures that you care about and
of reading and learning materials, and giving of value. This expansion of one’s ethical horizons is
assignments: the very core of what it means to be a citizen.

2. Teach you more about yourself.

Knowing about other countries allows you to
• For Lecture:
compare your society with others. The
1. synchronous or on-line platform experiences of communities outside the
( students with excellent and moderate Philippines may provide solutions to many of
connectivity can join the video conference) the country’s current problems. Dr. Jose Rizal,
However, the faculty is required to record the our national hero said that anyone who has
lecture and should be uploaded through the learned about the world will be haunted by the
LMS ( for students with poor or no “ghost of comparison.” He says that once you
connectivity). know about other societies, you will not be able
to look at your own in the same way. You will
2. Faculty members must see to it that start comparing and asking various questions;
all learning materials should be delivered and and compare what will happen even when you
accessed by the students regardless of their least expect it. The urge is like a “ghost” that
connectivity. suddenly appears.
3. Faculty members have the option to 3. Interacting with the world. The
utilize the LMS facilities in terms of evaluation Filipinos are increasingly becoming aware of our
of students( quizzes, term tests and other interdependence globally:(1) Filipinos are living
assessment tools), or through face-to-face or in and working abroad (OFWs); (2) many Filipinos
person, following the standard protocol as to work for foreign countries operating in the
the number of students at a time and other country such as in Business Process Outsourcing
health protocols (physical distancing, wearing of (BPO); (3) due to internet, cheaper travel costs,
mask, triaging, etc.). and larger trade off goods and services;(4) the
### deepening global interconnectedness of places,
ideas, economies, culture, and people.
• Introduction to the Course

Why do you need to study The Contemporary

World? Studying the outside world can: Lesson 3. A History of Global Politics: Creating
an International Order
1. Cure parochialism or an outlook that
is limited to one’s immediate community. A Learning Outcomes:
person who is concerned only with his/her 1) Identify key events in the development of
family, village, or even country is parochial. The international relations;
parochial person is, thus, close-minded. 2) Differentiate internationalization from
The course aims to stretch the limits of globalization;
your imagination and outlook, share unfamiliar 3) Define the state and the nation;
ideas and cultures that may spark new interests 4) Distinguish between the competing
and concerns. conceptions of internationalism; and
5) Discuss the historical evolution of their elites, recognizes the authority of
international politics. the Philippine state.
3) The nation of Korea is divided into North
 The Attributes of Today’s Global System and South Korea.
4) “Chinese nation” may refer to both the
World politics today has four key attributes:
people’s Republic of China (the mainland)
1) there are countries or states that are and Taiwan.
independent and govern themselves
2) these countries interact with each other  What then is the difference between
through diplomacy nation and state?
3) there are international organizations, like
State refers to a country and its
the United Nations that facilitate these
government. It is a compulsory political
interactions;
organization with a centralized
4) task specific agencies like the World Health
government that maintains the legitimate
Organizations and the International Labour
use of force within a certain territory
Organizations.
(Weber, 1997).It has four attributes:
 What are the origins of this system? 1) it exercises authority over a specific
population, called its citizens;
Nation state is a political community that
2) it governs a specific territory;
emanates from civic society to legitimately
3) a state has a structure of
execute peace. Thus, the civic society is the
government that crafts various
basis of the people’s oneness.
rules that people (society ) follows;
The nation-state concept is relatively and
modern phenomenon in human history, and 4) the state has sovereignty over its
people did not always organize themselves as territory. Sovereignty refers to
countries. At different parts in the history of internal and external authority.
humanity, people in various regions of the Internally, no individuals or groups
world have identified exclusively with units as can operate in a given national territory
small as their village or their tribe, and at other by ignoring the state. This means that
times, they see themselves as members of groups like churches, civil society
larger political categories like “Christendom” organizations, corporations, and other
(the entire Christian world). entities have to follow the laws of the
The nation-state is composed of two state where they establish their
interchangeable terms. Not all states are parishes, offices, or headquarters.
nations and not all nations are states. Externally, sovereignty means that a
Examples: state’s policies and procedures are independent
of the interventions of other states.
1) The nation of Scotland has its own flag
and national culture, but still it belongs to Nation (Benedict Anderson) is an
a state called the United Kingdom. “imagined community.” It is limited because it
2) Bangsamoro is a separate nation existing does not go beyond a given “official boundary,”
within the Philippines but, through and the rights and responsibilities are mainly
the privilege and concern of the citizens of that
nation. Nations often limit themselves to people Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in
who have imbibed a particular culture, speak a the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 by the Anglo
common language, and live in a specific and the Prussian armies which ended his
territory. Example: An American cannot simply mission to spread his liberal code across
go to the Philippine embassy and “convert” into Europe. To prevent another war and to keep
a Filipino citizen. their systems of privilege, the royal powers
created called the Concert of Europe – an
Nations and States are closely related
alliance of “concecoinedrussian revolu”- the
because it is nationalism that facilitates state
United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia.
formation. States become independent and
sovereign because of nationalist sentiment that The Metternich System ( Klemens von
clamors for this independence. Metternich- an Austrian diplomat) was the
Concert’s power and authority which sought to
 The Interstate System
restore the world of monarchial, hereditary,
The Treaty of Westphalia is a set of and religious privileges
agreements signed in 1648 to end the Thirty
The Concert System, “great powers”
Years’ War between the major continental
still hold significant influence over world politics
powers of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire,
such as the most powerful grouping in the UN
Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic
and the Security Council.
designed a system that would avert wars in the
future by recognizing that the treaty signers  Internationalism
exercise complete control over their domestic
Internationalism is basically anchored
affairs and swear not to meddle in each other’s
on the opinion that nationalism should be
affairs after a brutal religious war between
outrun because links that bind people of
Catholics and Protestants.
different countries are more powerful than
The Westphalian System provided those that disconnect them (Anora, 2014).
stability for the nations of Europe, until it faced
Internationalization is the deepening of
its major challenge by Napoleon Bonaparte
interactions between states. It does not equal
who believed in spreading the principles of the
globalization, although it is a major part of
French Revolution- liberty, equality and
globalization. It is the desire among states and
fraternity – to the rest of Europe and
people for greater cooperation and unity.
challenged the powers of kings, nobility and
religion in Europe.

The Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1803- Immanuel Kant, (18thcentury) German
1815 and the French implemented the philosopher is the first major thinker of
Napoleonic Code that forbade birth privileges, Internationalism. He likened states in a global
encouraged freedom or religion, and promoted system to people living in a given territory. If
meritocracy in government service. This system people living together require a government to
shocked the monarchies and the hereditary lawlessness, shouldn’t that same principle be
elites thus, mustered their armies to push back applied to states? Without a form of world
against the French emperor. government, he argued, the international
system would be chaotic. Therefore, states, like
citizens of countries, must give up some would become democracies, because only by
freedoms and “establish a continuously being such would they be able to build a free
growing state consisting of various nations system of international relations based on
which will ultimately include the nations of the international law and cooperation. He became
world” – Kant imagined of global government. the most notable advocate for the creation of
the League of Nations. At the end of World War
Jeremy Bentham, (18th century)a British
I in 1918, he pushed to transform the League
philosopher, who coined the word
into a venue for conciliation and arbitration to
“international” in 1780, advocated the creation
prevent another war. For his efforts, Wilson was
of “international law” that would govern the
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1919.
inter-state relations. Bentham believed that the
objective global legislators should aim to The League came into being the same year,
propose legislation that would create “the ironically and unfortunately for Wilson, the
greatest happiness of all nations taken United States was unable to join the
together.” organization due to strong opposition from the
Senate. The League was also unable to hinder
Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian, was the
another war from breaking out – World War II.
first thinker to reconcile nationalism with liberal
On one side of the war were the Axis Powers-
internationalism. He was both an advocate of
Hitler’s Germany, Mussolini’s Italy, and
the unification of the various Italian-speaking
Hirohito’s Japan who were ultra-nationalists
mini-states and a major critic of the Metternich
that have an instinctive disdain for
System. He believed in a Republican
internationalism and preferred to violently
government (without kings, queens, and
impose their dominance over the nations. It was
hereditary succession) and proposed a system
in the midst of this war between the Axis
of free nations that cooperated with each other
Powers and the Allied Powers composed of
to create an international system. For Mazzini,
United States, United Kingdom, France,
free, independent states would be the basis of
Holland, and Belgium that internationalism
an equally free, cooperative international
would be eclipsed.
system. He argued that if the various Italian
mini-states could unify one could scale up the Despite the Leagues failure, there are still
system to create a United States of Europe. He international organizations that exist today:
was a nationalist internationalist who believes World Health Organization (WHO) and the
that free, unified, nation-states should be the International Labour Organization (ILO). The
basis of global cooperation. principles of the League Of Nations survived
World War II.

The League was the concretization of the

Woodrow Wilson, United States
concepts of liberal internationalism:
President from 1913 to 1921 was influenced by
Mazzini and became one of the 20 th century’s 1) Kant, internationalism emphasized the
most prominent internationalist. Wilson saw need to form common international
nationalism as a prerequisite for principles.
internationalism. He forwarded the Principle of 2) Mazzini, it enshrined the principles of
Self-determination – the belief that the world’s cooperation and respect among other
nations had a right to a free, and sovereign nation-states.
government. He hoped that these free nations
3) Wilson, it called for democracy and self- 1917. It was called the Union of Soviet Socialist
determination. Republics, or USSR. The Bolsheviks did not
4) Karl Marx, a German socialist philosopher believe in obtaining power for the working
and internationalist was one of Mazzini’s class through elections, rather they exhorted
biggest critics for he did not believe in the revolutionary “vanguard” parties using
nationalism. He believed that any true form methods of terror if necessary – Communist
of internationalism should deliberately Party.
reject nationalism, which rooted people in
domestic concerns instead of global. Marx, Communist International (Comintern) was
instead placed a premium on Economic established by Lenin to encourage these
equality; did not divide the world into socialist revolutions across the world in 1919.
countries but into classes. The capitalist Many of the world’s states feared the
class referred to the owners of factories, Comintern believing that it was working in
companies, and other means of production. secret to stir up revolutions in their countries
(which was true).
Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that in a
socialist revolution seeking to overthrow the A problem arose during World War II when
state and alter the economy, the proletariat the Soviet Union joined the allied Powers in
“sis acsis achie.” Hence, their battle cry, 1914. The United States and the United
“Workers of the world, unite! You have Kingdom never trusted the Soviet Union in their
nothing to lose but your chains.” fight against Hitler’s Germany; whether the
Soviet Union was promoting revolutions among
Karl Marx died in 1883, but his followers themselves. To appease his allies, Joseph Stalin,
concretized his vision by establishing The the successor of Lenin dissolved the Comintern
Socialist International, a union of European in 1963.
socialist and labor parties established in Paris
in 1889. The Si’s achievements were: (1) After the war, Stalin re-established the
declaration of May 1 as Labor Day; (2) creation Comintern as the Communist Information
of International Women’s Day; and (3) Bureau (Cominform) to help direct the various
initiated the successful campaign of an 8-hour communist parties that had taken power in
workday. Eastern Europe.

The Socialist International collapsed during

WNagreat powersorld War I as the member
parties refused or were unable to join the
internationalist’s efforts to fight for the war,
and these sister parties ended up fighting each
other. Marx warning was confirmed when
workers and their organizations take the side of
their countries instead of each other, their long-
term interests are compromised.

