ROSS

Broiler Management Manual

 Fo r e w o r d
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL
The aim of this manual is to assist farm staff and owners of Ross broilers to achieve the highest
possible performance from their birds. It is not intended to provide definitive information on
every aspect of stock management, but draw attention to important features, which if
overlooked may depress flock performance. The management techniques contained in this
manual are considered to be the most appropriate to achieve good performance, consistent with
maintaining the health and welfare of the birds. In this connection due regard has been paid to
the welfare recommendations for livestock detailed by the UK Department of the Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Aviagen also encourages owners and managers of Ross stock
worldwide to adopt a similar policy in this respect.

BIRD PERFORMANCE
Performance can be influenced substantially by many factors including flock management, feed
quality, health status and climatic conditions. Data contained in the manual indicate those
levels of performance which can be achieved under good management and environmental
conditions.

Every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and relevance of the information
presented. However, Aviagen accepts no liability for the consequences of using the information
for the management of broilers.

Variations may occur for a variety of reasons. For example, feed consumption can be affected
significantly by form of feed, energy level of feed and house temperature. Data presented in this
manual should not, therefore, be regarded as Specifications but as ‘Performance Objectives’.

NOVEMBER 2002 REVISION

The information presented in this revision combines the results of research and development,
scientific knowledge and expertise, and practical skills and experience of Aviagens’ Technical
Development and Technical Service teams. Changes in style have been made to make the
information easy to access and understand. Clear objectives for each part of the process are
identified, principles and management techniques are explained in detail and key points are
emphasised. Aviagens’ Technical Development and Technical Service teams expect that by
applying the techniques described in this manual, users of Ross broilers will see continuous
improvement in performance.

TECHNICAL SERVICES
For further information on the management of Ross stock please ask your local Technical
Service Manager or contact the Technical Services Department at Aviagen Limited, Newbridge.

Aviagen Limited
Newbridge, Midlothian EH28 8SZ, Scotland,UK
Tel: 44 (0)131 333 1056
Fax: 44 (0)131 333 3296
Email: [email protected]

Aviagen Incorporated
5015 Bradford Drive, Huntsville, Alabama 35805, USA
Tel: +1 256 890 3800
Fax: +1 256 890 3919
Email: [email protected]

Web Site: www.aviagen.com

November 2002
1
 Using this Manual

Finding a Topic

Printed tabs appear on the right-hand side of the manual. These allow readers immediate access
to those sections and topics in which they are particularly interested.

The contents list presented here gives the title of each section and subsection.

There is also an alphabetical Key Words Index at the rear of the manual.

Key Points

✓ Where appropriate, key points have been included which emphasise important aspects of
husbandry and management. They are highlighted by a red heading and red ticks in the
left-hand margin alongside the text.

Certain danger points have been

given emphasis using this sign and
bold text.

Performance Objectives

Performance Objectives have been reproduced as a separate booklet which is enclosed at the
rear of the manual. This will allow for regular updating.

2
Contents
INTRODUCTION 4-6

Section 1 7-20
CHICK MANAGEMENT Incubation, Chick Quality and Broiler
Performance, Preparation for Chick Arrival,
Chick Placement,
Environmental Control

Section 2 21-32
GROWTH MANAGEMENT Flock Uniformity,
Modified Broiler Growth
Environmental Control
Section 3 33-36
PRE-PROCESSING Preparation for Catching, Catching,
MANAGEMENT Processing

Section 4 37-52
NUTRITION Supply of Nutrients, Broiler Diet Specifications,
Quality of Feed and Feed Ingredients,
Whole Wheat Feeding

Section 5 53-68
HYGIENE AND HEALTH Chick Quality, Food Safety Issues
Biosecurity, Hygiene, Health Management

Section 6 69-92
HOUSING AND Control of Environment, Heat Stress,
ENVIRONMENT Stocking Density, Ventilation and Air Quality,
Litter and Litter Management,
Drinking Systems Drinking Systems, Water Quality,
Feeding Systems

APPENDICES 93-109

INDEX 110-111

3
 INTRODUCTION

Aviagen produces a range of genotypes suitable for different sectors of the broiler market. All
Aviagen products are selected for a balanced range of parent stock and broiler characteristics.
This approach ensures that the products are capable of performing to the highest standards in a
wide variety of environments. The range of Ross genotypes allows users to select the Ross
product which best meets the needs of their particular operation.

Aviagen also applies a balanced approach to genetic progress in characteristics of commercial

importance e.g. growth rate, feed conversion ratio (FCR), liveability, meat yield, whilst
improving bird welfare e.g. leg health, cardiovascular fitness and robustness. Achievement of
genetic potential in any livestock species depends on the following:

• Genotype is capable of delivering the required performance.

• Environment is managed to provide birds with all their requirements
e.g. temperature, air quality etc.
• Feed delivers enough nutrients in the correct proportions.
• Immune status is appropriate and disease is controlled.

All of these are interdependent. If any of these elements are sub-optimal, then broiler
performance will suffer. The range of factors which can limit broiler performance is shown in
Diagram 1.

DIAGRAM 1: LIMITS TO BROILER GROWTH AND QUALITY

Health Nutrition

Feed supply Temperature

Lighting Water supply

Ventilation
Vaccinal status
Stocking density

Economic and commercial issues continue to affect the management of broilers. The following
issues are of major importance in commercial broiler production:

• Increasing consumer demand for product quality and food safety.

• Necessity for flocks of broilers which can be grown to predictable, pre-defined
specifications.

4
• Requirement to minimise variability within flocks, and hence variability of the final product.
• Welfare of broilers
• Improved genetic potential for FCR, growth rate and meat yield.
• Minimal levels of metabolic diseases. e.g. Ascites or leg health.
As the sophistication of broiler production systems increases responsive management, based on
good information, is essential.
The broiler-growing phase is an integral part of the total meat production process, which
encompasses parent stock farms, hatcheries, broiler growing units, processors, retailers and
consumers. (See Diagram 2).

DIAGRAM 2: PRODUCING QUALITY BROILER MEAT -

THE TOTAL PROCESS

LOCATION OPERATION OBJECTIVE

PARENT STOCK FARM PARENT STOCK MANAGEMENT

EGG COLLECTION

EGG STORAGE

TRANSPORT

HATCHERY EGG HATCHERY

INCUBATION

The Key CHICK PROCESSING AND HANDLING To produce high quality chicks
Production To maintain chick quality
Management
TRANSPORT
Phases

BROILER FARM BROODING To develop appetite

To develop immune function
DISINFECTION
GROWTH MANAGEMENT To allow optimum development
of skeleton, cardiovascular system
CLEANOUT
DEPLETION To maximise carcase quality

TRANSPORT

PROCESSING PLANT PROCESSING

RETAIL

The objective of the broiler manager should be to achieve the required flock performance in
terms of liveweight, feed conversion, uniformity and meat yield. Development of the vital
support functions such as the cardiovascular, pulmonary, skeletal and immune systems is crucial
to this objective. Critical periods for development of these physiological systems occur during
incubation and the first two weeks of life. Therefore, particular attention must be given to
management during these periods. (See Diagram 2).

5
 In order to maximise performance, hatchery procedures, chick handling, brooding and early
growth management are all of major importance. Broiler production is a sequential process,
with ultimate performance being dependent on each step being completed successfully. For
maximum performance to be attained, each stage must be assessed critically and improvements
made wherever required. Changes may be necessary in the hatchery, on the broiler farm, in the
processing plant or in transport. (See Diagram 2, page 5)

Diagram 2 demonstrates that within broiler production there are several stages of development
of the bird. The hatchery deals with hatching eggs and chicks. The broiler farm deals with
chicks and growing broilers. The processing plant deals with broilers and carcases. Successful
broiler production requires that the transitionary phases are managed with the aim of
minimising stress to the bird. The key transitions in broiler production are:

• change to being a net producer of heat in OVO

• pipping and emergence of the chick
• take off, storage and transport of the chick
• development of good appetite in the young chick
• change from supplementary feeding and drinking systems to the main system
• catching and transport of the broiler at depletion

The transitionary phases require special attention when optimising the whole process.

The complexity of broiler production means that livestock managers must have a clear
understanding of the factors affecting the whole production process as well as the principles of
bird management. Aviagen’s Technical Development Team have designed this manual with the
following principles in mind:

• consideration of bird welfare at all times

• understanding of the production chain and transitionary phases
• attention to quality of the end product throughout the entire process
• responsiveness to the changing requirements of the bird i.e. responsive management*

*The requirements of the bird change constantly. The purpose of responsive management is
to satisfy these requirements by observation of changes in the birds and their environment
and alter inputs in an appropriate way.

No two broiler houses are completely identical, and every flock of broilers will differ subtly in
its requirements. The broiler farm manager should understand the birds’ requirements and,
through application of responsive management as described in this manual, supply the
individual requirements to ensure optimum performance in every flock.

6
Section one
Chick Management

Objectives
To establish a healthy flock through the final stages of incubation and
the brooding stage on-farm. To promote early development of feeding
and drinking behaviour, which will allow the target bodyweight profile
to be achieved with maximum uniformity and good welfare.

page contents
8 Incubation, Chick Quality and Broiler Performance

10 Preparation for Chick Arrival

12 Chick Placement

13 Environmental Control

7
 CHICK MANAGEMENT

Principles
Recent research has shown that factors during incubation can have profound effects on early gut
and immune development and hence performance of newly hatched chicks. For the best broiler
performance, embryo temperatures must not be allowed to rise too high, the hatch must be
taken off at an appropriate stage after the chicks emerge and the chicks should then be fed as
soon as possible.

For chicks to receive the best possible start on farm, they must be provided with the correct
environment (i.e. temperature, humidity and house layout) which should be managed to meet
all their requirements. During the first 10 days of life, the chicks’ environment changes from
that of the hatcher to that of the broiler house. Chicks must be able to adapt successfully and
establish healthy appetites, feeding and drinking behaviour if they are to achieve their genetic
potential for growth and other aspects of performance. Deficiencies in the brooding
environment will depress final flock performance by preventing the chicks from achieving their
growth potential during the first week.

The potential 7 day liveweight of Ross broilers is 160g or above. Seven day liveweight should
be routinely monitored and action taken where target liveweight is not achieved.

INCUBATION, CHICK QUALITY AND BROILER PERFORMANCE

Final broiler performance and profitability are dependent upon attention to detail throughout the
entire production process. This involves good management of healthy parent stock, careful
hatchery practice, efficient delivery of chicks, which are of good quality and uniformity. Chick
quality may be influenced at every stage of the process.

Planning
Broiler flocks should be planned to ensure:

• differences in age and/or immune status of donor parent flocks are minimised. One
donor flock per broiler flock is the ideal. If mixed flocks are unavoidable, keep similar
parent flock ages together.

• vaccination of donor parents maximises maternal antibody protection in the offspring

and is successful in protecting broilers against diseases which compromise performance
(e.g. Chick Anaemia Virus, Reovirus).

• the time at which eggs are set is adjusted to take account of differences in parent flock
age so as to minimise the time between emergence and delivery of chicks.

• Setting times are adjusted so that the chicks are removed from the incubator at their
optimal stage of development. This will be when the weight of the chicks is between 66
and 68% of the initial egg weight at set.

i.e. average chick weight x 100 = 66-68%

average egg weight
8
Incubation

Aspects of incubation and their effect on broiler performance are covered more fully in Ross
Tech 02/41.

For a flock of broilers killed at 40 days, 35% of the total growth period will take place in the
egg. During incubation, chicken embryos develop from the germinal disc found in the fertile
egg when it is laid, into fully functional, live chicks. To do this, they need heat. The heat has to
be supplied by the incubator for roughly the first half of incubation. Then, after about 15 days
embryonic heat production increases, and it will be necessary to cool the incubator.

If during the second half of incubation the embryo temperature as measured at the shell surface
o
exceeds 39.5 C, then hatchability and chick quality will both suffer. Modern, high-yielding
broiler breeds tend to hatch slightly earlier. In addition, high incubator loads can result in the
the cooling system being overloaded towards the end of the incubation period. Hot spots can
develop in corner trays and trays most distant from the fans. These problems can often be
difficult to locate and to remedy in a modern, highly automated hatchery.

Excessive embryonic temperatures can not only affect hatchability and culling rates, but can
also limit subsequent broiler performance. Chicks that have been heat stressed in the hatcher
may have relatively immature immune systems and dysfunctional intestines. Their guts may also
be damaged in ways that limit their potential for generation and regeneration of the gut lining.
These chicks will not grow or convert as well as their unstressed flock-mates, and can be more
susceptible to enteric infections.

Overheated chicks or temperature

variation within incubators or
hatchers will result in
underperformance of the broiler.

Early access to feed and water has been shown to improve broiler performance and meat yield.
Immediate feeding assists the chick to convert from obtaining its’ nutrients from the residual
yolk, to obtaining nutrients solely from feed. The gut is better-developed and less susceptible to
enteric infections and the birds lay down more breast meat.

To maximise chick quality the hatchery and transport system should ensure that:

• embryo temperature, as measured at the egg surface around the equator after 15 days
o o
incubation, does not exceed 39.5 C (103 F).
• airspeeds across all the eggs are in excess of 0.2m/second
• chicks are fed as soon as possible after hatch
• after take-off, chicks are held in an area in which the environment is controlled
correctly. (See Table 1, page 10).
• chicks are held in a darkened area to allow them to settle before transport
• chicks are loaded through controlled-environment loading bays in to preconditioned
lorries for transport to the broiler farm.
• pre-determined standards of hygiene are achieved consistently to minimise cross
contamination and yolk sac infection.
• the correct vaccines are administered at the correct dosage and in the correct form; all
chicks are vaccinated equally.

9
 Excessive dehydration of chicks
results from poor control of
hatchery and transport
environment.

TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF OPTIMUM CONDITIONS

- CHICK HOLDING AND TRANSPORT
Chick holding conditions 24°C (75.2°F) Ambient Temperature
50% Relative Humidity (RH)
1.42m3/min (50cfm) per 1000 chicks Air Exchange
Transport conditions 24°C (75.2°F) Ambient Temperature
50% Relative Humidity (RH)
1.42m3/min (50cfm) per 1000 chicks Air Exchange
Note: These conditions in the storage area or transport vehicle should give temperatures of
30-35˚C and RH of 70-80% amongst the chicks.

Key Points
✓ Plan placements to minimise physiological and immune differences between chicks. Use
single donor flocks if possible.
✓ Avoid embryo (shell surface) temperatures over 39.5˚C after 15 days of incubation.
✓ Hold and transport chicks in conditions which prevent dehydration and other types of
stress in chicks.
✓ Feed the chicks as soon as possible after take-off from the hatcher.
✓ Maintain high standards of hygiene and biosecurity in the hatchery and during transport.

PREPARATION FOR CHICK ARRIVAL

All sites should be single age (i.e. all in-all out). Vaccination and cleaning programmes are more
difficult and less effective on multi-age sites.

Recurrent outbreaks of disease due

to recycling of pathogens may occur
within multi-age sites.

Houses, the surrounding areas and all equipment must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
before the arrival of the chicks. (See Hygiene and Health, pages 57-63 and Ross Tech 00/38,
Poultry House Cleanout Procedures.)

Litter material should be spread evenly to a depth of 3-10cm (1-4in) and then levelled and
compacted in the brooding area.

Uneven litter can restrict access to

feed and water and may lead to a
loss in flock uniformity.

10
The necessary equipment must be assembled in the appropriate configuration. During the
brooding phase, the equipment in the house (i.e. feeders, drinkers, heaters and fans) must be
arranged to allow chicks to maintain body temperature without dehydration and to find feed
and water easily. The best configuration will depend on the brooding system (i.e. spot or whole
house) and on other equipment being used. Chicks should be tipped on to paper and feed at
placement, and should not have to move more than one metre to find feed or water during the
entire brooding phase. Supplementary feeders and drinkers should be placed so that the chick
makes an association between the supplementary system and the main system.

Lack of uniformity and poor growth

will result from inadequate provision
of heat, feed and water during
brooding.

Houses should be pre-heated and the temperature and relative humidity stabilised for at least
24 hours prior to chick arrival. Both temperature and relative humidity should be monitored
regularly to ensure a uniform environment throughout the whole brooding area.