As the SI collapsed, Czar Nicholas II was

overthrown and replaced by a revolutionary
government led by Vladimir Lenin, the
Bolshevik Party leader in the so-called had no of
 behave in certain way such as
international animal protection NGO
can pressure governments to pass
animal cruelty laws. 1949national
• Lesson 4: The United Nations and corporations can likewise have
Contemporary Global tremendous effects on global labor
Governance laws, environmental legislation,
Learning Outcomes: trade policy, “global democracy” or
the clamor for “good governance”
1. define global governance;
can influence the ways international
2. identify the roles and functions of actors behave.
the United nations; and
What is an International
3. determine the challenges of global Organization?
governance in the 21st century.
International Organizations
Global governance refers to refer to international
the various intersecting processes intergovernmental organizations or
that create world order. The fact that groups that are primarily made up of
states in an international order members states like the UN, IMF and
continue to adhere to certain global the World Bank.
norms means that there is semblance
of world order despite the lack of a Michael N. Barnett and Martha
single world government. There are Finnemore, international relations
many sources of global governance. scholars listed the following powers
States sign treaties and form of IOs :
organizations. In the process,
legislating public international law 1. IOs have the power of
(international rules that govern classification. IOs can invent and
interactions betweenstates as apply categories and create
opposed to private companies) powerful global standards.
Example: The UN High
International non- Commissioner for Refugees
governmental organizations (NGOs) (UNHCR) defines what a refugee
though not having formal state is. And since states are required to
power can lobby individual states to accept refugees entering their
 borders – this power to establish conceptualization of development
identity has concrete effects. projects.
The immense powers of IOs can be
sources of great good and great
harm. They can promote relevant
2. IOs have the power to fix norms like environmental protection
meanings. Meanings they created and human rights. But like other
have effects on various policies entrenched bureaucracies, they can
such as “ security” or sealed-off communities that fail to
“development” are well defined. challenge their beliefs. Example: five
States, organizations and activeac Stiglitz, a Nobel Prize-
individuals view IOs as legitimate winning economist, criticized the IMF
sources of information. for using a “one-size-fits-all”
3. IOs have the power to diffuse approach when its economists made
norms. Norms are accepted codes recommendations to developing
of conduct that may not be strict countries.
law, but produce regularity in Having examined the powers,
behavior. IOs do not only classify
limitations, and weaknesses of IOs,
and fix meanings; they also spread
the United Nations was considered
their ideas across the world to
the most prominent in the
establish global standards.
contemporary world. It is far from
Barnett and Finnermore emphasized perfect and has achieved its primary
that members of IOs are goal of averting another global war.
“missionaries” of our time. Their
The United Nation charter:
power to diffuse norms stems from
Decisions on important questions
the fact that IOs are staffed with
such as those on peace and security;
independent bureaucracies who are
joseph; and budgetary matters
considered experts in various fields.
require a TWO-THIRDS majority of
For example, World Bank economists
the General Assembly. Decisions on
come to be regarded as experts in
other questions are done by simple
development, thus, carry some forms
majority. Annually, the General
of authority. They can create norms
Assembly elects a GA President to
regarding the implementation and
serve a one- year term of office. All
member states (currently at 193) members elected for three-year
have seats in the GA. terms.
4. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
whose tasks are: (1) to settle legal
disputes submitted to it by states in
The Philippines played a prominent accordance with international laws;
role in the GA’s early years when ad (2) to give advisory opinions
Filipino diplomat Carlos P. Romulo referred to it by authorized United
was elected GA president from 1949- States organs and specialized
1950. agencies. The major cases of the
THE UNITED NATIONS IS DIVIDED court consist of disputes between
INTO FIVE (5) ACTIVE ORGANS: states that voluntarily submit
themselves to the court for
1. The General Assembly (GA). It is
arbitration. As such, the court cannot
the main deliberative policymaking
try individuals (international criminal
and representative organ.
cases are heard by the International
2. The Security Council is considered Criminal Court which is independent
by many commentators to be the of the UN). Its decisions are only
most powerful. The body consists of binding when states have explicitly
15 member states: ten (10) agreed to place themselves before
representatives from General the court’s authority. The SC may
Assembly (GA) to serve for two-year enforce the rulings of the ICJ, but this
terms and the Permanent 5 (PS) remains subject to the P5’s veto
which refers to the other five: China, power.
France, Russia, the United Kingdom,
5. Secretary General and Tens of
and the United States.
Thousands of International UN Staff
3. Economic and Social Council Members who carry out the daily
(ECOSOC) is the principal body for work of the UN as mandated by the
coordination, policy review, policy General Assembly and the
dialogue, and recommendations on organization’s other principal organs.
social and environmental issues, and
As such, it is the bureaucracy of the
the implementation of internationally
UN serving as a kind of international
agreed development goals. It has 54
civil service. Members of the
secretariat serve in their capacity as ethnic cleansing against ethnic
UN employees and not as state Muslim Albanians in the province of
representatives. Kosovo. Hundreds and thousands of
Albanians were victims of massacres,
mass deportations, and internal
displacement. Amid this systematic
terror, members of the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) led by
Challenges of the United Nations the United States sought SC
1. The UN is not a world government authorization to intervene in the
and it functions primarily because of Kosovo War on humanitarian
voluntary cooperation from states. If grounds. However, China and Russia
the states refuse to cooperate, the threatened to veto any action,
influence of the UN can be severely rendering the UN incapable of
circumscribed. Example: The UN addressing the crisis. NATO decided
Council on Human Rights can send to intervene on ts own. Though the
special rapporteurs to countries NATO intervention was largely
where alleged human rights successful, it left the UN ineffectual.
violations are occurring. However, if a A similar dynamic is evident in Syria
country does not invite the which is undergoing a civil war. Russia
rapporteur or places conditions on has threatened to veto any SC
his/her activities, the information- resolution against Syria; thus, the UN
gathering mechanism usually fails to has done very little to stop state-
achieve its goals. sanctioned violence against
2. Issues of Security. It is tough for opponents of the government. Since
the UN to release a formal resolution, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad is an
much more to implement it because ally of Russian dictator Vladimir Putin,
of the P5’s veto power and the UN al-Assad shield away from any policy
Security Council is tasked with that could weaken the legitimacy of
authorizing international acts of Putin. As a result, the UN is again
military intervention. Example: In the ineffectual amid a conflict that has
1990’s when the US sought to led to over 220,000 people dead and
intervene in the Kosovo War. 11 million displaced.
Slobodan Milosevic committed acts of
 Despite these problems, it
remains for the SC to place a high bar
on military intervention. The UN
Security Council has been wrong on
issues of intervention but it has also
made right decisions.
When the United States sought
to invade Iraq in 2001, it claimed that
Iraq’s Saddam Hussein had Weapons
of Mass Destruction (WMD) that
threatened the world. However, UN
members Russia, China and France LESSON 5. A WORLD OF REGIONS
were unconvinced and vetoed the UN
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
resolution for intervention forcing the
United States to lead a small 1. Differentiate regionalization and
“coalition of the willing” with its globalization;
allies. It has since then been
discovered that there were no 2. Explain how regions and formed
weapons of mass destruction and the and kept together;
invasion of Iraq has caused problems 3. Discuss the advantages and
for the country and the region that disadvantages of regionalism; and
last until today.
4. Identify the factors leading to a
greater integration of the Asian
region.