The environmental control systems must be capable of supplying air of optimum quality at bird
level and removing waste gases produced by the chicks and the heating systems. (See Housing
and Environment, Ventilation and Air Quality, Section 6, pages 81-83). Care must be taken to
avoid draughts.

Failure to remove waste gases

from the birds’ environment can
lead to heart and lung disease.

Adequate clean water must be available. It should be within the correct temperature range. (See
Housing and Environment, Water Quality, Section 6, pages 89-92). All chicks must be able to
eat and drink immediately on placement in the house.

Initially, textured feed should be provided as dust-free, sieved crumbs, on feeder trays or on
paper to give a feeding area occupying at least 25% of the brooding area. Organise the layout
so that chicks can be tipped directly on to paper so that feed is immediately available.

Feeders and drinkers should not be

placed directly under a heat
source.

If the mixing of chicks from different parent flocks is unavoidable, chicks from each source flock
should be brooded in separate areas within each house.

11
 Key Points

✓ Provide chicks with biosecure, clean housing.

✓ Control spread of disease by using single age, (i.e. all in-all out) housing.

✓ Spread litter evenly.

✓ Arrange equipment to enable the chicks to reach feed and water easily and associate
supplementary feeders and drinkers with the main feeding and drinking system.

✓ Pre-heat the house and stabilise temperature and humidity prior to arrival of chicks.

✓ Ventilate to provide fresh air and remove waste gases.

✓ Make feed and water available to the chicks on arrival.

CHICK PLACEMENT

Prior to delivery of chicks, a final check must be made of feed and water availability and
distribution within the house. The expected delivery time of the chicks must be established
beforehand so that they may be unloaded and correctly placed as quickly as possible. The
longer the chicks are in the boxes, the greater the degree of dehydration. This may result in
early mortality and reduced growth as indicated by 7 day and final liveweight.

Full chick boxes must not be stacked

in the brooding area as this can lead
to rapid overheating and
suffocation.

Chicks must be tipped quickly, gently and evenly on to paper and feed over the brooding area.
Water should be freely and immediately available. The empty boxes should be removed from
the house without delay.

Chicks should be left to settle for 1-2 hours to become accustomed to their new environment.
After this time, a check must be made to see that all chicks have easy access to feed and water.
Adjustments must be made to equipment and temperatures where necessary.

From 2-3 days of age, existing feeders and drinkers should be repositioned and adjusted and
additional ones introduced as the illuminated area is increased. The distribution pattern of
chicks should be monitored closely for the first 3 days to ensure that chicks are able to find food
and water as they begin to use more of the floor area.

12
Key Points

✓ Unload chicks and place quickly.

✓ Check feed and water availability and distribution.

✓ Leave chicks to settle for 1-2 hours with access to feed and water.

✓ Check feed, water, temperature and humidity after 1-2 hours and adjust where necessary.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

Temperature and relative humidity should be monitored frequently and regularly i.e. at least
twice daily in the first 5 days and daily thereafter. Temperature and humidity measurements
should be made as close to chick level as possible. Sensors for automatic systems must be sited
at chick level. Conventional thermometers should be used to cross check the accuracy of
electronic sensors controlling automatic systems.

BROODER MANAGEMENT

Two basic systems of temperature control are used for broilers:

– Spot Brooding
– Whole House Brooding

Spot Brooding

DIAGRAM 3:
TYPICAL BROODING LAYOUT (1000 CHICKS) FOR DAY ONE

13
 In spot brooding a temperature gradient is provided. (See Diagram 4).

Heat is provided by conventional canopy brooders. Surrounds may be used, but more usually,
birds are confined by lighting only the brooding area and extinguishing the remaining house lights.

It is common practice in curtain sided houses to brood in one half of the house to reduce amount
of space and energy required.

Table 2 contains a guide to temperatures required when using spot brooding.

TABLE 2: BROODING TEMPERATURES

WHOLE HOUSE SPOT BROODING
Age Temp °C* Age Temp °C
(days) (days) Brooder Edge 2m House
A B C
Day Old 29 Day Old 30 27 25
3 28 3 28 26 24
6 27 6 28 25 23
9 26 9 27 25 23
12 25 12 26 25 22
15 24 15 25 24 22
18 23 18 24 24 22
21 22 21 23 23 22
24 21 24 22 22 21
27 20 27 21 21 21

* Temperature at RH of 60 - 70% - See also Table 3, page 18.

DIAGRAM 4:
SPOT BROODING - AREAS OF TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

14
Chick behaviour is the best indicator of correct brooder temperature. With spot brooding,
correct temperature is indicated by chicks being evenly spread throughout the brooding area.
(See Diagram 5).

DIAGRAM 5: BIRD DISTRIBUTION UNDER BROODERS

TEMPERATURE TOO HIGH TEMPERATURE CORRECT

Chicks make no noise Chicks evenly spread

Chicks pant, head and wings droop Noise level signifies contentment
Chicks away from brooder

TEMPERATURE TOO LOW DRAUGHT

Chicks crowd to brooder This distribution requires investigation

Chicks noisy, distress-calling Influenced by draught - uneven light distribution -
external noises

If chick behaviour indicates

incorrect temperature then
temperature settings must be
checked and adjusted.

Whole House Brooding

In whole house brooding there is no temperature gradient within the house. Brooders or other
sources of radiant heat may be used to supplement this system.

Diagram 6 illustrates the typical layout of whole house brooding systems.

The main heat source can be direct or indirect. The indirect system is usually gas- or oil-fired,
and blows hot air into the house at one or more points. The suggested temperature profile is
shown in Table 2, page 14.

Chicks should be placed evenly throughout the brooding area. The use of supplementary
internal house fans will enhance air quality and uniformity of temperature and relative humidity.

15
 DIAGRAM 6: TYPICAL LAYOUT OF A WHOLE HOUSE
BROODING SYSTEM

Pan Feeder Nipple Line

Paper Mini Drinker

5m

DIAGRAM 7: TYPICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CHICKS IN WHOLE

HOUSE BROODING AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES
Too High Correct Too Low

As with spot brooding, chick behaviour is the best indicator of correct temperature. Diagram 7
shows the different distribution of chicks in whole house brooding at different temperatures.
With whole house brooding, correct temperature is indicated by chicks forming groups of 20-
30, with movement occurring between groups. There should be continuous feeding and
drinking within the flock.

When whole house brooding is practised, particular attention must be paid to monitoring and
controlling house temperature and relative humidity. (See Interaction Between Temperature and
Humidity, page 18).

16
In both spot and whole house brooding systems, the objective is to develop appetite as early as
possible. Activity and appetite are stimulated when chicks experience temperature at the lower
end of their comfort zone. In order to stimulate appetite, temperature should be maintained at a
level slightly below the figures indicated in Table 2, page 14 and Table 3, page 18.

If chick behaviour indicates incorrect

temperature then temperature
settings should be checked and
adjusted.

HUMIDITY

Relative Humidity (RH) in the hatcher, at the end of the incubation process will be high (approx.
80%). Houses with whole house heating, especially where nipple drinkers are used, can have RH
levels as low as 25%. Houses with more conventional equipment (i.e. spot brooders which
produce moisture as a by-product of combustion and bell drinkers which have open water
surfaces) have a much higher RH, usually over 50%. To limit the shock to the chicks of transfer
from the incubator, RH levels in the first 3 days should be around 70%.

RH within the broiler house should be monitored daily. If it falls below 50% in the first week,
chicks will begin to dehydrate, causing negative effects on performance. In such cases action
should be taken to increase RH.

Poor performance and loss of

uniformity can result from low
relative humidity in the first week.

If the house is fitted with spray nozzles (i.e. foggers) for cooling in high temperatures, then these
can be used to increase RH during brooding. Chicks kept at appropriate humidity levels are less
prone to dehydration and generally make a better, more uniform start.

As the chick grows, the ideal RH falls. High RH from 18 days onwards can cause wet litter and its
associated problems. As the broilers increase in liveweight, RH levels can be controlled using
ventilation and heating systems.

17
 INTERACTION BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY

All animals will lose heat to the environment by evaporation of moisture from the respiratory
tract and through the skin. At higher RH, less evaporative loss occurs increasing the animals’
apparent temperature. The temperature experienced by the animal is dependent on the dry bulb
temperature and RH. High RH increases the apparent temperature at a particular dry bulb
temperature whereas low RH decreases apparent temperature. The temperature profile in Table
2, page 14 assumes RH in the range 60-70%.

Table 3 shows the predicted dry bulb temperature required to achieve the target temperature
profile over a range of RH. The information in Table 3 can be used in situations where RH
varies from the target range (60-70%).

TABLE 3: DRY BULB TEMPERATURES REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE

TARGET APPARENT EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES AT
VARYING RELATIVE HUMIDITIES
Temperature at RH%
Age Conventional Ideal
(days) Temp˚C RH% range 50 60 70 80
0 29 65-70 33.0 30.5 28.6 27.0
3 28 65-70 32.0 29.5 27.6 26.0
6 27 65-70 31.0 28.5 26.6 25.0
9 26 65-70 29.7 27.5 25.6 24.0
12 25 60-70 27.2 25.0 23.8 22.5
15 24 60-70 26.2 24.0 22.5 21.0
18 23 60-70 25.0 23.0 21.5 20.0
21 22 60-70 24.0 22.0 20.5 19.0
24 21 60-70 23.0 21.0 19.5 18.0
27 21 60-70 23.0 21.0 19.5 18.0

If RH is outside the target range, the temperature of the house at chick level can be adjusted to
match that given in Table 3. At all stages, chick behaviour should be monitored to ensure that
the chick is experiencing an adequate temperature. If subsequent behaviour indicates that the
chicks are too cold or too hot, the temperature of the house should be adjusted appropriately.

18
 When RH falls below 50% during
brooding, action to increase RH is
required to prevent chicks
becoming dehydrated.

Key Points

✓ Achieve target 7-day liveweight by managing the brooding environment correctly.

✓ Use chick behaviour to determine if temperature is correct.

✓ Use temperature to stimulate activity and appetite.

✓ Expand the brooding area gradually to allow chicks access to all feeders and drinkers.

✓ Monitor temperature and RH frequently and regularly.

✓ Maintain RH above 70% for the first 3 days and above 50% for the remainder of the
brooding period.

✓ Adjust temperature settings if RH increases above 70% or falls below 60%, whilst
responding to changes in chick behaviour.

VENTILATION

Air quality is critical during the brooding period. Ventilation is required during the brooding
period to maintain temperatures and RH at the correct level and to allow sufficient air exchange
to prevent the accumulation of harmful gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
ammonia. It is good practice to establish a minimum ventilation rate from one day of age,
which will ensure that fresh air is supplied to the chicks at frequent, regular intervals. (See
Housing and Environment, Ventilation and Air Quality, Section 6, page 81).

Internal circulation fans can be used to maintain evenness of air quality at chick level.

Accumulation of waste gases can lead

to heart and lung disease if not
removed effectively.

Key Points

✓ Establish a minimum ventilation programme to supply fresh air and remove waste gases.

✓ Maintain good air quality within the house using circulation fans.

19
 LIGHTING

Conventionally, the system used by broiler growers has been that of continuous lighting. Its use
is intended to maximise daily weight gain. This system consists of a long continuous period of
light, followed by a short dark period (e.g.1/2 -1 hour) to allow birds to become accustomed to
the darkness in the event of a power failure.

Other lighting programmes have been devised to stimulate growth to follow profiles designed to
minimise FCR or reduce mortality. (See Growth Management, Growth Modification Using
Lighting Programmes, Section 2 page 28). All lighting programmes should provide for a long
daylength (e.g. 23 hours light-1 hour dark) in the early stages, to allow chicks to develop a good
appetite.

TABLE 4: LIGHT INTENSITY AND DAYLENGTH

AGE (days) INTENSITY (lux) DAYLENGTH (hours)

0-7 20 minimum 23 light 1 dark
7 - 21 20 - 10 23 light 1 dark
(gradual reduction)
21 - slaughter 10 23 light 1 dark

Low levels of light intensity (<20 lux)

in the initial brooding period reduce
feeding activity.

Reducing daylength too early will

reduce feeding activity and depress
7-day liveweight

Light intensity should then be gradually reduced so that by 21 days it is around 10 lux. (See
Table 4). Improvements in welfare have not been demonstrated in light intensities higher than
10 lux. Light intensity should be uniform throughout the house.

Light source can be either tungsten filament or fluorescent. Research has indicated no significant
difference in bird performance between the 2 types of light source. Fluorescent lighting will give
significant savings in electricity costs after the extra cost of installation has been covered.

Key Points

✓ Provide chicks with long periods of light for the first week.

✓ Use high intensity of light of (>20 lux) in the first 7 days, then reduce gradually.

✓ Light intensity should be uniform throughout the house.

20
Section two
Growth Management

Objectives
To enable the maximum number of birds in each flock to achieve the
liveweight and uniformity required by the specification. To ensure that
defined end product quality specifications are met accurately,
predictably and efficiently.

page contents
22 Flock Uniformity

25 Modified Broiler Growth

21
 GROWTH MANAGEMENT

Principles
The requirements of food retailers will continue to become more exacting. Poultry producers are most
profitable when they maximise the proportion of the birds grown which meet the specification. Flocks
that exhibit predictable and uniform growth are most likely to achieve this objective.

Active and effective genetic selection in Ross broilers has improved leg health and cardiovascular
function. Growth management may sometimes be helpful to the overall welfare of the flock, but the
details must be carefully thought through if overall biological performance is not to be lost. There is a
danger that loss of performance may occur if excessive control is applied.

Growth management may be achieved by controlling food intake directly, by limiting the
amount of light and hence feed intake, or by diluting the diet. These methods are only useful
for birds being grown to heavier weights (i.e. >2.5 kg) where slower, early growth rates may
benefit lifetime performance. Alternatively, to ensure predictability of performance, growth
control can be applied so that all flocks achieve slightly below their growth potential.

Successful application of growth modification programmes depends upon having a uniform

flock of broilers which has achieved good early growth. i.e. target 7-day liveweight is achieved
through good management during brooding.

FLOCK UNIFORMITY

As in any biological system, broiler liveweight will follow a normal distribution. The variability
of a population is described by the coefficient of variation (CV%) which is the standard
deviation of the population expressed as a percentage of the mean. Variable flocks will have a
high CV%, uniform flocks a lower one. Each sex will have a normal distribution of liveweight
with the as-hatched flock having a wider CV% than single sex flocks. (See Diagram 8).

DIAGRAM 8: DISTRIBUTION OF LIVEWEIGHTS IN A

FLOCK OF AS-HATCHED BROILERS
14
% of Flock at Particular Liveweight

12

10
FEMALE

8
MALE

6
AS-HATCHED
4

0
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 kg
2.6 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.3 5.7 6.2 lb
Liveweight (g)

22
 SEPARATE SEX GROWING

The number of birds which achieve liveweight at, or close to the flock mean can be predicted
from the CV% of that flock, and it follows that improvements in uniformity can be attained by
growing flocks in single-sex populations. The technique of feather sexing is described in
Appendix 5, page 107.

Diagram 9 shows weight distributions at different CV% for 3 sexed flocks, all achieving a target
liveweight of 1900g. The percentage of birds falling within a given target liveweight band,
(expressed as the mean liveweight of 1900g, ±100, 200 or 300g), at different CV% can be
calculated. At each target liveweight, the lower the CV%, i.e. the less variable the flock, the
more birds achieve the target. (See Diagram 10, page 24). However, for the narrowest target
liveweight band (i.e. 1800 - 2000g), even at a CV% of 8, only 58% of the birds achieve
required liveweight. An understanding of the effects of biological variability forms the basis of
effective planning in processing plants.

The advantages of separate sex growing can be best exploited when males and females are
housed separately. Both sexes can be managed more efficiently with regard to feeding, lighting
and stocking density. Separate sex growing has the added advantage that the different nutrient
requirements of each sex can be satisfied. Males grow faster, are more feed efficient and have
less carcase fat than females. Growth rate response to increasing protein to energy ratio is
greater in the male than in the female. Details of appropriate rations for males and females are
given in Appendix 2, Table 30-31, pages 96-97.