Governments, associations,
societies, and groups form regional
organization and/or networks as a
way of coping with the challenges of
globalization.

Globalization has made people

aware of the world in general. It
made Filipinos more cognizant of geographically specified area or
specific areas such as Southeast Asia. are an amalgamation of two
regions or a combination of
How did the Philippines come more than two regions
to identify itself with the southeast organized to regulate and
Asian Region? Why is it part of a oversee flows and policy
regional grouping known as the choices.
Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASIAN)? 2. Regionalization refers to the
regional concentration of
Regionalism is considered as a economic flows. Regionalism is
political and economic phenomenon; a political process
however, it actually encompasses a characterized by economic
broader area such as in relation to policy cooperation and
identities, ethics, religion, ecological coordination among countries.
sustainability, and health.

Regionalism is also a process

and must treated as an “emergent” COUNTRIES RESPOND
socially constituted phenomenon. It ECONOMICALLY AND POLITICALLY
means that regions are not are not TO GLOBALIZATION IN VARIOUS
natural or given, rather, they are WAYS:
constructed and defined by
policymakers, economic actors, and 1. Some countries are large enough
even social movements. and have a lot of resources to
dictate how they participate in
processes of global integration.
Example: China offers its cheap
COUNTRIES, REGIONS, AND and huge workforce to attract
GLOBALIZATION foreign businesses and expand
Regions are defined by Edward trade with countries it once
D. Mansfield and Helen V. Milner in considered its enemies but now
two ways: sees as markets for its goods like
that of US and Japan.
1. Regions are a group of
countries located in the same
2. Other countries make up for their
small size by taking advantage of 2) To pool their resources, get better
their strategic location. Examples: returns for their exports, and
Singapore and Switzerland expand their leverage against
compensate for their lack of trading partners. The
resources by turning themselves Organization of the Petroleum
into financial and banking hubs. Exporting Countries (OPEC) was
Singapore developed its harbor established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq,
facilities and made them a first- Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and
class transit port for ships carrying Venezuela to regulate the
different commodities from Africa, production and sale of oil. This
Europe, Middle East, and regional alliance flexed its muscles
mainland Southeast Asia to in the 1970s when its member
countries in the Asia-Pacific. countries took over domestic
Countries form a regional alliance production and dictated crude oil
for there is strength in numbers. prices in the world market. I a
They form regional associations world highly dependent on oil, this
for several reasons: integration became a source of
immense power. OPECs success
1) For military defense. The most convinced nine other oil-
widely known defense grouping is producing countries to join it.
the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) formed 3) to protect their independence
during the Cold War when several from the pressures of
Western European countries plus superpower politics. The
the United States agreed to Presidents of Egypt, Ghana, India,
protect Europe against the threat Indonesia, and Yugoslavia created
of the Soviet Union. The Soviet the Non-Aligned Movement
Union responded by creating its (NAM) in 1961 to pursue world
regional alliance, the Warsaw Pact peace and international
consisting of the Eastern European cooperation, human rights,
countries under Soviet national sovereignty, racial and
domination. The Soviet Union national equality, non-
imploded in December 1991, but intervention, and peaceful conflict
NATO remains in place. resolution. It called itself non-
 aligned because the association stabilized. The crisis made ASEAN
refused to side with either the first more unified and coordinated.
World capitalist democracies in
Western Europe and North NON-STATE REGIONALISM
America of the communist states The “new regionalism” refers
in Eastern Europe. At its peak, the to communities that also engage in
NAM had 120 member countries. regional organizing because it is not
The movement, however, was only states that agree to work
never formalized and continues to together in the name of single cause
exist up to the present, although it or causes. It varies in form: (1) can
lacks the same fervor that it had in be tiny associations that include no
the past. more than a few actors and focus on
a single issue; (2) huge continental
4) economic crisis compels unions that address a multitude of
countries to come together. The common problems from territorial
Thai economy collapsed in 1996 defense to food security; (3) power
after foreign currency speculators of individuals, Non-Governmental
and troubled international banks Organizations (NGOs), and
demanded that the Thai associations to link up with one
government pay back its loans. A another in pursuit of a particular
rapid withdrawal of foreign goal/goals; and (4) reformists who
investments bankrupted the share the same values, norms,
economy. This crisis began to institution, and system that exist
spread to other Asian countries as outside of the traditional,
their currencies were also established mainstream institutions
devalued and foreign investments and systems.
left in a hurry. The International
Monetary Fund (IMF) tried to Some organizations in the New
reverse the crisis but it was only Regionalism use varied strategies and
after the ASEAN to countries along tactics. Some partner with
with China, Japan, and South governments to initiate social change.
Korea agreed to establish an Those who work with governments
emergency fund to anticipate a (legitimizers)participating
crisis that the Asian economies institutional mechanisms that afford
some civil society groups voice and
influence technocratic policy making In Southeast Asia, the
processes. For example: The ASEAN organization of an ASEAN
issued its Human Rights Declaration Parliamentarians for Human Rights
in 2009, but the regional body left it was in part the result of non-
to member countries to apply the government organizations and civil
declaration’s principles as they see society groups pushing to prevent
fit. Aware that democratic rights are discrimination, uphold political
limited in many ASEAN countries, freedom, and promote democracy
new regionalism organizations used and promote democracy and human
this official declaration to pressure rights throughout the region.
these governments to pass laws and
regulations that protect and promote Other regional organizations