Conversely, lighting programmes which are helpful in growing heavy males may be detrimental
to females killed at lighter weights. Where sexed flocks are placed in either end of a single
house, and with common environment and feed supply. Very careful thought will be needed to
optimise the growth management for each sex without limiting the other.

DIAGRAM 9: EFFECT OF CV% ON LIVEWEIGHT BANDS

IN A FLOCK OF SEXED BROILERS
14
CV%=8
CV%=10
CV%=12
12
% of Flock in Liveweight Band

10
Flock Details:
- Sexed Flock (males or females).
8
- Mean liveweight 1900g.

0
1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700

Liveweight (g)
23
 DIAGRAM 10: EFFECT OF CV% ON PROPORTION OF
BIRDS IN TARGET LIVEWEIGHT BAND
100 97
91
90 CV=8% 86 84
CV=10%
% of Flock in Liveweight Band

80 76
CV=12%
70 67

60 58

50 49
41
40

30

20

10

0
1800-2000g 1700-2100g 1600-2200g
Target Liveweight Band

PREDICTABILITY OF LIVEWEIGHT

Accurate information on liveweight and CV% for each flock is essential in planning the
appropriate age for slaughter and to ensure that the maximum numbers of birds fall into the
desired weight bands after slaughter. As growth rate increases, and slaughter age becomes
earlier, prediction of liveweight gain over more than 2-3 days is less accurate. Accurate
estimation and prediction of flock liveweight at slaughter requires large numbers of birds (i.e.
>100) to be repeatedly sampled close to slaughter age (i.e. within 2-3 days). (See Table 5).

TABLE 5: NUMBER OF BIRDS IN A SAMPLE TO GIVE ACCURATE

ESTIMATE OF LIVEWEIGHT
RELIABILITY OF CORRECT 95% OF THE TIME CORRECT 99% OF THE TIME
ESTIMATE
Accuracy of
measurement* 1% 2% 5% 1% 2% 5%
CV% = 8 246 61 10 422 106 17
CV% = 10 384 96 15 660 165 26
CV% = 12 553 138 22 950 238 38
* i.e. to ± x % of actual liveweight.

Table 5 shows the number of birds required to be sampled to give a liveweight estimate of
defined reliability and accuracy within flocks of differing variability.

e.g. to estimate the liveweight to within ± 2% of the actual liveweight and be correct 99% of
the time in a uniform flock (i.e. CV% = 8), a sample size of 106 birds is required.

24
 MEASURING LIVEWEIGHT

When control of feed and nutrient intake and lighting programmes are used to improve
predictability, liveweight and the response to any change in management should be monitored.
Birds can be weighed using manual or automatic weighing scales. Any unexpected change in
liveweight should be investigated.

When using manual scales the birds should be weighed at least 3 times per week. On each
occasion, samples of 50-75 birds should be taken at 2 locations in each house.

Automatic weighing systems (i.e. auto-weighers) for broilers are available. They should be
located where large numbers of birds congregate and where individual birds will remain long
enough for weights to be recorded. Older and heavier males tend to use auto-weighers less
frequently, which biases the flock mean downwards. Readings from any auto-weigher should be
regularly checked for usage rate, (i.e. number of completed weights per day), and the mean
liveweights achieved should be crosschecked by manual weighing at least once per week.

Inaccurate liveweight estimation may

result from small sample sizes.

Key Points

✓ Minimise flock variability by monitoring and managing flock uniformity.

✓ Grow sexes separately to reduce variability.

✓ Uniform flocks (low CV%) are more predictable in performance than uneven flocks .

✓ Weigh sufficiently large samples, frequently and accurately to ensure effective prediction
of liveweight at slaughter.

MODIFIED BROILER GROWTH

Modified growth techniques have been designed to meet evolving processing and consumer
demands. The principle components of modified growth techniques include:

• Good, uniform growth to 7 days of age as indicated by 7-day liveweight.

• Growth is managed to less than the maximum, potential daily weight gain in the period
7-21days, to optimise the early development of the cardiovascular, immune and skeletal
systems. (See Diagram 11, page 27).

• Growth is managed, after 21 days, to achieve target liveweight profiles, which may be less
than the maximum growth rate if predictability of weight at slaughter is required.

25
 • Benefits in FCR and liveability from compensatory growth and the birds' genetic potential
for liveweight gain post 21 days. (See Diagram 11, page 27).

• The ideal growth profile for a flock, depends on sex, final target liveweight, any intermediate
partial depletion (i.e. thinning), current liveweights, and required carcase yield.

The two main methods of growth modification used are nutritional (i.e. control of feed and
nutrient intake) and lighting programmes (i.e. reduced access to feed). Early growth is regulated
giving benefits in liveability and FCR, with only minor sacrifices of liveweight or carcase yield.
Recommended reductions in growth for different target processing weights are given in Table 6.

TABLE 6: GUIDELINE REDUCTIONS IN GROWTH TO MEET

TARGET PROCESSING WEIGHTS
PROCESSING WEIGHT (g) SEX % REDUCTION IN LIVEWEIGHT*
14 DAYS 21 DAYS
2000-2500 As-hatched 6-8 4-6
Male 10-12 8-10
>2500 Male 12-14 10-12

* When designing growth modification programmes, the target % reduction in liveweight should
be regarded as a maximum. Percentage reduction is calculated relative to unrestricted growth
under the same environment and nutrition. At 21 days a 5% reduction in liveweight is about 40g

In designing a growth modification programme, gradual changes, over several flocks should be
planned to achieve that reduction in liveweight which will gives the desired improvement in
performance.

The effectiveness of growth modification programmes should also be periodically assessed by

comparing treated flocks with flocks which are fed ad libitum and receive 23 hours light and
1 hour dark. Comparisons should be made of growth, feed conversion and liveability.
Continuous genetic improvements in leg strength and resistance to cardio-vascular problems
may make the use of growth control programmes unnecessary.

Excessive growth restriction at 21 days will lengthen the time that the birds take to reach target
liveweight, and make it more difficult to regain lost carcase and meat yield. Males recover from
growth regulation better than females. Growth regulation is most likely to be successful in birds
grown to heavy liveweights (i.e. requiring a longer growing period).

If growth control to 21 days is

excessive, then the flock may not
recover completely in terms of
liveweight, and will be unlikely to
recover meat yield.

26
 DIAGRAM 11: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODIFIED
GROWTH AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF VITAL
PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND THE
CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR UNDERDEVELOPMENT
3000
BROILER MAXIMUM GROWTH RATE

Sudden Death Ascites

2500

Development Respiratory Disease

2000
Liveweight (g)

of Phsyiological
Functions:
Cardiovascular
Immune MODIFIED GROWTH PROFILE
1500
Skeletal Metabolic Disorders
Pulmonary
COMPENSATORY GROWTH
1000
Leg Problems
Reduction of
Bird/Environment
500
Disorders
Targeted % Skeletal Defects
Reduction Downgrading
0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49
DEPLETION
Age (days)

CONTROL OF FEED AND NUTRIENT INTAKE

Controlling the feed intake of broilers is now common to give better control of growth and to
enhance feed efficiency (by minimising feed wastage and exploiting compensatory growth). If
growth control is properly implemented, liveability and leg health may sometimes be improved.
Manipulating the hours of daylight is one way of controlling feed intake, and although this can
have some problems, it is probably one of the simplest methods. However, when the broiler
house is equipped correctly, direct feed intake control is possible, and has the advantage of
allowing greater accuracy and predictability.

The feed distribution system should be capable of allowing all the birds equal access to feed.
Both feeding space and distribution times are critical. With all feeding systems it is good
practice to allow the birds to clear the feeders (i.e. consume all the feed available in the tracks
or pans) 3 to 4 times per day. This will stimulate appetite and reduce feed wastage which
results in improved FCR.

Increases in scratching damage at

processing may indicate
inadequacies in feed distribution
and feeder space.

27
 Feed intake control requires a means of weighing feed daily and birds at least 3 times per week.
When feed is available, birds become more active and house temperatures can rise quickly;
therefore attention must be given to ventilation at this time. Extra control of water intake may be
necessary, if litter quality appears to be suffering.

Broiler feed intake control requires skilled management and careful attention to detail.
Implementation demands a thorough knowledge of normal and potential performance on the
site, and careful monitoring of the consequences of each change. Birds are unlikely to recover
fully from liveweight depressions greater than 10% at 21 days.

On withdrawal of feed, it is good practice to raise feeders before they are empty. This reduces
the risk of damage to birds from scratching. Where feeders cannot be raised, light intensity
should be reduced.

In order to maximise the benefits of compensatory growth, the birds should have access ad
libitum to feed over the last 10 days prior to depletion.

Control of nutrient intake may also be achieved by feeding a diet with a lower concentration of
one or more essential nutrients. Such diets will often be effective in reducing growth rate, but
the birds will increase feed intake in an attempt to maintain nutrient intake, and both FCR and
yield will suffer. The method has the disadvantage that the effects are unpredictable and are
likely to reduce performance.

Key Points

✓ Aim for a percentage liveweight reduction at 21 days of age which is appropriate to the
final killing weight required, and adjust according to required performance targets.

✓ Weigh feed daily.

✓ Weigh birds 3 times per week.

✓ Provide access ad libitum to feed throughout the last 10 days prior to depletion.

✓ Allow all the birds equal access to feed and water. Both feeding space and distribution
times are critical.

Inaccurate information on daily feed

intake and growth rate results in
poor growth control.

GROWTH MODIFICATION USING

LIGHTING PROGRAMMES

Broilers are conventionally grown on 23 to 24 hours of light per day. Research in several countries
has shown that programmes with less than 23 hours light can have a number of benefits.

Modified lighting programmes for broilers fall into 2 main categories, either short day or
intermittent lighting programmes.
28
The short day is usually imposed from about 7 days of age, and may be held for the life of the
flock (usually after a single increase in daylength), or steadily increased after about 21 days, to
stimulate feed intake and hence growth.

When imposing lighting control, care must be taken to ensure that the flock is growing well. If
birds are significantly under target liveweight at 7 days, then the restriction of feed intake using
lighting control may permanently reduce potential for growth.

Intermittent programmes consist of blocks of time containing both light and dark periods, which
are repeated throughout the 24 hours. The light period within each block of time is increased as
the birds age, to enable them to eat sufficient food to maintain the desired growth rate.
Intermittent lighting programmes tend to be combined with feed control programmes.

Short day programmes are perceived to confer greater welfare benefits than intermittent
programmes. Both types of lighting programme have the following advantages:

• Bird activity is increased. This may result in significant improvements in leg health
sometimes reducing mortality.
• Slower early growth rate which improves cardiovascular function may reduce the incidence
of Ascites and Sudden Death Syndrome.
• Improvement in FCR due to less feed wastage.

Broilers also benefit from a defined pattern of light and dark (i.e. day and night) by having
distinct periods of rest and vigorous activity. Many commercially important physiological
processes, such as bone mineralisation and digestion, exhibit diurnal rhythms. Defined cycles of
light and dark allow the birds to show natural patterns of growth and development.

Daylengths of less than 16 hours will cause a significant reduction in feed intake and liveweight
gain compared to constant light or a 23-hour light period. The use of short daylength to control
liveweight gain is particularly effective in the period from 7 to 14 days. The skeletal,
cardiovascular and immune systems develop before the peak demands of lean tissue growth.

If the flock is not receiving a minimum

of 23 hours of light at least one week
before the first birds are slaughtered,
excessive levels of activity may
make the catching process difficult.

Light intensities are given in Table 4, page 20. Care should be taken to avoid light seepage
through air inlets, fan housings and door frames etc. In practical terms this means that a light
intensity of less than 0.4 lux (0.04 foot candles) should be achieved during the dark period.
Regular tests should be carried out to check the efficiency of the light proofing.

Birds adapt their feeding behaviour to reduced daylength. A change in daylength from 24 to 12
hours of light initially will cause birds to reduce feed intake by 30-40% for the first 3 days.
However, 8 days later, the reduction in feed intake is less than 10%. Birds change their pattern
of feeding in the light period by 'cropping up' (i.e. filling their crops) in anticipation of the dark
period. They may also eat when the lights are off. These behavioural changes are thought to
improve feed consumption and feed efficiency over the life of the flock.

29
 Dimmer switches, as part of the lighting control system, will allow simulation of dawn and
dusk. ‘Dusk’ acts as a cue to birds that the dark period is imminent. ‘Dawn’ avoids crowding
behaviour at feeders and drinkers. The transition from light to dark and vice versa should be
completed over a period of 40-50 minutes, in at least 5 steps.

e.g. Dark –> 0.4 lux –> 0.8 –> 1.6 –> 3.2 –> 6.4 –> 10 lux.

As with feed modification programmes, all birds should have equal access to feed. Feed and
water must be available as soon as the lights are switched on.

When using lighting programmes to modify growth, birds should be fed ad libitum with an
appropriate broiler ration during the period of light.

In order to develop a suitable lighting programme, the following points must be considered:

• The extent and nature of any recurrent problem of liveability.

• Target processing weight.
• The slaughter programme (including partial depletions).
• Whether the sexes are grown together or separately.
• Nutrition and feeding regimes.
• Effectiveness of light proofing in the house.

The design of appropriate programmes must be a responsive process. As an initial guide,

Table 6, page 26 gives an indication of the target liveweight reduction at 21 days of age.

Local knowledge prescribes the most appropriate programme and monitoring of flocks allows
further refinements to be made. The ideal lighting programme for each situation evolves by
making gradual changes which meet the required improvements in performance.

Liveweights should be monitored at least 3 times per week so that subsequent adjustments to
daylength ensure that target liveweight-for-age is achieved.

Short Day Lighting Programmes

Lighting programmes can be applied to both closed and open-sided houses. When applying
lighting programmes to open-sided housing, the ability to set a minimum daylength is defined
by local natural daylength. Natural dawn and dusk will have beneficial effects. Natural dawn
prevents a rush to feeders and drinkers. Natural dusk provides a clear cue to birds which
stimulates 'cropping up'.

It is important that the light used to extend the daylength is at least 30% of the natural light
intensity and that there is a clear transition from dark to light.

Short Day – Gradual Increase

These types of programme combine short daylengths in the critical 7 to 14 day period, with
steadily increasing daylengths at later ages. They have been found to be particularly effective for
male and as-hatched flocks grown to average liveweights of 2kg or above. (See Table 7, page 31).

30
 TABLE 7: EXAMPLE OF A PROGRAMME OF SHORT DAY
GRADUALLY INCREASING LIGHT, SUITABLE FOR MALE
OR AS-HATCHED FLOCKS SLAUGHTERED ABOVE 2KG
(4.41LB)
AGE LIGHT (hours) DARK (hours)
0-6 days 23 1
*7-21 days 18 6
22-28 days 20 4
29 days-depletion 23 1
* Growth control programmes should only be started at less than 7 days of age where birds are
known to be achieving target liveweights.

Short Day – Single Step Increase

These combine short daylength, in the critical 7-21 day period with daylength increasing in a
single step. These are simple to manage and are particularly effective in as-hatched flocks. (See
Table 8).

TABLE 8: EXAMPLE OF A SHORT DAY PROGRAMME SUITABLE

FOR FLOCKS GROWN TO 2KG (4.41LB)

AGE LIGHT (hours) DARK (hours)

0-6 days 23 1
*7-21 days 20 4
22 days-depletion 23 1

* Growth control programmes should only be started at less than 7 days of age where birds are
known to be achieving target liveweights.

Lighting programmes are unlikely to be of benefit when growing flocks to less than 2kg at
slaughter.

Intermittent Lighting Programmes

Although the exact mechanism is not fully understood, it is thought that by giving broilers
discrete meals (i.e. short feeding periods) followed by longer periods for digestion (i.e. dark
periods), the efficiency of feed utilisation (i.e. FCR) is improved. The extra activity caused by the
regular pattern of light and dark is thought to be beneficial in improving leg health and carcase
quality (e.g. lower incidence of hockburn, breast blisters etc.).

31
 TABLE 9: EXAMPLE OF INTERMITTENT LIGHTING PROGRAMME
SUITABLE FOR FLOCKS DEPLETED AT 42 DAYS
AGE LIGHT/DARK LIGHT/DARK LIGHT/DARK LIGHT/DARK
(hours) (hours) (hours) (hours)
0-6 days 23 1
*7-35 days 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1
36-42 days 23 1

* Growth control programmes should only be started at less than 7 days of age where birds are
known to be achieving target liveweights.

Intermittent lighting programmes can also be of great value in reducing the effects of heat stress
on broiler performance. (See Table 10). The extra activity induced by the regular changes from
dark to light helps to dissipate the heat which builds up between birds. In extreme climates, the
combination of intermittent lighting and intermittent feeding (i.e. feeding only in the cool parts of
the day) will significantly reduce mortality caused by heat stress and will improve performance.

TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF AN INTERMITTENT LIGHTING

PROGRAMME TO REDUCE THE EFFECTS OF HEAT STRESS
AGE DAYLENGTH
0-6 days 24 hours light
7-21 days 23 hours light 1 hour dark
22 days-depletion 2 hours light/2 hours dark or 1 hour light/3 hours dark

Key Points

✓ Make feed and water available to all birds as soon as lights come on.

✓ Provide light periods greater than one hour for adequate stimulus to the birds.

✓ Ensure that birds are close to target 7-day liveweight before beginning a lighting programme.

✓ Incorporate a break of one hour of light with longer dark periods (>6 hours). This reduces
dehydration in chicks where water supply is inadequate or environmental humidity is low
(RH< 40%).

✓ Use dimmer switches (if available) to simulate dawn and dusk. Complete the transition
from light to dark and vice versa within 40-50 minutes in at least 5 steps.

✓ Ensure effective light proofing, (<0.4 lux during the dark period).

✓ Allow all birds equal access to feed and water.

✓ Feed ad libitum during the light period.

✓ Weigh birds at least 3 times per week and adjust daylength accordingly.

✓ Increase feeder and drinker space per bird, when using any lighting programmes to allow
for the short periods of time available for feeding and drinking.
44
32
x
Section three
Pre-Processing Management

Objectives
To manage the final phase of the production process so that broilers
are transferred to the processor in optimum condition, ensuring that
the processing requirements are met and high standards of welfare are
maintained.

page contents
34 Preparation for catching

35 Catching

36 Processing

33
 PRE-PROCESSING MANAGEMENT

Principles
The maintenance of high quality in broilers during catching and transport requires detailed
attention to management of the environment and to welfare of the birds.

The planning and organisation of procedures should permit efficient catching and transfer of the
birds from the broiler house to the transport system and subsequently into the slaughter house.

PREPARATION FOR CATCHING

When modified growth has been practised by the application of lighting programmes, it is
essential to return to 23 hours of light at least 7 days prior to first depletion. This will ensure
that the birds are calm during collection.

A withdrawal ration must be fed for sufficient time prior to slaughter to eliminate the risk of
anticoccidial residues or other prescribed medicines in the meat. Statutory withdrawal periods
for coccidiostats and other prescribed medicines as specified in product data sheets should be
followed.

Where thinning (i.e. partial depletion) programmes are used, it may be necessary to keep the
birds on withdrawal rations for longer than ideal, prior to slaughter.

Feed should be withdrawn 8 to 10 hours before processing. This period should include catching
time and the time spent in transit. If feed withdrawal time is prolonged, water absorbed from
body tissues accumulates in the digestive tract resulting in deterioration in yield. Faecal
contamination will be increased.

The presence of watery droppings

from broilers awaiting processing is
an indication of excessive feed
withdrawal times.

Whole wheat, if included in the diet, should be removed 2 days before processing, to avoid the
presence of whole grain in the gut.

Unlimited access to water should be available for as long as possible. Multiple drinker lines,
separation of birds into pens and the progressive removal of individual drinkers will prolong
access to drinking water. Water should be removed only when absolutely necessary.

It is inevitable that some weight loss will occur during the feed withdrawal period due to loss of
gut contents. These losses will have little effect on the carcase weight (i.e. eviscerated yield will
improve). However, care should be taken to ensure that the withdrawal period does not
become excessive resulting in dehydration, when bird welfare will be compromised and carcase
yield will be reduced.
34
Key Points

✓ Use withdrawal feed (i.e. without coccidiostat) as necessary to avoid residues in meat.
✓ Allow 7 days on full light (i.e. 23 hours light and one hour dark) to avoid problems during
catching.

✓ Appropriate feed withdrawal will ensure that the digestive systems are empty before
catching commences, limiting faecal contamination during transport and processing.

✓ Remove whole wheat from the ration 2 days before slaughter.

✓ Delay the removal of drinkers for as long as possible.

CATCHING

Catching and handling will cause stress to broilers. Appropriate procedures will minimise the
stress experienced by the birds.
Most downgrading observed at slaughter will have occurred during the previous 24 hours, when
the birds were being caught and handled. Catching is an operation therefore, which should be
planned carefully in advance and supervised closely at all stages. The handling of birds or
operation of machinery (i.e. harvesters, forklifts etc.) must be carried out by appropriately
trained, competent personnel. They should aim to avoid unnecessary struggling by the birds and
to minimise bruising, scratching or other injuries.
Prior to catching, all feeding equipment should be raised above head height (i.e. >6ft), removed
from the house or positioned to avoid obstruction to the birds or personnel.
In larger houses, separation of birds into pens will avoid unnecessary crowding. It will also
allow access to water for birds not immediately due for catching.
Light intensity within the house must be reduced to a minimum, but must be sufficient to allow
safe and careful catching. Blue light has been found to be satisfactory for this purpose. The best
results are achieved when birds are allowed to settle after lights have been dimmed and when
there is minimum disturbance.
The use of curtains over main doors of the house is helpful when catching during daylight
hours. The opening of doors and removal of birds will affect ventilation of thermostatically
controlled environments. The ventilation system should be monitored and adjusted carefully
throughout the catching procedure.
Broilers should be held by the feet and shanks, never by the thighs. They should be caught and
held by both legs to minimise distress, damage and injury, which might otherwise result if they
were able to struggle and flap. The birds should be placed carefully into modules, loading from
the top down or crates. Modules have been shown to result in less distress and damage than
conventional crates. Crates or modules should never be overfilled. The number of broilers per
crate or module must be reduced in high temperatures. Transport time should be within the
local current guidelines or legislation.

Overheating, stress and increased

mortality can result from overfilling
of crates/modules.

35
 At all times from loading to the lairage (i.e. livebird storage area) adequate protection from the
elements is essential. Ventilation, extra heating and/or cooling should be used when necessary.
Vehicles should be designed to protect the bird from the elements. Stress on the birds will be
minimised in trailers designed to provide adequate ventilation.

Heat stress will develop rapidly when the transport vehicle is stationary, particularly if on-board
ventilation is not available or in hot weather. The journey plan should allow the vehicle to
leave the farm as soon as loading is completed, and driver breaks should be short. Unloading
to the lairage must be completed without delay. Supplementary ventilation will be required if
delay is unavoidable.
Key Points
✓ Supervise catching and handling methods carefully to minimise trauma injuries to the birds.

✓ Remove or raise obstructions such as feeders or drinkers before beginning the catching
operation and use partitions in large houses to avoid injuries caused by crowding.

✓ Reduce light intensity prior to catching to keep the birds calm and minimise damage and
subsequent stress.

✓ Adjust bird numbers in crates/modules to allow for bird weight, and ambient
temperature.

✓ Plan journey and bird reception

✓ Monitor welfare continuously

PROCESSING

Successful production of the maximum number of high quality carcases with good yield
depends on effective integration of the growing and processing operations. Careful planning and
communication between the farm and processing plant will allow processing to proceed
effectively. Management on the farm can influence the efficient operation of the killing,
plucking and evisceration processes.

Close attention should be given to litter quality, stocking density, feed withdrawal times,
catching methods and transport and holding times so that faecal contamination carcase damage
and downgrading are minimised.

Excessive carcase damage may be an

indication of problems on the broiler
farm.

Key Points
✓ Deliver clean birds to the processor

✓ Maintain good litter quality, depth and condition to minimise Hockburn and other
carcase quality problems.

✓ Scratching damage may be increased under high stocking densities, or when feeder or
drinker spaces are inadequate especially when lighting or feed control is used.
✓ Minimise transport and holding times to reduce stress and dehydration.
36
Section four
Nutrition

Objectives
To supply a range of balanced diets which satisfy the nutrient
requirements of broiler stock at all stages of their development and
production, and which optimise efficiency and profitability without
compromising bird welfare.

page contents
38 Supply of Nutrients

44 Broiler Diet Specifications

47 Quality of Feed and Feed Ingredients

51 Whole Wheat Feeding

37
 NUTRITION

Objective
To supply a range of balanced diets which satisfy the nutrient requirements of broiler stock at all
stages of their development and production, and which optimise efficiency and profitability
without compromising bird welfare.

Principles
Feed is a major component of the total cost of broiler production. Broiler rations should be
formulated to give the correct balance of energy, protein and amino acids, minerals, vitamins
and essential fatty acids, to allow optimum growth and performance. Factors such as stocking
density, climate and disease status may depress liveweight gain and increase feed conversion
ratio, leading to altered nutrient requirements.

A response to improved nutrition will

only be achieved in broiler flocks
when nutrient supply, rather than
other management factors, is
limiting performance.

The diet specifications proposed in this manual will allow good performance in healthy broilers,
kept under the management conditions specified elsewhere in this manual.

Local market structure, product value and local variations in feed ingredient supply must all be
considered in ration specification, so that economic and nutritional requirements are satisfied.
There may also be local preferences e.g. for carcase skin colour, which will influence diet
formulation. The local Technical Services Manager of Aviagen and/or the feed manufacturer
should be consulted for more specialised situations, and for advice on local market
circumstances.

SUPPLY OF NUTRIENTS

ENERGY

The correct energy content of broiler feeds is determined, primarily, by economic criteria. In
practice, the choice of energy level will also be influenced by many interacting factors e.g.
supply of feed ingredients, milling constraints etc. A distinction should be made between
nutrient density and energy level in the feed. Both are expressed in energy units, but nutrient
density has the additional condition that nutrient : energy ratios are held constant as energy
level varies. Nutrient density in the feed, rather than energy content, is the main determinant of
broiler performance.

38
The conventional method of expressing the energy content of the feed is as the apparent
metabolisable energy level corrected to zero nitrogen retention (AMEn). Data on energy
contents expressed in this way are available from many sources; in this manual energy values
are based on World Poultry Science Association (WPSA) tables.

The AMEn values of some ingredients, especially fats, are lower in young chicks than in adult
birds. Formulating diets for broilers using chick AMEn will overcome this problem by reducing
the level of fats and less digestible raw materials. Net Energy systems of expressing energy
content overcome the differences in the utilisation of ME when it is derived from different
substrates (i.e. fat, protein or carbohydrate) and used for different metabolic purposes. The
adoption of these new energy systems improves the consistency and predictability of broiler
performance.

In practice, dietary fat level is associated with the energy content of broiler feeds. There is an
upper limit to the inclusion of fat, above which pellet quality is likely to suffer. Fat interacts in a
complex way with other dietary components and this may further limit the use of fat as an
energy source. When feeds contain soluble, non-starch polysaccharides originating from wheat,
barley or rye, the fat digestibility is reduced. The reduction is greater when saturated fats are
used. The problem is less severe when maize is used as the main cereal. The inclusion in the
feed of enzymes, organic acids or other additives, which modify the gut microflora, will also
help to overcome this problem.

Some typical energy levels for broiler feeds are indicated in Appendix 2, Tables 29-31, pages
95-97. This information is a practical guide and does not represent the requirements of the
birds. The energy levels, which will give the best economic return, should be determined under
the local conditions in which the broilers are grown. When energy levels are changed,
however, nutrient levels should also be adjusted to maintain the nutrient density of the feeds.

Key Points

✓ Make distinction between energy level and nutrient density in the feed.

✓ Include enzymes, organic acids or other additives in the feed, if digestibility problems
occur.

✓ Consider using chick AMEn in formulating broiler diets to reduce levels of less digestible
raw materials

There is a reduction in fat digestibility

when feeds contain soluble, non-
starch polysaccharides originating
from wheat, barley, rye and sorghum.

39
 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS

The level of protein in the feed must be sufficient to ensure that requirements for all essential
and non-essential amino acids are met. It is preferable to use high quality protein sources
where these are available, especially for broilers under heat stress. Poor quality or imbalanced
protein can create metabolic stress, there is an energy cost associated with its excretion and wet
litter may also result.

Broiler feeds should be formulated using available or digestible amino acid levels. In this
manual amino acid levels are based on true fecal digestibility. Amino acid levels are listed in
Appendix 2, Tables 29-31, pages 95-97, for those 9 amino acids that may be limiting in
practical feeds. The levels of protein suggested in this manual should be seen as a guide and
not as precise statements; the protein level will vary according to the feed ingredients.

Appendix 2, Table 32, pages 98-99 lists typical digestibility coefficients for some common
feedstuffs.

Amino acid levels in feeds must be considered together with energy levels. The principles of
using feeds with different nutrient density levels have been discussed. (See Supply of Nutrients,
Energy, page 38-39).

Higher ratios of digestible amino acids to energy have been shown to improve profitability by
increasing broiler and processing performance. This is especially true when growing broilers for
portioning or meat stripping (see Ross Tech 00/39 ‘Broilers Protein and Profit’). The optimal
digestible lysine : energy ration should be determined within each operation. The levels of
other amino acids may then be calculated using the ‘ideal’ protein ratios suggested in Table 11.

The ratio between arginine and lysine indicated in Table 11, reflects the requirements for
growth. There is evidence that the use of higher arginine : lysine ratios may help to protect the
birds against heat stress, Ascites and bacterial infections.

TABLE 11: RATIOS OF DIGESTIBLE AMINO ACIDS IN ‘IDEAL’ PROTEIN

DIGESTIBLE AMINO ACID STARTER GROWER FINISHER
Arginine 105 107 109
iso-Leucine 66 67 68
Lysine 100 100 100
Methionine 37 38 39
Methionine + Cystine 74 76 78
Threonine 63 64 66
Tryptophan 17 17 18
Valine 74 75 76
Note: the information in this table is derived from field experience and published literature.

40
Key Points

✓ Consider amino acid levels together with factors affecting feed intake (i.e. energy levels
or feed intake control programmes) when formulating broiler diets.

✓ Use high quality sources of protein especially in circumstances when broilers are likely to
suffer heat stress.

Poor quality proteins can cause

metabolic stress. Their excretion has
an energy cost, and wet litter can
result.

MAJOR MINERALS

The provision of correct levels of the major minerals and of an appropriate balance between
them is important because of the high performance of broilers. The minerals involved are
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride.

Calcium: The level of calcium in the diet of broilers influences growth, feed efficiency, bone
development, leg health and the immune system. These responses may require different
calcium levels to allow optimum expression, so a compromise must be made when choosing a
level of dietary calcium.

With the widespread change to all-vegetable broiler feeds in many countries, dietary levels of
phytate have increased. High levels of phytate in broiler diets may adversely affect the
availability of calcium. Free fatty acids in the diet will also reduce calcium availability.

High levels of phytate and free fatty

acids in broiler diets will reduce
calcium availability.

Phosphorus: Phosphorus recommendations in this manual are based on the classical

availability system. Digestible phosphorus is used in some countries to overcome the problems
of assessing phosphorus availability in poultry feeds. Care should be taken to use consistent
data on available phosphorus content of feed ingredients and bird requirements.

41
 The use of phytase enzymes will increase the available phosphorus content of vegetable feed
ingredients. In general, the use of such enzymes will be beneficial in broiler production. The
reduction in phytate arising from the use of enzymes will increase availability of calcium and
other minerals.

Magnesium: Requirements are normally met without the need for supplementation. Excessive
magnesium (>0.5%) will cause severe scouring.

Sodium, potassium and chloride: It is important to control sodium and chloride levels as
suggested in Appendix 2, Tables 29-31, pages 95-97. In particular, chloride should be
accurately controlled by the use of sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride. In feed
formulation all dietary sources of chloride should be carefully identified e.g. in lysine
hydrochloride and choline chloride.