human rights. dedicate themselves to specialized
causes. Activists across Central and
In South America, left-wing South America established the
governments support the Rainforest Foundation to protect
Hemispheric Social Alliance’s indigenous peoples and the
opposition to the North American rainforests in Brazil, Guyana,
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Panama, and Peru. Young Christians
while members of the Mesa de across Asia, Africa, the Middle East,
Articulacion de Asociaciones the Americas, and the Caribbean
Nacionales y Redes ONGs de America formed Regional Interfaith Youth
Latina y Network to promote conflict
prevention, resolution, peace
El Caribe (Roundtable of National education, and sustainable
Associations and Networks and NGOs development. The Migrant Forum in
in Latin America and the Carribean) Asia is another regional network of
participate in forums, summits, and NGOs and trade unions committed
dialogues with presidents and to protect and promote the rights
ministers. and welfare of migrant workers.
Likewise, a group called the These organizations’ primary
Citizen Diplomacy Forum tries to power lies in their moral standing and
influence the policies and programs their ability to combine lobbying with
of the Organization of American pressure politics. Unfortunately, most
States.
of them are poorly financed which Church, Muslim imams, or
placed them at a disadvantage when governments opposed to
dealing with their official reproductive rights and other pro-
counterparts who have large state women policies. Civil society groups
funds. Their impact in global politics are able to dialogue with
is, therefore, limited. governments and they may not be
welcoming to this new trend and set
New regionalism differs up one obstacle after one another.
significantly from traditional state-to- Migrant Forum and its ally, the
state regionalism when it comes to coordination of Action Research on
identifying problems. For example, AIDS (CARAM), lobbied ASEAN
states treat poverty or environmental governments to defend migrant labor
degradation as technical or economic rights. Their program of action,
issues that can resolved by refining however, slowed down once
existing programs of state agencies, countries like Malaysia, Singapore,
making minor changes in economic and Thailand refused to recognize the
policies and creating new offices that rights of undocumented migrant
address these issues. However, new workers and the rights of the families
regionalism advocates such as the of the migrants.
NGO Global Forum see these issues
as reflections of flawed economic
development and environmental
models. By flawed, they mean CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES TO
economic development plans that are REGIONALISM
market-based, profit-driven and Today regionalism faces
hardly concerned with social welfare, multiple challenges:
especially among the poor.
1. the resurgence of militant
Another challenge for new nationalism and populism (the
regionalists is the discord that may most serious) The refusal to
emerge among them. For example, dismantle NATO after the collapse
disagreements surface over issues of the Soviet Union, for example
like gender and religion, with pro- become the basis of the anti-
choice NGOs breaking from religious NATO rhetoric of Vladimir Putin in
civil society groups that side with the Russia. Now, even the relationship
 of the United States, the alliance’s Sea. Cambodia and Laos led the
core member, with the NATO has opposition favoring diplomacy over
become problematic after Donald confrontation, but the real reason
Trump demonized the was the dramatic increase of Chinese
organization the organization as investments and economic aids to
simply leeching off American these countries. Moreover, when
military power without giving some formerly authoritarian
anything in return. countries democratized, this
participatory regionalism clashed
Perhaps, the most crisis-ridden with ASEAN’s policy of non-
regional organization of today is the interference as civil society groups in
European Union. The continuing Indonesia, the Philippines, and
financial crisis of the region is forcing Thailand demanded that the other
countries like Greece to consider countries democratized adopt a more
leaving the Union to gain more open attitude towards foreign
flexibility in their economic policy. criticism.
Anti-immigrant sentiment and a
populist campaign against Europe A final challenge pertains to
have already led to the United differing visions of what regionalism
Kingdom voting to leave the should be for. Western governments
European Union in a move the media may see regional organizations not
has termed the Brexit. simply as economic formations but
also as instruments of political
ASEAN members continue to democratization. Non-Western and
disagree over the extent to which developing societies; however, may
member countries should sacrifice have a different view regarding
their sovereignty for the sake of globalization, development, and
regional stability. The Association’s democracy. Singapore, China, and
link with East Asia has also been Russia see democracy as an obstacle
problematic. Recently, ASEAN to the implementation and
countries also disagreed over how to deepening of economic globalization
relate to china, with the Philippines because constant public inquiry
unable to get the other countries to about economic projects and lengthy
support its condemnation of China’s debate slow down implementation or
occupation of the West Philippine lead to unclear outcomes.
Democracy’s tedious procedure must, 2. Religion follows divine commandments
while globalism abides by human-made
therefore, give way to efficiency.
laws.
3. Religion assumes that there is the possibility
of communication between humans and
the transcendent. This link between the
human and the divine confers some social
power on the latter. Furthermore, God,
Allah or Yaweh defines and judges’ human
action in moral terms (good vs. bad) while
globalism’s yardstick is how much of human
action can lead to the highest material
satisfaction and subsequent wisdom that
this new status produces.
4. Religious people are less concerned with
wealth and all that comes along with it are
higher social status, a standard of living
similar with that of the rest of the
community, exposure to “culture,” top-of-
the-line education for the children. They are
ascetics precisely because they shun
anything material for complete simplicity-
from their domain to the clothes they wear,
to the food they eat, and even to the
UNIT 2. A WORLD OF IDEAS: CULTURES OF
manner in they talk, i.e. lots of parables and
GLOBALIZATION
allegories that are supposedly the language
Lesson 6. The Globalization of Religion of the divine. A religious person’s main duty
is to live a virtuous, sin-less life such that
Learning Outcomes: when he/she is assured of a place in the