Electrolyte balance (EB) is important to broilers, especially in heat stress conditions. The anion
content of both vitamin and mineral premixes should always be included in the calculation of
ionic balance in finished feeds. With practical potassium levels of about 0.7%, and the
recommended levels of sodium and chloride, an EB (sodium + potassium - chloride) of about
210mEq/kg will be obtained. This is satisfactory and, as indicated, most emphasis should be
given to the control of chloride levels.

Key Points

✓ Describe phosphorus in feed ingredients and bird requirements in the same units.

✓ Control chloride levels accurately by using both sodium chloride and bicarbonate as feed
ingredients.

TRACE MINERALS

Conventional levels of supplementation are recommended for these nutrients. Care should be
taken to ensure that suitable forms of each mineral are included in the premix. Organic trace
elements have a higher availability in general. There is evidence that enhancement of the zinc
and selenium status of broilers may improve feathering and the immune response of the birds.

ADDED VITAMINS

Appropriate vitamin supplementation depends on feed ingredients, feed manufacture and local
circumstances. A major source of variation in supplementation for some vitamins is cereal type.
Accordingly, separate recommendations have been made for vitamin A, nicotinic acid,
pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6) and biotin in maize- and wheat-based feeds.

The recommendation for choline is given as a minimum specification in the complete feed and
not quoted as a component of the premix.

Vitamin C may have a role in reducing heat stress.

42
Many circumstances, (e.g. stress, disease incidence), may make birds responsive to vitamin
levels higher than those recommended in Appendix 2, Tables 29-31, pages 95-97. Increases in
the levels of vitamins supplied, in the feed or via the water, must be based on local knowledge
and experience. In general, the longer-term strategy should be to remove or reduce any stress
factors, rather than to depend on permanent use of excessive vitamin supplementation.

The basic requirement of broiler chickens for vitamin E is 10-15mg/kg. The need for extra
supplementation will depend on the level and type of fat in the diet, on the level of selenium
and on the presence of pro- and antioxidants. Heat treatment of feeds results in the destruction
of up to 20% of vitamin E. Enhancement of immune response and improvements in shelf-life of
broiler meat are observed at vitamin E levels up 300mg/kg. The levels suggested in Appendix 2,
Tables 29-31 are suitable for production of healthy broilers under normal conditions but there
may be situations (e.g. disease outbreaks) in which higher levels of vitamin E are justified.

Key Points

✓ Reduce or remove stressors rather than depend on excessive vitamin supplementation.

✓ Control total choline level, taking account of the contribution of feed ingredients. Avoid
using choline chloride in vitamin supplements.

NON-NUTRITIVE FEED ADDITIVES

The feed may be used as a carrier for a wide range of additives, drugs and other non-nutritive
substances. It is not possible to give a comprehensive list and Aviagen cannot recommend or
endorse particular products. The more important classes of additive that might be considered
for use in broiler feeds are listed here. Local legalisation may control the use of these products.

Enzymes: There is growing evidence that feed enzymes act partly by modifying the gut
microflora in a beneficial direction. This may lead to complex interactions between the use of
enzymes, antibiotic growth promoters and dietary substrates, such as soluble non-starch
polysaccharides. Control of these interactions, especially when wheat is used as the main
cereal, is important in successful broiler feeding.

Carbohydrase enzymes will allow higher levels of barley to be included in the ration. These
enzymes will also be economically beneficial in wheat-based feeds. Enzymes are also available
for maize-soya feeds. Phytase may be used to enhance phytate phosphorus utilisation.
Increasing use of heat processing of broiler feeds leads to loss of enzyme activity. This may be
avoided by spraying enzymes on to the feed at the end of processing.

Medicinal and Prophylactic Drugs: A wide range of drugs e.g. coccidiostats, antibiotics etc.
may be administered through the feed. Veterinary control and authorisation in accordance with
local regulations is essential.

Antibiotic Growth Promoters / Digestion Enhancers: Although these products are being
phased out in some parts of the world, their use is still widespread. The mode of action is
complex, but will normally involve modification of the gut microflora, with consequential
changes in nutrient utilisation. They are probably more effective, and more important, in

43
 wheat- or barley-based feeds or with other sources of soluble, non-starch polysaccharides. (See
Ross Tech 99/37, Antibiotic Growth Promoters).

Probiotics: Probiotics introduce live micro-organisms into the digestive tract to assist with the
establishment of a stable and beneficial microflora.

Prebiotics: Prebiotics are a group of substances which stimulate the growth of beneficial, at the
expense of harmful, micro-organisms. Oligosaccharides form the largest group of these
products at present.

Organic Acids: Acidification of feed is of growing importance in broiler production. Organic

acid products can reduce bacterial contamination of the feed (e.g. after heat treatment) and can
also encourage a beneficial microflora to develop in the bird’s digestive tract.

Absorbents: Absorbents are used specifically to absorb mycotoxins. They may also have a
beneficial effect on general bird health and nutrient absorption. Various clay products, charcoal
and proprietary products are used as absorbents.

Antioxidants: Antioxidants can provide important protection against nutrient loss in broiler
feeds. Some feed ingredients e.g. fishmeal and fats, will usually be protected. Vitamin
premixes should be protected by an antioxidant unless optimum storage times and conditions
are provided. Additional antioxidants may be added to the final feed where inadequate or
prolonged storage conditions are unavoidable.

Anti-mould Agents: Mould inhibitors may be added to feed ingredients, which have become
contaminated, or to finished rations to reduce growth of fungi and production of mycotoxins.

Pelleting Agents: Pelleting agents are used to improve pellet hardness. Pellet binders (e.g.
hemicellulose, bentonite, guar gum) may be added at levels up to 2.5% of the diet.

Other products of possible use in broiler production, include essential oils, nucleotides, glucans
and specialised plant extracts.

BROILER DIET SPECIFICATIONS

Diet specifications for broilers are given in Appendix 2, tables 29-31, pages 95-97 for a range of
popular production and market situations.

As-hatched or female; 1.6-1.8kg (3.5-4.0lb) liveweight Appendix 2, Table 29

As-hatched; 2.3-2.5kg (5.1-5.5lb) liveweight Appendix 2, Table 30
Male; 3.0kg (6.6lb) liveweight Appendix 2, Table 31

These specifications may need to be modified for the conditions prevailing in particular
markets. Factors to be considered are:

• The supply and price of feed ingredients

• Age and live weight at slaughter
• Yield and carcass quality
• Market requirements for skin colour, shelf-life etc.
• Use of sexed growing
44
The most appropriate diet specification will give performance which maximises the margin over
cost for the product, or products, required by the processing plant. (See Ross Tech 00/39
‘Broilers Protein and Profit’).

BROILER STARTER FEEDS

The objective of the brooding period (0 to 10 days of age) is to establish good appetite and
achieve maximum early growth (see Section 1 Chick Management page 7-20). The target is to
achieve a seven day liveweight of 160g or above. Broiler Starter should be given for 7-10 days.
The Starter represents a small proportion of the total feed cost and decisions on Starter
formulation should be based on performance and profitability rather than cost.

The digestible amino acid levels described in Appendix 2 will allow the bird to achieve
maximum early growth. This is important in all modern broiler systems and is of particular
importance in the production of small birds, in challenging conditions or when breast meat
production is at a premium.

The digestive system of the young chick is immature and care must be taken to ensure that the
raw materials used are highly digestible. In challenging conditions specialised pre-starters (0 to
3/7 days) have been of some benefit. These may feature:

• Use of highly digestible ingredients

• High nutrient levels, especially amino acids, vitamin E and zinc
• Use of pre- and probiotics
• Stimulants of immunity; essential oils, nucleotides etc.
• Intake stimulants; feed form, high sodium, flavours etc.
• Other specialized additives.

In wheat-feeding areas the use of some maize may be beneficial. Total fat levels should be kept
low (<5%) and saturated animal fats should be avoided especially in combination with wheat.

High levels of saturated fats,

especially in combination with
wheat, will limit early growth.

BROILER GROWER FEEDS

Broiler Grower feed will normally be given for 14 to 18 days after the Starter. Starter to Grower
transition will involve a change of texture from crumbs to pellets.

There is a continuing need for a good quality Grower feed to maximise performance. If any
growth restriction is required it should be applied during this period. Use of management
techniques (eg meal feeding, lighting) to restrict feed intake is preferred (see Section 2 Growth
Management page 25). Growth restriction by diet composition is not recommended.

45
x
 BROILER FINISHER FEEDS

Broiler Finisher feeds account for the major cost of feeding and economic principles should
applied to the design of these feeds. Changes in body composition can be rapid during this
period and excessive fat deposition and loss of breast meat yield need to be carefully
considered.

Finisher feeds with low nutrient levels

will increase fat deposition and
reduce meat yield.

The use of one or two Broiler Finisher feeds will depend on desired slaughter weight, the length
of the production period and the design of the feeding programme. Withdrawal periods for
drugs may dictate the use of a special withdrawal finisher feed. This feed should be adjusted for
the age of the birds but the practice of extreme nutrient withdrawal during this period is not
recommended.

SEPARATE FEEDING OF MALE AND FEMALE BROILERS

When male and female broilers are grown separately there may be an opportunity to increase
profitability by using different feeds for the two sexes. Diets for mixed-sex flocks are correct for
male birds, so the major opportunity is for feed cost saving in females. Differences in
requirements are mostly concerned with amino acid levels. However, separate sex growing will
often be associated with different markets and this may diminish the opportunity for feed cost
saving in females. For example, females grown for slaughter at low weights should be well-fed
throughout life because of the requirements of this market. This consideration may override the
opportunity to exploit small differences in nutrient requirements.

All broilers need good early growth rates and there is no opportunity for using different starter
feeds for males and females. Most opportunity for cost saving is in the finisher phase provided
that this is compatible with market requirements. Differences in requirements may also be
exploited by varying the feeding programme but using the same feed compositions.

Key Points

✓ Design broiler diets to maximise profitability of the whole production chain.

✓ Formulate Starter feeds to maximise performance (i.e. achieve or exceed target 7 day
liveweight) rather than to minimise cost.

46
 QUALITY OF FEED AND FEED INGREDIENTS

It is important that the ingredients used to manufacture feeds for broilers are fresh and of high
quality. Successful broiler production is achieved using a wide range of ingredients. It is very
important that suitable quality control procedures are applied and appropriate feed technologies
are used.

When poorer quality ingredients are fed, non-utilisable nutrients must be catabolised and
excreted by the birds, using up energy and creating metabolic stress. Cereals and vegetable
feed ingredients are susceptible to fungal growth if stored in hot, humid conditions. Fungi
produce mycotoxins that dependent on degree of contamination, may reduce growth rate and
feed conversion of broilers. Litter condition may be adversely affected, which in turn could
result in increased downgrading of broiler carcases. Long-term storage of ingredients may lead
to the presence of spoilage products that reduce feed intake or have other detrimental effects on
broiler performance. When freshness of ingredients cannot be assured because of market
restrictions or prices, quality control becomes even more important.

Long-term storage of feed ingredients

or feed can lead to formation of
spoilage products with a negative
effect on performance.

The nutritional value of feed ingredients will vary with feed processing methods, climate and
season. The feed formulation matrix of ingredients should be appropriate to the geographical
area. The matrix should be supported by routine chemical analyses and examination for
contamination (e.g. salmonellae, mycotoxins). The feed ingredient matrix printed in this manual
should only be used as a general guide. (See Appendix 2, Table 32, pages 98-99). Local
information about feed ingredients must always be used in preference.

Some quality issues relating to individual classes of feed ingredient are listed in Appendix 2,
Table 33, page 100. The development of appropriate quality control procedures and the use of
suitable technological methods to control and enhance feed quality are topics beyond the scope
of this manual. However, these topics are important to successful broiler growing and should
be given high priority.

The range of feed ingredients available for least-cost formulation must be suitable for broilers.
Limits should be set on the inclusion of ingredients known to give problems when consumed in
excess (e.g. tapioca, low-protein soya). Appendix 2, Table 34, page 101 indicates some
practical limits for common feed ingredients. These should be adopted as far as possible, but
may have to be exceeded under some conditions. The use of several comparable feed
ingredients in ration formulation will reduce dependency on any one. The greater the use of a
single ingredient, the more important is effective quality control.

47
 Poor quality control of feed
ingredients is a common cause of
problems in broiler production.

Key Points

✓ Use good quality, fresh ingredients for broiler feed whenever possible.

✓ Use local feed ingredient matrix whenever possible.

✓ Set formulation limits on raw materials known to cause problems.

VITAMIN AND MINERAL PREMIXES

A general recommendation is given in Appendix 2, Tables 29-31, pages 95-97 for

supplementation of feeds with vitamins and trace minerals. Occasionally, circumstances may
arise which cause an increase in vitamin requirements, e.g. disease incidence. This enhanced
vitamin requirement may be met more economically by use of water-soluble vitamin products.

Aviagen does not endorse the practice of removing vitamin premix during the final stages of the
birds' growth, because of welfare considerations.

Practical vitamin supplementation should take into account losses, which might occur between
premix manufacture and feeding. Selection of vitamin products, storage times and conditions at
all stages and feed processing are the most important factors in vitamin losses. The use of separate
vitamin and mineral premixes and the exclusion of choline chloride from the premixes are
strongly recommended because of oxidative losses. Storage conditions should be cool, dry
and dark to reduce the risk of oxidation and careful stock control should be exercised. The
incorporation of antioxidant in premixes is recommended. Appendix 2, Table 35, page 102,
shows the probable losses of vitamins occurring in a broiler feed under a small range of practical
conditions. Vitamin losses will be higher than this if heat treatment is used for biosecurity of feed.

Key Points

✓ Ensure appropriate storage times and cool, dark storage conditions between manufacture
of premixes and feeding. Supplement level must take account of probable losses.

✓ Include antioxidant in vitamin premixes.

Vitamin losses during feed

manufacture require special attention
when broiler feeds undergo heat
treatment for reasons of
biosecurity.

48
x
 The combination of trace minerals and
vitamins in the same premix and
inclusion of choline chloride are
significant causes of oxidative
losses.

FAT SOURCES

Fat of either animal or vegetable origin may be added to rations. Animal fats, other than poultry
fat, contain more saturated fatty acids, which are less digestible, especially in the immature
digestive system of the chick. In starter and grower rations, it is advisable to use fat blends
containing higher percentages of unsaturated fats.

In finisher rations, this type of fat blend is not suitable, as the high levels of unsaturated fats may
have a detrimental effect on carcase greasiness and storage quality. Fat blends used in finisher
rations should have a higher percentage of 'hard' fats.

It is important that the quality of fat ingredients is carefully controlled (see table 12).

TABLE 12: REQUIRED QUALITY CRITERIA FOR FEED FATS

CRITERIA REQUIRED FOR FEED FATS
Moisture, impurities and unsaponifiables max 5%
Monomeric fatty acids min 92%
Non-elutable material max 8%
Free fatty acids max 50%
Oxidised fatty acids max 2%
Antioxidant present
Herbicide and pesticide residues controlled
Pathogens controlled

Recycled animal fats should not be

used unless pathogen control is
effective.

Key Point

✓ Use fat blends containing higher percentages of unsaturated fats in starter and grower
rations.

49
x
 FEED PROCESSING AND FEED FORM

Broiler growth and FCR will generally be better if the starter feed is crumbled and the grower and
finisher feeds are pelleted. There is evidence that the 'cooking' effect of the pelleting process
improves nutrient availability and gives a significant reduction in microbial contamination.
Reductions in the energy cost of feeding activity by the bird can explain much of the benefits of
pelleting on performance. Feed processing should be carried out with care. When feed is heat-
treated to improve biosecurity, compensation should be made for any heat-induced degradation
of protein and vitamins which may occur. Heat treatment/processing can cause wet litter.

Heat-treated feed can increase the

frequency of problems with wet
litter.

To help lubricate the pellet die, at least 0.5-1.0% added fat may be included in the pellet. The
balance of the added fat may be sprayed on to finished pellets to increase the energy value of the
feed, without reducing their hardness and durability. The use of some feed ingredients, especially
wheat, will increase pellet hardness. If pellet quality is poor, pellet binders may be added.

To achieve full growth potential, correct feed texture and pellet sizes are important.(See Table 13).

TABLE 13: FORM OF FEED BY AGE IN BROILERS

AGE FEED FORM AND SIZE
0-10 days sieved crumbs
11-28 days 2-3mm diameter pellets
29 days to processing 3mm diameter pellets

However, satisfactory broiler performance can be achieved if pelleting is not available,

especially where maize is the principle cereal. When feed is in the form of mash, special
attention should be paid to having coarse grist (i.e. particle size) and uniform grist distribution.

As for pellets, mash feeds will benefit from the inclusion of some fat in the formulation to
reduce dust.

Key Points

✓ Use pelleted feed for optimum growth and FCR.

✓ Aim for optimum grist size and appropriate cereal source when pelleting is not possible.

If processing conditions for pellets

are made more severe to achieve
better control of microbial
contamination then nutrient losses,
especially of vitamins, may occur.
50
x
 WHOLE WHEAT FEEDING

The practice of presenting broilers with a mixture of compound feed (pellets) and wheat has
been most widely used in Europe. However, it should be feasible to use any whole cereal.

The feeding of whole grain saves costs in feed manufacture and possibly in transport. Whole
grain feeding supports a better gut microflora, enhances digestive efficiency and improves litter
condition. There is some evidence that the feeding of whole wheat may increase coccidiosis
resistance. It may be used to facilitate a smoother transition of nutrient supply during the
growing period. Against these advantages must be set the loss of eviscerated yield and breast
meat. Extra costs will be incurred in treating wheat with organic acids to control salmonellae.

The level of inclusion of whole wheat should be accounted for in formulating the compound
feed. When the compound feed or balancer feed is not adjusted for the amount of whole
wheat, birds will achieve a poor growth and FCR, have less breast meat and become more fat.
Both the amount of wheat to be used and the composition of the compound feed (or balancer
feed) must be considered carefully. The aim is to provide sufficient intakes of all nutrients from
the combination of compound feed and wheat. Individual birds satisfy, to some extent, their own
nutrient requirements by selecting an appropriate mixture of the 2 feeds. Care must always be
taken, to ensure that drug and micronutrient intakes are sufficient at the dilution rates planned.

Used together with the broiler specifications in this manual, safe inclusion rates of wheat are
given in Table 14. These inclusion rates of whole wheat should be formulated within the ration.

TABLE 14: SAFE INCLUSION RATES OF WHOLE WHEAT IN

BROILER RATIONS
Ration Inclusion Rate of Wheat
Starter nil or introduction to wheat (1-2%) from 4-7 days
Grower gradual increase to 10%
Finisher gradual increase to 15%
Note: these inclusion rates require a balancer ration to be formulated.

Whole wheat must be removed from the feed 2 days before slaughter, to avoid problems in
evisceration at the processing plant.

Dilution of diets with whole wheat

may reduce performance in terms of
growth rate, fcr and yield when the
compound of balancer feed is not
adjusted.

51
x
 Key Points

✓ Account for the inclusion level of whole wheat when formulating the compound feed.

✓ Maintain intakes of micronutrients and drugs at required levels.

✓ Store grain carefully, and treat with organic acid to make sure disease organisms are not
introduced to the flock.

Always remove whole wheat

from the diet 2 days before slaughter,
to avoid problems of slow gut
clearance and contamination.

52
x
Section five
Hygiene and Health

Objectives
To attain optimum performance and bird welfare. To provide
assurance to the consumer on food safety issues. To minimise or
prevent the effects of disease or infections.

page contents
54 Chick Quality

55 Food Safety Issues

56 Biosecurity

57 Hygiene

63 Health Management

53
 HYGIENE AND HEALTH

Principles
Predictable expression of full genetic potential in terms of growth and efficiency is only possible in
broilers that are free from disease and infection. Broiler chicks should be produced from parent stock
which have good health status. Parent stock should have a high and uniform level of maternal
antibody against those diseases that reduce broiler performance.

The environment in which the broilers are grown should be clean and free from pathogens.
Equipment should be maintained so that the broilers can feed and drink, without restriction or
damage. The feed should be nutritionally balanced and free of pathogens or other factors likely
to cause depression in performance (e.g. mycotoxins).

Management procedures should stimulate performance, minimise physiological problems (e.g.

Ascites) and promote musculoskeletal health.

The consumer requires meat that is free of bacterial contamination (e.g. salmonella, etc) and of
residues (e.g. coccidiostats or antibiotics).

Increasing pressure from governments and consumers may reduce the range of medicines
available for use in poultry production. This emphasises the need for preventative management
of disease.

CHICK QUALITY

The quality of chicks produced by individual hatcheries can be assessed by monitoring broiler
mortality in the first week of each flock. Excessive mortality i.e. > 1% in the first week may
indicate a problem in the hatchery or in the delivery process (i.e. from hatching to arrival at the
farm) or on the farm. Where such problems occur, each aspect of the hatchery and delivery
process should be investigated as well as husbandry practices. (See Ross Tech 98/35,
Investigating Hatchery Practice).

The condition known as Femoral Head Necrosis (FHN), can have its origin in hatchery
contamination but incidence is also influenced by farm management factors e.g. drinker
hygiene, immunosuppressive disease challenges. (See Ross Tech 01/40, Leg Health in Broilers).

High early mortality may indicate

problems in the hatchery.

Problems with FHN may originate in

the hatchery or from poor farm
hygiene practices.

54
 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES

Pathogens

Contamination of chicken products with certain salmonella and campylobacter has been
associated with outbreaks of food poisoning in humans. Prevention of such outbreaks is
ensured when broilers are produced which are free of these pathogens.

Control of salmonella is becoming increasingly important for commercial broiler production

operations. The programme of salmonella control adopted may be designed in consultation
with the retailer. Aviagen supplies breeding chickens which are free of salmonella. Strict
biosecurity can maintain this status though to the broiler generation and on to slaughter.

Feed can be a major source of pathogens. Contamination by salmonella may be found not only
in feedstuffs of animal origin, but also for example, in soya beans and derivatives. All raw
materials should be monitored routinely for salmonellae.

The most reliable programme of control of contamination of feedstuffs by salmonellae involves

heat treatment in combination with feed biosecurity. A temperature of 86°C (187°F) held for 5
minutes will reduce salmonella contamination of feed to negligible levels under normal feed
mill practices. Feed specifications may require modification to allow for degradation of
vitamins, which may occur because of the heat treatment process. Counts for total
enterobacteriaceae, carried out on feed at unloading, should be <10 enterobacteriaceae/g of feed.

Salmonella reduction programmes may involve the removal of meat and bone meal from broiler
diets, pelleting (or extrusion) of feed or contaminated raw materials and the addition of organic
acids to prevent recontamination.

Vaccination of parent stock against salmonella can be invaluable in controlling the incidence of
Salmonella enteriditis (SE) and/or S. typhimurium (ST) in parent stock as well as in their broiler
progeny. Vaccination of broilers against salmonella may also be useful. Competitive exclusion
(CE) i.e. the use of commercially available preparations of non-pathogenic gut bacteria may also
have a role in preventing salmonella infection.

Some commercial broiler production companies are attempting control of campylobacter.

Unlike salmonella, transfer by vertical transmission i.e. from parent to progeny, is not significant
in campylobacter infection. Campylobacter can be introduced into broiler houses on footwear
and equipment where good hygiene is not practised. Footwear must be changed on entry to the
broiler house for control of campylobacter to be successful. Application of CE may also prevent
campylobacter infection.

Chemical Residues
Chemical residues (e.g. coccidiostats, medicines, pesticides, etc) in broiler products can be
prevented by auditing the quality and treatments of raw materials (e.g. feedstuffs, water, litter
etc), and controlling the use of pesticides. Special care should be taken to observe withdrawal
times for health treatments and coccidiostats.

55
 Key Points

✓ Test for salmonellae in quality control of feedstuffs.

✓ Reduce risk of infection with pathogenic bacteria by monitoring and controlling

movement of feed, equipment and personnel on to the farm.

✓ Follow manufacturers’ recommended withdrawal periods to avoid drug residues in broiler

products.

BIOSECURITY

Isolation of broilers from all other poultry and livestock is the single most important aspect of
biosecurity.

Movement of people, feed, equipment or animals on to the broiler site should be controlled to
prevent the introduction of pathogens. Single age sites are preferable, so that recycling of
pathogens is minimised. Sites should be fenced and access restricted. There should be a
barrier to prevent unauthorised entry and a clearly defined changing area for staff and necessary
visitors to the farm at the farm perimeter. Staff and visitors should be provided with, and should
wear appropriate, clean protective clothing on each farm. Hands should be washed and boots
should be dipped between visits to each house. If more than one farm visit has to be made in
one day, the youngest birds should be visited first.

All points of entry, during the life of a flock, where people, feed, material or equipment are
brought on to the farm represent biosecurity risks. Staff education on biosecurity and its
implementation will help to ensure its effectiveness. The following are examples where the
risks should be balanced against the economic advantages:

• Partial depletion i.e. thinning. Where vehicles must enter the site, they should be
thoroughly cleaned and wheels washed and disinfected.

• Dilution of feed with whole wheat.

• Delivery of feed. The most hygienic method of bulk delivery of feed is for it to be
blown through pipes from a vehicle parked on the perimeter of the site. When feed is
delivered in bags, the reuse of bags is a biosecurity risk.

• Vermin control is very important. If this operation is subcontracted to a commercial

pest control firm, clear biosecurity protocols must be provided and followed.

• Litter delivery and storage. Litter must be protected from the weather and from access
by vermin during delivery and storage.

Water must be of good quality, (see Table 26, Housing and Environment, Section 6, page 90)
and should not be sourced from holding ponds or dams without subsequent treatment. If water
hygiene is suspect, then treatment by ultra-violet (UV) light or chlorination at the point of water
entry to the house will reduce bacterial contamination. Chlorination to give between 1 and
3ppm at drinker level will reduce bacterial count, especially where drinker systems with open
water surfaces are in use.
56
Key Points

✓ Adopt a single age policy for each site, to limit stock movement and to reduce transfer of
disease between stock of differing age.

✓ Admit only essential visitors on to the site; they must wear protective clothing.

✓ Wash hands and dip boots between visits to each house.

✓ Keep out wild birds and rodents.

✓ Spray wheels of all vehicles entering the site.

HYGIENE

Broiler houses should be designed to allow easy cleaning and disinfection. Cleaning out should
be undertaken after depletion of every flock. It must be carefully planned and the correct
procedures followed. (See Ross Tech 00/38, Poultry House Cleanout Procedures).

SITE CLEANING

Objectives

To clean and disinfect the poultry house so that all potential poultry and human pathogens are
removed and to minimise the numbers of residual bacteria, viruses, parasites and insects etc.
between flocks minimising any effect on health, welfare and performance of the subsequent
flock.

House Design

The house and equipment should be designed to enable easy, effective cleaning. The poultry
house should incorporate concrete floors, washable (i.e. impervious) walls and ceilings,
accessible ventilation ducts and no internal pillars or ledges. Earth floors are impossible to clean
and disinfect adequately. An area of concrete or gravel extending to a width of 1-3m
surrounding the house can discourage the entry of rodents and provide an area for washing and
storing removable items of equipment.

Procedures

Planning: A successful cleanout requires that all operations are effectively carried out on time.
Cleanout is an opportunity to carry out routine maintenance on the farm and this needs to be
planned into the cleaning and disinfection programme. A plan detailing dates, times and labour
and equipment requirements should be drawn up prior to depleting the farm to ensure that all
tasks can be successfully completed.

Insect Control: Insects are significant vectors of disease and must be destroyed before they
migrate into woodwork or other materials. As soon as the birds have been removed from the
house and while it is still warm, the litter, equipment and all surfaces should be sprayed with a
57
 locally recommended insecticide. Alternatively the house may be treated with an approved
insecticide within 2 weeks prior to depletion. A second treatment with insecticide should be
undertaken before fumigation.

Remove dust: All dust, debris and cobwebs must be removed from fan shafts, beams, exposed
areas of unrolled curtains in open-sided houses, ledges and stonework. This is best achieved by
brushing so that the dust falls on to the litter.

Pre-spray: A knapsack or low-pressure sprayer should be used to spray detergent solution

throughout the inside of the house, from ceiling to floor, to dampen down dust before removal
of litter and equipment. In open-sided houses, the curtains should first be closed.

Remove equipment: All equipment and fittings (drinkers, feeders, dividing pens etc.) should
be removed from the building and placed on the external concrete area.

Remove litter: The aim should be to remove all litter and debris from within the house.
Trailers or rubbish skips should be placed inside the house before they are filled with soiled
litter. The full trailer or skip should be covered before removal, to prevent dust and debris
blowing around outside. Vehicle wheels must be brushed and spray disinfected on leaving the
house.

Litter disposal: Litter must be removed to a distance of at least 1.5km (1 mile) from the farm,
and disposed of in accordance with local government regulations in one of the following ways:

• spread on arable crop land and ploughed within 1 week.

• buried in a ‘landfill’ site, quarry or hole in the ground.
• stacked and allowed to heat (i.e. compost) for at least one month before being spread on
livestock grazing land.
• Incinerated.

Litter must not be stored on the farm

or spread on land adjacent to the
farm.

Washing: Firstly check that all electricity in the house has been switched off. A pressure
washer with foam detergent should be used to remove the remaining dirt and debris from the
house and equipment. Following washing with detergent the house and equipment should be
rinsed with clean fresh water using a pressure washer. During washing, excess floor water can
be removed using "squeegees". All equipment, that has been removed to the external concrete
area must be soaked and washed. After equipment is washed it should be stored under cover.

Inside the house, particular attention should be paid to the following places:

• fan boxes
• fan shafts
• fans
• ventilation grilles
• tops of beams
• ledges
• water pipes
58
In order to ensure that inaccessible areas are properly washed, it is recommended that portable
scaffolding and portable lights be used.

The outside of the building must be also be washed and special attention given to:

• air inlets
• gutters
• concrete pathways

In open-sided housing, the inside and outside of curtains must be washed. Any items that
cannot be washed (e.g. polythene, cardboard) must be destroyed.

When washing is complete there should

be no dirt, dust, debris, or litter
present. Proper washing requires
time and attention to detail.

Many different industrial detergents are available. Manufacturers instructions should be followed
when using detergents.

Staff facilities should be thoroughly cleaned at this stage. Humidifiers should be dismantled,
serviced and cleaned prior to disinfection.

Cleaning Water and Feed Systems

All equipment within the house must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. After cleansing it
is essential that the equipment is stored under cover.

The water system. The procedure for cleaning the water system is as follows:

• Drain pipes and header tanks.

• Flush lines with clean water.
• Physically scrub header tanks to remove scale and biofilm deposit. Drain to the exterior
of the house.
• Refill tank with fresh water and add an approved water sanitiser.
• Run the sanitiser solution through the drinker lines from the header tank ensuring there
are no air locks.
• Make up header tank to normal operating level with additional sanitiser solution at
appropriate strength. Replace lid. Allow disinfectant to remain for a minimum of 4 hours.
• Drain and rinse with fresh water.
• Refill with fresh water prior to chick arrival.

Biofilms will form inside water pipes and regular treatment is needed to prevent decreased
water flow and bacterial contamination of drinking water. Biofilms begin as aggregations of
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) capsules from bacteria. Pipe material will influence rate of biofilm
formation. For example alkathene pipes and plastic tanks have electrostatic properties that
assist bacteria to adhere. The use of vitamin and mineral treatments in drinking water can
increase biofilm and aggregation of materials. Physical cleaning of the inside of pipes to remove
59
 biofilms is not always possible. Between batches of chickens biofilms can be removed by using
high levels (140 ppm) of chlorine or peroxygen compounds to partially digest. These need to be
flushed completely before birds drink. High local water mineral content (especially calcium or
iron) may lead to increased need for modification of cleaning to include acid scrubbing. Metal
pipes can be cleaned the same way but corrosion can cause leaks. Water treatment before use
should be considered for high mineral waters.

Evaporative cooling and fogging systems can be sanitised at cleanout using a bi-guanide
sanitiser. Bi-guanides can also be used during production to ensure that water in these systems
contains minimal bacteria and reduce bacterial spread into the poultry house.

The feed system. The procedure for cleaning the feed system is as follows:

• Empty, wash and disinfect all feeding equipment i.e. feed bins, track, chain, hanging
feeders.
• Empty bulk bins and connecting pipes and brush out where possible. Clean out and seal
all openings.
• Fumigate wherever possible.