other world, i.e. heaven. On the other,
1. explain how globalization affects globalists are less worried about whether
religious practices and beliefs, they will end up in heaven or hell. Their
2. identify the various religious responses skills are more pedestrian as they aim to
to globalization, and seal trade deals, raise the profits of private
3. discuss the future of religion in a enterprises, improve government revenue
globalized world. collections, protect the elites from being
excessively taxed by the state, and,
Religion has the most difficult contrasting naturally enrich themselves. If he/she has a
relationship with globalism: strong social conscience, the globalist sees
his/her work as contributing to the general
1. Religion is concerned with the sacred while
progress of the community, the nation, and
globalism places value on material wealth.
the global economic system.
5. The religious aspires to become a saint located away from civilization so that the
while the globalist trains to be a shrewd hermits can devote themselves to prayer and
businessperson. contemplation. These isolationist justifications
6. The religious detests politics and the quest are also used by the Rizalistas of Mt. Banahaw,
for power for they are the evidence of the Essenes during the Roman-controlled
humanity’s weakness while the globalist Judea (now Israel) and for a certain period, the
values them as both means and ends to Mormons of Utah.
open up further the economies of the
world. These groups believe that living among non-
7. Religious evangelization is in itself a form of believers will distract them from their mission
globalization while the globalist ideal is or tempt them to abandon their faith and
largely focused on the realm of markets. become sinners like everyone else.
8. The religious is concerned with spreading
REALITIES
holy ideas globally while the globalist
wishes to spread goods and services. 1. Religions are the foundations of
modern republics. The Malaysian government
The missions being sent by American
places religion at the center of the political
Born-Again Christians churches, Sufi and Shiite
system. Its constitution explicitly states that
Muslim orders, institutions like Buddhist
Islam is the religion of the Federation and the
monasteries and Catholic, Protestant, and
rulers of each state was also the Head of the
Mormon churches are efforts at spreading the
religion of Islam. Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini,
word of God and gaining adherents abroad.
the late Iranian religious leader bragged about
Religions regard identities associated the superiority of Islamic rule over its secular
with globalism such as citizenship, language, counterparts and pointed out that there is no
and race as inferior and narrow because they fundamental distinction among constitutional,
are earthly categories. In contrast, membership despotic, dictatorial, democratic, and
to a religious group, organization or cult communistic regimes. To Khomeini, all secular
represents a superior affiliation that connects ideologies are flawed and Islamic rule is the
humans directly to the divine and the superior form of government because It is
supernatural. Being a Christian, a Muslim, or a spiritual. Yet, Iran calls itself a republic, a term
Buddhist places one in a higher plane than just associated with the secular.
being a Filipino, a Spanish speaker, or an Anglo-
2. Religious movements do not hesitate to
Saxon.
appropriate secular themes and practices.
These philosophical differences explain Nahdlatul Ulama, the moderate Muslim
why certain groups flee their communities and association in Indonesia has Islamic schools
create impenetrable sanctuaries where they can called pesantren. The students are taught not
practice their religions without the meddling only about Islam but also about modern
and control of state authorities. The followers science, the social sciences, modern banking,
of Dalai Lama established Tibet for this civic education, rights of women, pluralism,
purpose and certain Buddhist monasteries are and democracy.
 IN OTHER CASES, RELIGION WAS THE RESULT transport and communication, the availability of
OF A SHIFT IN STATE POLICY: English as a global vernacular of unparalleled
power, the know-how of modern management
1) the Church of England was shaped by the and marketing which enabled the spread of
rationality of modern democratic and almost promiscuous propagation of religious
bureaucratic culture. King Henry VIII broke forms across the globe in all sorts of directions.
away from Roman Catholicism and established It is therefore, not entirely corrected to assume
his own Church to bolster his own power. that the proliferation of Born- Again groups or
in the case of Islam, the rise of movements like
2. In the United States, religion and law were
Daesh, more popularly as Islamic State in Iraq
fused together to help build modern secular
and Syria
society. Alexis de Tocqueville, a French
historian diplomat observed in the early 1800s (ISIS) signals religion’s defense against the
and wrote that not only out of self-interest but materialism of globalization.
they often even place in this world do the
Americans practice their religion out of self- While religions may benefit from the
interest but they often place in this world the process of globalization, this does not mean
interest which they have in practicing it. Jose that its tensions with globalist ideology will
Casanova confirms this statement by noting subside. Some Muslims view globalization as a
that historically, religion has always been at the Trojan Horse hiding supporters of western
very center of all great political conflicts and values like secularism, liberalism, or even
movements of social reform. From communism ready to spread these ideas in their
independence to abolition, from nativism to areas to eventually displace Islam.
women’s suffrage, from prohibition to the civil
rights movement, religion had always been at The World of Council of Churches, an
the center of these conflicts, but also on both association of different Protestant
sides of the political barricades. congregations has criticized economic
globalization’s negative effects. It vowed that
RELIGION FOR AND AGAINST GLOBALIZATION we as churches make ourselves accountable to
the victims of the project of economic
Religion is a pro-active force that gives globalization by becoming the latter’s advocates
communities a new and powerful basis of inside and outside the centers of power.
identity, rather than a regressive force that
stops or slows down globalization. It is an The Catholic Church and Pope Francis
instrument with which religious people can put condemned globalization’s “throw-away
their mark in the reshaping of this globalizing culture” that is fatally destined to suffocate
world. hope and increase risks and threats.

Religious fundamentalism may dislike The Lutheran World Federation 10th

globalization’s materialism but the full range of Assembly’s 292-page declaration message
modern means of communication and included: 1) economic and feminist critiques of
organization associated with economic globalization, 2) sharing the voices of members
transformation. It has tapped fast long-distance of the Church who were affected by
globalization, and 3) contemplations on the Lesson 7. Media and Globalization
different pastoral and ethical reflections that
Learning Outcomes:
members could use to guide their opposition. It
warns that as a result of globalization: Our 1. Analyze how various media drive
world is split asunder by forces we often do not different forms of global
understand, but that result in stark contrasts integration;
between those who benefit and those who are 2. Compare the social impacts of
harmed, especially under forces of different media on the process of
globalization. globalization;

Today, there is also a desperate need 3. Explain the dynamic between local
for healing from terrorism, its causes, and and global cultural production; and
fearful reactions to it. Relationship in this world 4. Define responsible media
continue to be raptured due to greed, injustices, consumption.
and various forms of violence.
Globalization entails the spread of
These advocates to reverse or mitigate various cultures and ideas.
economic globalization Spread of culture such as films made in
Hollywood are shown across the globe. Spread
eventually gained the attention of globalist of ideas such as the notion of the rights of the
institutions. In 1998, the World Bank brought in lesbians, gays, bisexual, and transgender, LGBT
religious leaders in its discussions about global communities. People who travel the globe
poverty, leading eventually to a cautious, teaching and preaching their beliefs in
muted, and qualified collaboration in 2000. It universities, churches, public fora, classrooms,
was evident enough that institutional or even as guests of a family play a major role in
advocates of globalization could be responsive the spread of culture and ideas.
to the liberationist, moral critiques of
But today, television programs, social
economic globalization coming from the media groups, books, movies, magazines, and
religious. the like have made it easier for advocates to
reach larger audience. Globalization relies on
What the Catholics call the preferential
media as its main conduct for the spread of
option for the poor is a powerful message of global culture and ideas. There is an intimate
mobilization but lacks substance when it comes relationship between globalization and media
to working out a replacement system that can which must be unraveled to further understand
change the poor’s condition in concrete ways. the contemporary world.
The terrorism of ISIS is unlikely to create a
Media and Its Function
Caliphate governed by justice and stability. In
Iran, the unchallenged superiority of a religious Jack Lule posted this question: Could
autocracy has stifled all freedom of expressions, global trade have evolved without a flow of
distorted democratic rituals like elections, and information on markets, prices, commodities,
tainted the opposition. and more? Could empires have stretched across
the world without communication throughout
their border? and Could religion, music, poetry,
film, fiction, cuisine, and fashion develop as McLuhan analyzed the social changes
they have without the intermingling of media brought about by television. He declared that
and cultures? the television sets and listened to the same
stories and their perception of the world would
Luke describes media as a means of
contract.
conveying something such as a channel of
communication. Technically speaking, a Later McLuhan and media scholars
person’s voice is a medium. However, when further grappled with the challenges of a global
commentators refer to media, they mean the media culture. A lot of these early thinkers
technologies of mass communication. Print assumed that global media had a tendency to
media includes books, magazines, and homogenize culture. They argued that as global
newspapers. Broadcast media involve radio, media spread, people from all over the world
film and television. Digital media cover the would begin to watch, listen to, and read the
internet and mobile mass communication. same things. This thinking arose at time when
Internet media include e-mail, internet sites, America’s power had turned it into the world’s
social media, and internet-based video and culture heavyweight. Commentators believed
audio. that media globalization coupled with American
hegemony would create a form of cultural
What media do and how they affect
imperialism whereby American values and
societies? Marshall
culture would overwhelm all others. In 1976,
McLuhan once declared that the medium is the Herbert Schiller, a media critic argued that not
message. His statement was an attempt to draw only was the world being Americanized but
attention to how media, as a form of technology that this process also led to the spread of
reshape societies. Thus, the television is not a American capitalist values like consumerism.
simple bearer of messages, it also shapes the
John Tomlinson says that cultural
social behavior of users and reorient family
globalization is simply a euphemism for
behavior. Since it was introduced in the 1960’s,
Western cultural imperialism since it promotes
television has steered people from the dining
homogenized, westernized, consumer culture.
table where they eat and tell stories to each
other to the living room where they silently Critiques of Cultural Imperialism
munch on their food while watching primetime
In the 1980s, media scholars began to
shows. Television has also drawn people away
pay attention to the ways in which audiences
from other meaningful activities such as playing
understood and interpreted media messages.
games or reading books.
The field of audience studies emphasizes that
Today, the smart phone allows users to media consumers are active participants in the
keep in touch instantly with multiple people at meaning-making process, who view media texts
the same time. Prior to the cellphone there was through their own cultural lenses.
no way for couples to keep constantly in touch
In 1985, Ien Ang, an Indonesian cultural critic
or to be updated on what the other does all the
studied the ways in which different viewers in
time. The technology and the not the the
the Netherlands experienced watching the
descrmessage make for this social change
American soap opera Dallas. Through the
possible.
letters from 42 viewers, she presented a
The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism detailed analysis of audience-viewing
experiences. Rather than simply receiving