Repairs and Maintenance

A clean, empty house provides the ideal opportunity for structural repairs and maintenance.
Once the house is empty, attention should be given to the following tasks:

• Repair cracks in the floor with concrete/cement.

• Repair pointing and cement rendering on wall structures.
• Repair or replace damaged walls and ceilings.
• Carry out painting or whitewashing where required.
• Ensure that all doors shut tightly.

Rodent and Wild Bird Control

It is necessary to prevent rodents and wild birds from entering the building because they
transmit disease and eat feed. The following procedure should be adopted:

• Check all walls, panels and ceilings for holes, and repair these if necessary.
• Ensure that the fan/inlet boxes are bird proof.
• Check that all doors close firmly and tightly, with no gaps.
• Check for any leaks in the feed system. Easily accessible feed attracts vermin.
• In open-sided housing, the building must be made bird-proof, and repaired where
necessary.

An area of concrete or gravel extending to a width of 1-3m (3-10ft) around the house can
discourage rodents from entering.

60
Disinfection

Disinfection should not take place until the whole building (including external area) is
thoroughly clean and all repairs are complete. Disinfectants are ineffective in the presence of
dirt and organic matter.

Disinfectants, which are approved by governments for use against specific poultry pathogens of
both bacterial and viral origin, are most likely to be effective. Manufacturers’ instructions must
be followed at all times. Details of commonly used disinfectants are listed in Ross Tech 00/38
Poultry House Cleanout Procedures.

Disinfectant should be applied by the use of either a pressure-washer or a knapsack sprayer.

Foam disinfectants allow greater contact time thus increasing the efficacy of disinfection.

Heating houses to high temperatures after sealing can enhance disinfection.

Most disinfectants have no effect against coccidial oocysts. Where selective coccidial treatments
are required, compounds producing ammonia should be used by suitably trained staff. These
are applied to all clean internal surfaces and will be effective even after a short contact period
of a few hours.

Formalin Fumigation

Where formalin fumigation is permitted, fumigation should be undertaken as soon as possible

after completion of disinfection. Surfaces should be damp. The houses should be warmed to
21˚C (70˚F). Fumigation is ineffective at lower temperatures and at relative humidities of less
than 65%.

Doors, fans, ventilation grilles and windows must be sealed. Manufacturers’ instructions
concerning the use of fumigants must be followed. After fumigation, the house must remain
sealed for 24 hours with NO ENTRY signs clearly displayed. The house must be thoroughly
ventilated before anyone enters.

After litter has been spread, all the fumigation procedures described above should be repeated.
For further guidance, reference should be made to local Health and Safety regulations, which
should be adhered to at all times.

Fumigation is hazardous to animals and humans. Protective clothing i.e. respirators, eye shields
and gloves must be worn. At least two people must be present in case of emergency.

Local health and safety regulations

must be consulted before
fumigating.

61
 Cleaning External Areas

It is vital that external areas are also cleaned thoroughly. Ideally, poultry houses should be
surrounded by an area of concrete or gravel, 3m (10ft) in width. Where this does not exist, the
area must:

• be free of vegetation
• be free of unused machinery/equipment
• have an even, level surface
• be well drained, free of any standing water

Particular attention should be paid to cleaning and disinfection of the following areas:

• under ventilator and extractor fans

• access routes
• door surrounds

All concrete areas should be washed and disinfected as thoroughly as the inside of the building.

Evaluation of Farm Cleaning and Disinfection Efficiency

It is essential to monitor the efficiency and cost of cleaning out and disinfection. Effectiveness is
evaluated by undertaking total viable bacterial counts (TVC). Table 15, indicates the standards
to be achieved. Monitoring trends in TCV’s will allow continuous improvement in farm hygiene
and comparison of different cleaning and disinfection methods.

When disinfection has been carried out effectively, the sampling procedure should not isolate
Salmonella species.

TABLE 15: EVALUATION OF CLEANING AND

DISINFECTION
SAMPLE RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM SALMONELLA
SITE NO OF SAMPLES TVC*
Stanchions 4 100 Nil
Walls 4 100 Nil
Floors 4 1000 Nil
Feed Hopper 1 Nil
Crevices 2 Nil
Drains 2 Nil
* Total viable count in colony forming units / cm2

62
Key Points

✓ Design houses that are easy to clean.

✓ Clean and disinfect after every flock.

✓ Clean and disinfect water system after every flock.

✓ Plan the cleaning-out procedure.

✓ Monitor the effectiveness of cleaning-out by assessing the residual bacterial counts on

surfaces (TVCs).

✓ Leave houses empty for as long as is economically appropriate between flocks.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Vaccination
Vaccination programmes for broilers should be designed for local circumstances in consultation
with local poultry veterinarians. Substantial economic savings can be made by combining
effective, specific vaccination programmes with good biosecurity rather than by adopting a
‘blanket’ vaccination policy. Successful vaccination will also depend upon a supply of good
quality day-old chicks.

Design of a vaccination programme for broilers is inter-dependent on the parent stock

vaccination programme. The parent programmes should provide uniform levels of maternal
antibody so that timing of vaccine administration to broilers can be adjusted and the
effectiveness of the vaccine ensured.

Protection through maternal antibody titre is particularly important for Gumboro i.e. Infectious
Bursal Disease (IBD), as maternal antibody can inactivate some vaccine strains. This effect
varies according to the residual virulence of the vaccine strain. It should also be noted that
levels of IBD maternal antibody in progeny will decline as the parent flock ages. This effect in
parent flocks is less pronounced with other viruses.

Vaccination in the hatchery, at day old, for Infectious Bronchitis (IB) and, if necessary, Newcastle
Disease (ND), using specialised spraying equipment, has been shown to be more effective than
vaccination on the farm after delivery of chicks. The use of two strains of IB vaccine during the
life of the broiler may give broad, cross immunity to a wide range of strains of IB virus.
In most areas of the world, a minimal broiler vaccination programme would include IB and IBD
(Gumboro) vaccines. (See Table 16). ND vaccination by spray is also necessary in some areas.

TABLE 16: MINIMAL VACCINATION PROGRAMME FOR BROILERS

GROWN TO 2.5KG FROM PARENT STOCK
HYPER-IMMUNISED FOR IBD
DAY VACCINE METHOD
1 IB Spray at hatchery
17 IBD intermediate strain In water
28 IBD intermediate strain In water

63
 Vaccination Guidelines

The following guidelines are appropriate for successful vaccination of broilers:

• Follow the recommendations of the vaccine manufacturer in terms of transport, storage

of vaccine and dose per bird, route and method of administration.

• Vaccinate so that all birds receive the same dose of vaccine.

• Record vaccine details and check expiry dates. Do not use vaccine, which is beyond
its expiry date.

• When administering live vaccines in water, it is essential to neutralise chlorine in the

water, which would otherwise inactivate the vaccine. Methods to achieve this include
the addition of skimmed milk (powder or liquid).

• Cease UV and chlorination treatments of water during vaccine administration.

• Do not vaccinate sick birds.

In ovo vaccination may have a role in control of Mareks Disease, IBD and some other infections
in parts of the world.

When broilers are grown to heavier liveweights and/or inspection of individual broiler carcases
is undertaken at processing, Mareks Disease can become an important source of loss. Efficient
house cleaning and provision of new litter material for each successive flock reduce the losses
due to Mareks Disease. In such circumstances, vaccination against Mareks Disease is usually of
marginal economic benefit.

The reuse of litter for successive

batches of broilers is undesirable
because of the increased risk of
Mareks Disease.

Key Points

✓ Combine vaccination with good biosecurity.

✓ Design vaccination programmes for specific local circumstances in consultation with

local poultry veterinarians.

✓ Use knowledge of the immune status of parent stock to define an appropriate vaccination
programme for broiler progeny.

✓ Vaccinate against IB and ND (if necessary) at the hatchery rather than on the farm.

64
Antibiotic Growth Promoters / Digestion Enhancers

Antibiotic growth promoters deliver production advantages to the broiler industry by improving
growth rate and FCR. They also provide effective control of Necrotic Enteritis and other associated
conditions. Increasing pressure from governments and consumers may restrict the use of antibiotic
growth promoters in future. Broiler production in the absence of antibiotic growth promoters
therefore poses a challenge for broiler producers. For a further discussion on this topic see Ross
Tech 98/36, Necrotic Enteritis and Ross Tech 99/37, Antibiotic Growth Promoters.

Coccidiosis

Coccidial infection is ubiquitous in broilers. Coccidia form oocysts (i.e. spores) which are very
resistant to destruction by disinfection. Coccidiosis can have a damaging effect on performance
without necessarily causing an increase in mortality. Control of Coccidiosis is achieved mainly
by the addition of coccidiostats to feeds. It is important to monitor the efficiency of control of
Coccidiosis. This is achieved by means of a programme of scoring of Coccidiosis lesions in
broilers taken for examination at various predetermined ages.

Broiler coccidiosis vaccines, similar to those used in parent stock, but containing a reduced
number of strains of coccidia have been developed. However, use of these vaccines in broilers
has a disadvantage. Certain coccidiostats (e.g. ionophores) are associated with control of
Necrotic Enteritis, and this effect will be lost where these coccidiostats are replaced with
vaccine.

Competitive Exclusion

Competitive exclusion products can be used in the control of salmonella infection in broilers
and may also help in the control of Necrotic Enteritis and campylobacter. (See Food Safety
Issues, page 55).

Metabolic Diseases

The major metabolic diseases of broilers are Ascites, Sudden Death Syndrome (SDS) and
problems with leg health. Ascites (also known as ‘Water Belly’) is an accumulation of fluid in
the abdominal cavity, associated with elevated pressure in the pulmonary arteries (Pulmonary
Hypertension Syndrome - PHS). SDS (also known as ‘Flipover’) is caused by ventricular
fibrillation. These are separate diseases. Incidences of Ascites and SDS are influenced by many
factors. (See Table 17, pages 66-67).

When high incidences of Ascites are observed, the following parameters should be checked:
• Ventilation rate in hatchery and on farms is sufficient to remove waste gases and to
supply sufficient oxygen.
• Temperature profile is appropriate and not fluctuating.
• Nutrition. Feeding of mash as opposed to pellets for 7-10 days will control an
outbreak of Ascites.
If chronic problems of Ascites are occurring, a growth modification programme should be
considered. (See Growth Management, Modified Broiler Growth, Section 2, page 25).

65
 TABLE 17: SUMMARY OF KNOWN FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
INCIDENCE OF ASCITES AND/OR SDS1.
FACTOR COMMENT ADVICE
Altitude of hatchery >1000m causes increased Use non-susceptible
and/or farms incidence of Ascites. breed.
Ventilation Under-ventilation or poor Pay attention to
air quality will increase minimal ventilation
incidence of Ascites. during brooding.
Respiratory disease Aspergillosis. Control respiratory
Other respiratory infections disease.
(IB2, ART3 and Mycoplasma)
are expected to increase Ascites.
Genetics Variation in susceptibility Genetic selection in Ross
has been used to select lines produces continual
resistant lines. improvement in resistance
to Ascites and SDS.
Sex Males have increased Separate the sexes to allow
incidence of Ascites and different management of
SDS due to faster growth. males and females.
Temperature High temp. >25°(C (77°F) Control
Low temp. <15°(C (59°F) environmental
and/or large diurnal variation. temperature.
Growth rate High growth rate is Use growth modification
associated with increased programmes.
incidence of Ascites and SDS.
Pelleted feed Increases metabolic rate Balance improved
which is associated with broiler performance
increased incidence of against increased
Ascites and SDS. mortality.
High energy diets Increased metabolic rate Balance improved
is associated with broiler performance
increased incidence of against increased
Ascites and SDS. mortality.
Salt Excess may cause Check sodium, potassium,
increased incidence calcium and chloride levels
of Ascites. in diets.
Vitamin E and Low levels are associated Check vitamin and mineral
selenium status with increased incidence levels in diet. Check dietary
of Ascites. Vitamin A, fat quality.
Vitamin C and dietary fat
quality may also have an effect.
Fishmeal High levels (>200ppm) Control of fishmeal
of histamine increase in diet.
incidence of Ascites.
Phosphorus Marginal phosphorus Control levels
deficiency levels may increase incidence of dietary phosphorus.
of Ascites. Rickets and/or
lameness will usually be
observed.
66
 FACTOR COMMENT ADVICE
Chemical A number of chemicals If elevated incidence of
contamination are known to cause Ascites: Ascites is observed then
Monensin analyse diets for contaminants.
Some mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxin)
Phenolics
Coal tar derivatives
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Furazolidone
Pentachlorophenols
Cobalt Chloride
Liver disease e.g. Cholangiohepatitis - Control Necrotic
associated with Necrotic Enteritis.
Enteritis and other liver
diseases can cause an
increase in the incidence
of Ascites.
Viral Myocarditis e.g. Adenovirus infection will
cause Ascites.
Bacterial Contamination at hatchery, Improve hatchery
Endocarditis farm or vaccination equipment. and farm hygiene.
Plant poisoning A number of plants can Check raw materials for
contaminate dietary raw contaminants.
materials which can
increase the incidence
of Ascites if consumed:
Mexican Poppy (Argemone sp)
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Rape seed oil
SDS1 - Sudden Death Syndrome
IB2 - Infectious Bronchitis
ART3 - Avian Rhinotracheitis

Genetic selection by Aviagen has resulted in improved leg health. The most frequent problems
in leg health are likely to be Tibial Dyschrondroplasia (TD) and FHN. Nutrition, stocking
density, viral and bacterial disease will all influence leg health. Growth modification
programmes are useful when problems with leg health persist over consecutive flocks.

Investigation of health problems

When health problems are suspected in broiler flocks, veterinary advice should always be
sought at the earliest possible opportunity.

Investigation of health problems may involve serological sampling. Care must be taken when
interpreting serology from young broilers because of insufficient time for development of
immune responses and/or other factors in serum samples from young chicks.

In investigating the cause of disease, care must be taken in associating a bacterium or virus
isolated from the infected flock as the cause of the disease. Many innocuous bacteria or viruses
e.g. E. coli, Reovirus, Adenovirus etc. may be isolated from healthy broilers.

67
 Immunosuppression caused by a variety of pathogens in parent stock or broilers is a significant
cause of broiler morbidity. Management of the causes of immunosuppression (i.e. infections,
poor nutrition, toxins etc.) in broiler flocks is an important part of the health programme.
Efficiency of the management of immune status can be monitored by examination of a
combination of parameters including bursal size or weight, thymus appearance, response to
therapies, performance etc.

Mycotoxins

Poor handling and storage of raw materials or finished feed carry a high risk of mycotoxin
contamination, which can have serious implications for broiler health. (See Nutrition, Non-
nutritive Feed Additives, Section 4, page 43).

Health Monitoring

Continuous improvement of broiler health within a broiler operation requires that records be
kept throughout the lives of the broiler flocks and across the whole process of production. (See
Appendix 1, page 94).

44
x
68
Section six
Housing and Environment

Objectives
To provide an environment that permits the bird to achieve optimum
performance in growth rate, uniformity, feed efficiency and meat yield
and to ensure that the health and welfare of the bird are not
compromised.

page contents
70 Control of Environment

75 Heat Stress

79 Stocking Density

81 Ventilation and Air Quality

83 Litter and Litter Management

85 Drinking Systems

88 Water Quality

91 Feeding Systems

69
 HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENT

Principles
The housing and ventilation systems used will depend upon climate. The housing and
equipment should allow responsive control of the environment so that the commercial and bird
welfare objectives can be fulfilled.

CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENT

Local climate is one of the most important factors in the design of housing systems. The
different types of production system in use throughout the world can be categorised by the
three main climates for which they have been designed:

• Temperate climates (usually controlled environment)

• Hot, dry climates (usually controlled environment with cooling systems)
• Hot, humid climates (often open-sided housing)

Strategies for dealing with high temperatures are also discussed later in this section. (Heat Stress
pages 75-79)

TEMPERATE CLIMATES - CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT

Controlled environment housing should provide:

• Effective insulation with a U value of 0.4W/m2/°C (i.e. R value 12-14). This is equivalent
to 10cm (4in) of glass fibre. In extremely cold climates, extra insulation may be required.
• Effective light-proofing, especially when lighting programmes are in use. (See Chick
Management, Lighting, Section 1, page 20). The maximum light intensity within a darkened
house should not exceed 0.4 lux (0.04 foot candles). The artificial lighting system must
provide uniform light distribution throughout the house and light intensity for which the
control is infinitely variable, up to a maximum of 25 lux.
• Effective, draught-free ventilation, which is capable of providing and maintaining an
adequate and controlled flow of uniformly good quality air at bird level.
• Floors, which should contain a vapour seal and which should be of a smooth, finished
concrete, for ease of cleaning.