American culture in a passive and resigned way, unidirectional process of foreign cultures
she noted that viewers put a lot of emotional overwhelming local ones. Nevertheless, it
energy into the process and they experienced leaves room for dynamism and cultural change.
pleasure based on how the program resonated
Social Media and the Creation of Cyber
with them.
Ghettoes
In 1990, Elihu Katz and Tamar Liebes
By now, very few media scholars argue
decided to push Ang’s analysis further by
that the world is becoming culturally
examining how viewers from distinct cultural
homogenous. Apart from the nature of diverse
communities interpreted Dallas. They argued
audiences and regional trends in cultural
that texts are received differently by varied
production, the internet and social media are
interpretive communities because they derived
proving that the globalization of culture and
different meanings and pleasures from these
ideas can move in different directions. While
texts. Thus, people from diverse cultural
western culture remains powerful and media
backgrounds had their own ways of
production is still controlled by a handful off
understanding the show.
powerful Western corporations, the internet,
The Russians were suspicious of the show’s particularly the social media is challenging
content believing not only that it was primarily previous ideas about media and globalization.
about America, but it contained American
As with all new media, social media
propaganda. American viewers believed that
have both beneficial and negative effects. On
the show though set in America was primarily
the one hand, these forms of communication
about the lives of the rich.
have democratized access. Anyone with an
Apart from the challenge of audience internet connection or smart phone can use
studies, the cultural imperialism thesis has been Facebook and Twitter for free. These media
belied by the renewed strength of regional have enabled users to be consumers and
trends in the globalization process. Asian producers of information simultaneously. The
culture has proliferated worldwide through the democratic potential of social media was most
globalization of media. Japanese brands from evident in 2011 during the wave of uprisings
“Hello Kitty” to the “Mario Brothers to known as the Arab Spring. Without access to
Pokemon” are now a part of global popular traditional broadcast media like TV, activists
culture. The impression is true to Korean Pop(K- opposing authoritarian regimes in Tunisia,
Pop) and Korean telenovelas which are widely Egypt, and Libya used Twitter to organize and to
successful regionally and globally. The disseminate information. Their efforts toppled
observation even applies to culinary tastes and their respective governments. More recently,
the most obvious case of globalized Asian the women’s march against newly installed US
cuisine is the sushi. And while it is true that President Donald Trump began with a tweet
McDonald’s has continued to spread across Asia from Hawaii lawyer and became a national even
as it is also the case that Asian brands have global movement.
provided stiff competition. The Philippines’
However, social media also have their dark side.
Jollibee claims to be the number one choice for
In the early 2000s, commentators began
fast food in Brunei.
referring to the emergence of a splinternet and
Given these patterns, it is no longer the phenomenon of cyberbalkanization to refer
tenable to insist that globalization is a
to the various bubbles people place themselves President Recep Tayyip Erdogan are
in when they are online. threatened by online mobs of pro-government
trolls, who hack accounts and threaten
In the United States, voters of the
violence. Some of their responses have
Democratic Party largely read liberal websites
included threats of sexual violence against
and voters of the Republican Party largely read
women.
conservative websites. This segmentation, notes
an article in the journal Science has been As the preceding cases show, fake
exacerbated by the nature of social media feeds information can spread easily on social media
which leads users to read articles, memes, and since they have few content filters. Unlike
videos shared by like-minded friends. As such, newspapers, Facebook does not have a team of
being on Facebook can resemble living in an editors who are trained to sift through and filter
echo chamber which reinforces one’s existing information. If a new article, even a fake one
beliefs and opinions. This echo chamber gets a lot of “shares,” it will reach many people
precludes users from listening to or reading with Facebook accounts.
opinions and information that challenge their
This dark side of social media shows
viewpoints, thus, making them more partisan
that even a seemingly open and democratic
and closed-minded.
media may be co-opted towards undemocratic
This segmentation has been used by people in means. Global online propaganda will be the
power who are aware that the social media biggest threat to face as the globalization of
bubbles can produce a herd mentality. It can be media deepens. Internet media have made the
exploited by politicians with less than world so interconnected that a Russian
democratic intentions and demagogues wanting dictator can influence American elections on
to whip up popular anger. The same the cheap.
inexpensiveness that allows social media to be a
As consumers of media, users must
democratic force likewise makes it a cheap tool
remain vigilant and learn how to distinguish
of government propaganda. Russian dictator
fact from falsehood in a global media
acrdimir Putin has hired armies of social media
landscape that allows politicians to peddle
trolls-paid users who harass political
what President Trump’s senior advisers now
opponents to manipulate public opinion
call “alternative facts.”
through intimidation and the spreading of fake
news. Though people must remain critical of
mainstream media and traditional journalism
Most recently, American intelligence
that may also operate based on vested
agencies established that Putin used trolls and
interest. We must also insist that some sources
on-line misinformation to help Donald Trump
are more credible than others. A newspaper
win the presidency- a tactic the Russian
story that is written by a professional
autocrat is likely to repeat in European elections
journalist and vetted by professional editors is
he seeks to influence.
still likely to be more credible than a viral
In places across the world, Putin video produced by someone in his/her
imitators replicate his strategy of online trolling bedroom even if both will have their biases.
and disinformation to clamp down on dissent People must be able to tell the difference.
and delegitimize critical media. Critics of the
increasingly dictatorial regime of the Turkish