Baffles should be fitted to fan

housings to prevent draughts and
light seepage.

70
 HOT CLIMATE WITH LOW RH% - CONTROLLED
ENVIRONMENT WITH COOLING SYSTEM

Birds will become stressed and

performance will suffer if
environmental control is inadequate
in extremes of temperature.

Insulation, light-proofing and ventilation requirements are similar to those for controlled
environment housing in temperate climates. Because of the higher ambient temperature, a
greater ventilation capacity will be necessary together with cooling systems.

In hot conditions i.e. temperatures >27°C (81°F), evaporative cooling of the air is used to
maintain the acclimatised bird at operating temperatures within the range 25-32°C (77-90°F).
Relative humidity (RH) influences the effectiveness of evaporative cooling as follows:

- at 20% RH, reduction in temperature can be within the range 15-20°C (27-36°F).
- at 60-70% RH, reduction in temperature is in the range 4-8°C (7-14°F).
- at RH above 70%, temperature reduction becomes limited and the bird is progressively
stressed as cooling by panting becomes less effective.

In addition to evaporative cooling of the air, convective cooling may be exploited by directing
air over the birds. As RH rises, convection becomes an increasingly significant part of the
cooling process. Table 18 shows the estimated effect of different air velocities (wind chill) on the
perceived temperature.

TABLE 18: WIND CHILL EFFECT AT DIFFERENT AIR TEMPERATURES

Air Velocity m per sec. Estimated Wind Chill Effect Estimated Wind Chill Effect
Air Temp <32°C Air Temp >32°C
1.0 -2.0 -0.5
1.5 -4.0 -2.0
2.0 -5.5 -2.5
2.5 -6.0 -3.0
(Source ADAS)

An air speed of 2-3m/sec (394-591ft/min) at bird level will reduce perceived temperature by 6°C
(10.8°F). In extreme conditions, an air speed of 3m/sec can be used to maximise heat loss by
convection. Air speeds greater than 4m/sec will cause distress. The cooling effect will be
greater before birds are fully feathered. Air flow can be increased by reversing existing fans, so
that there is a direct flow over the birds.

e.g. in an ambient temperature of 36°C (97°F), with an RH of 50%, evaporative cooling will
cause house temperature to fall to 28°C (82°F). An air speed of 2m/sec would give a further
temperature drop of 6°C (10.8°F), leading to a perceived temperature at bird level of 22°C (72°F).

The addition of supplementary fans inside the house can boost air flow.

The most commonly used evaporative cooling systems are those incorporating pad cooling with
tunnel ventilation and/or fogging. (See Table 19, Diagrams 12 and 13, pages 72 and 73).

71
 TABLE 19: EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS IN COMMON USE
COOLING SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Low pressure fogging 100-200psi (7-14bar), droplet sizes
> 30 microns may cause wet litter at
high humidity.
High pressure fogging 400-600psi (28-41bar), droplet sizes of
10 -15 microns minimise residual moisture
giving extended humidity range
Cooling pads air is drawn through a water-soaked filter
by tunnel ventilation. See Diagram 12

Pad Cooling with Tunnel Ventilation

Pad cooling systems in which air is cooled by drawing it through water contained within
mineral or cellulose pads are relatively simple, reliable and easy to maintain (see Diagram 12).
The cooled air is moved through the house by tunnel ventilation. The dual effect of pad
cooling and air speed allows control of environment when house temperatures are very high
i.e.> 30°C (86°F).

DIAGRAM 12: EXAMPLE OF PAD COOLING COMBINED WITH

TUNNEL VENTILATION

Air flow

Water

Cooled air
entering house Hot, uncooled air

Water for recirculation Evaporative

cooling pad

Fogging
In this system, incoming air is cooled by evaporation of droplets of water created by pumping
water through hoses and nozzles. Two types of fogging system are in common use: high and
low pressure. High pressure fogging systems i.e. 400-600psi (28-41bar), producing droplets of
10-15microns (which are more effectively evaporated), minimise the residual moisture within
the house. They also extend the range of humidity within which some benefit may be achieved

72
up to 80% RH.
Fogging lines must be placed near the air inlets to maximise the speed of evaporation.

DIAGRAM 13: ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE FOGGING/AIR FLOW

Plastic pipes for
water circulation
Ventilation fans

Fogging nozzles

Air inlets Solenoid valve

Pump
Ventilation fan

Strainer
Fogging lines

Air inlet Air inlet

Air movement

V il i f
CROSS SECTION OF HOUSE
SHOWING AIR FLOW

Avoid wet litter by adjusting

droplet size.

The long term effectiveness of

evaporative cooling systems is
reduced where water contains a high
proportion of dissolved minerals
and/or particles.

73
 HOT, HUMID CLIMATES - OPEN-SIDED HOUSING

Additional lines in the centre of the house may be required.

Open-sided houses should be located on well-drained land and where there is plenty of natural
air movement. They should be built so that direct sunlight does not fall on to the side walls
during the hottest part of the day. House orientation should be such that the long axis of the
house lies east to west. The roof should be insulated (0.4W/m2/°C) with a surface finish that
reflects solar heat. A high roof pitch (i.e. 30-40°) assists natural ventilation by increasing
movement of air by convection and reduces radiant heat from the underside of the roof at bird
level.

An effective design of an open-sided house is 12m (40ft) wide, 2.75m (9ft) to the eaves and the
roof should overhang the walls by 1.25m (4.1ft) to limit the heating effect of direct sunlight. (See
Diagram 14). Vegetation covering the ground around the house will reduce the amount of
reflected heat entering the house. In addition shade, provided by trees, is beneficial as long as
air circulation is not inhibited.

The side walls of open-sided broiler houses should be constructed of dwarf walls, 25-30cm
(10-12in) in height with wire mesh (mesh diameter 25mm) to the eaves. End walls can either
be of a similar construction, or solid, depending on climate. Side walls should also incorporate
an adjustable, reinforced plastic curtain to assist in temperature control (e.g. during brooding,
cold or hot weather and at night). Houses must be secure from entry by vermin and wild birds.

In regions with severe climatic variation, dwarf walls can be increased to a height of 60-80cm
(24-30in) and the wire mesh area can be covered with either reinforced curtains or louvered
shutters.

Open-sided housing is becoming less popular as producers become more aware of the
production advantages of a controlled environment. These advantages will vary depending on
climatic conditions. They are more significant where conditions are extreme, but cover all
aspects of production i.e. increased stocking density, improved liveability, better growth rate,

DIAGRAM 14: EXAMPLE OF OPEN HOUSE BASIC DESIGN

60cm
3m

7m

1.5m 2.75m

12m

74
 In hot climates, ideal environmental
temperatures cannot be maintained
unless open-sided houses are
modified to permit cooling.

Key Points

✓ Design and construct housing and ventilation systems to incorporate requirements for
biosecurity, environmental control and responsive management.

✓ Locate and position broiler houses to minimise heat absorption from the environment.

✓ Ensure that insulation is adequate for effective temperature control.

✓ Use reflective or white surfaces to reflect radiant heat.

✓ Install cooling systems where air temperature exceeds 20°C (68°F) for significant periods.

✓ Ensure that tunnel-ventilated houses are completely sealed to maximise air flow through
the cooling pads and to ensure constant air speed through the house.

✓ Monitor water quality for mineral content, droplet size and bacterial contamination when
using fogging systems.

HEAT STRESS

In tropical regions and during summer in temperate regions, heat stress and its effects upon
growth rate and mortality, may become a problem. The effects of heat stress can be minimised
by altering the environment to reduce the temperature experienced by the bird and/or allowing
the bird to control it’s temperature by physiology or behaviour.

CONTROL OF HEAT STRESS

The normal body temperature of a broiler chicken is 41°C (106°F). When the environmental
temperature exceeds 35°C (95°F), the broiler is likely to experience heat stress. The longer the
exposure to high temperatures, the greater the stress and its effects. (See Diagram 15, page 76).

Prolonged exposure to high

temperature will reduce performance
and may increase mortality rates.

75
 DIAGRAM 15: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE,
EXPOSURE TIME AND BODY TEMPERATURE

45.0
Temperature of
Environment Death
44.4 170

Respiration Rate per Minute

°C
43.3 150
Body Temperature

43.9
130
43.3 40.6
110
42.8 37.8
90
42.2 35.0
70
32.2
41.7 50
29.7
41.1 30

0 1 2 3 4 5

Hours Exposure

Broilers regulate their body temperature by two methods, sensible and insensible heat loss.
Within the temperature range 13-25°C (55-77°F), heat loss is mainly accomplished through
physical radiation and convection to the cooler environment (i.e. sensible heat loss). As the
temperature rises above 30°C (86°F) the majority of heat loss is accomplished by evaporative
cooling and panting, and increased respiration rate (i.e. insensible heat loss). The relationship
between the two types of heat loss and environmental temperature is illustrated in Table 20.

TABLE 20: HEAT LOSS IN BROILERS

HEAT LOSS %
ENVIRONMENTAL SENSIBLE INSENSIBLE
TEMPERATURE (Radiation and Convection) (Evaporation)
25°C (77°F) 77 23
30°C (86°F) 74 26
35°C (95°F) 10 90

Panting allows the bird to control body temperature by evaporation of water from the respiratory
surfaces and air sacs. The process uses energy. In conditions of high humidity, panting is less
effective. Where high temperatures are maintained for long periods, or humidity is very high,
panting may be insufficient to control body temperature and the bird may experience heat
stress. As the bird passes into a condition of heat stress, rectal temperature rises, heart rate and
metabolic rate increase and oxygenation of the blood decreases. The physiological stress
induced by these reactions can be fatal.

If more than 20% of the flock are observed to be panting, the house temperature may be too
high.

76
 Immediate / Short Term Actions

Lowering of the stocking density will reduce the temperature experienced by the bird.

Birds lose heat by evaporation of moisture during panting and therefore require increased
amounts of drinking water. Adequate fresh cool water should be available at all times.
Insulation of the storage tanks and water pipes will help in reducing heat stress as will the
addition of ice to the header tank.

Digestion generates heat within the bird, therefore feeding during the hottest part of the day
should be avoided. This could be accomplished by the use of an intermittent feeding
programme. Intermittent feeding or lighting programmes will have the effect of dissipating heat
by disturbing birds regularly from a resting position. (See Growth Management, Intermittent
Lighting Programmes, Section 2, page 31).

A significant amount of heat is lost by convection and at high humidity, convective heat loss
becomes more important. Increasing the air flow over the bird promotes heat loss by
convection. An air flow of 2-3m/sec, measured just above bird level, provides optimum heat
loss by convection. This may be achieved by using free-standing, 91cm (36in) fans, placed at
an angle of 32°, every 10 metres (33ft) across the house. Fans should be set to move air in the
same direction as the prevailing wind.

High humidity reduces the capacity

of birds to lose heat.

High humidity reduces the effectiveness of evaporative heat loss. The litter is a significant
source of moisture in the chicken house, so litter condition should be managed carefully. Wet
litter will increase relative humidity.

Radiant heat from the sun will increase house temperature, particularly if roof insulation is
inadequate. Water sprinklers on the roof ridge will reduce this source of heat.

In open-sided houses, plastic netting hung from the eaves to cover 30% of the open area may
be used as a screen against radiant heat.

A method of reducing heat stress by supplementing the drinking water with 1g of vitamin C plus
0.3g of salicylic acid (i.e. aspirin) per litre has been reported.

Long Term Actions

Susceptibility to and effects of heat stress increase with age and liveweight. Males are more
vulnerable to heat stress than females. Increased stocking density will increase the likelihood
and severity of heat stress. In the long term, placing sexes separately at lower stocking
densities, when hot weather is anticipated can reduce effects of heat stress.

High stocking density increases the

risk of heat stress.
82 77
 A period of high temperature in the first week of life may condition the birds and may reduce
the effects of high temperature later in the growing period. Acclimatisation may be achieved by
subjecting birds of 5 days of age to temperatures of 36-38°C (97-100°F) for 24 hours.

Key Points

✓ Reduce stocking density.

✓ Ensure fresh drinking water is available at all times.

✓ Feed during the coolest part of the day.

✓ Increase air flow over the bird to 2-3m/sec using fans.

✓ Minimise the effects of radiant heat from the sun.

✓ Reduce effects of excessive temperatures by placing sexes separately at lower stocking

densities during hot weather.

NUTRITION AND HEAT STRESS

Under conditions of high temperature, special attention should be paid to feed quality. Risks of
spoilage due to mould growth and/or vitamin loss are increased at high temperatures.

The two main changes which can be made to diet composition are adjustment of nutrient levels
to take account of lower feed intake and reduction of heat increment of the feed. Manipulation
of the diet may itself also have a direct effect on heat stress.

Heat stress lowers feed intake and

reduces performance.

Increasing the nutrient density of the feed will be effective in reducing heat stress providing that
the birds have the capacity to respond by increased growth. The effectiveness of this treatment
will depend on the temperature and the amount of stress experienced by the birds. As an
approximate guide, feed intake is reduced by 5% per degree temperature rise between 32 and
38°C (90 and 100°F) compared with 1-1.5% between 20 and 30°C (68 and 86°F). If feed intake
is down by 5 or 10%, then the nutrient concentration should be increased in proportion. It is
particularly important to adjust the protein, vitamin and mineral fractions of the feed. Intakes of
coccidiostats and prophylactic drugs must also be maintained.

Although energy intake may limit performance in conditions of heat stress, increasing the energy
content of the feed may not necessarily be of benefit. However the inclusion of fat as a source
of energy, at the expense of carbohydrate, will be advantageous and may also stimulate a higher
feed intake.

An increase in protein and amino acid levels may be beneficial if feed intake is reduced but
should not be considered in conditions where the birds cannot respond. Excess protein is
78 83
 broken down and eliminated from the bird by deamination and excretion, processes which
have a high heat increment. Under all circumstances of heat stress, amino acid requirements
should be met at the lowest possible total protein content. Sources of high quality protein and
synthetic amino acids will help to achieve this aim.

In addition to minimising protein excess, the heat increment of the feed may be reduced by
substituting fat for carbohydrate. In this context, advantage should be taken of good quality fats
and/or the appropriate use of feed processing technology. Fat inclusion may also stimulate
intake and, under some circumstances, give a beneficial boost to energy intake. Higher levels
of the amino acid arginine relative to lysine, in the diet (i.e. ratio>1.3) may have beneficial
effects in heat-stressed birds.

Birds suffering heat stress exhibit reduced levels of plasma carbon dioxide and bicarbonate.
Panting induces respiratory alkalosis, which may be corrected by a variety of supplements to
either the feed or the water. There is also a loss of potassium by birds suffering heat stress,
which may be corrected by administration of potassium chloride.

Key Points

✓ Increase nutrient concentration to compensate for reductions in feed intake.

✓ Increase fat and reduce carbohydrate levels to stimulate appetite.

✓ Use high quality raw materials to maximise digestibility and availability of amino acids.

✓ Consider using bicarbonate in the drinking water to reduce alkalosis.

✓ Ensure vitamins C and E are provided at recommended levels.

STOCKING DENSITY

improved feed conversion, etc.

Stocking density has a significant influence on broiler performance and final product in terms of
uniformity and quality. Overstocking increases the environmental pressures on the broiler,
which compromise bird welfare and will ultimately reduce profitability. Quality of housing and
especially environmental control, will influence the stocking density applied. If stocking density
is increased, an appropriate increase in feeding space and drinker availability must be made

Overstocking will reduce growth,

liveability, litter quality and leg
health.

Overstocking will increase carcase

downgrading due to breast blisters,
Hockburn, bruising and scratching.
86 79
 The area of floor space needed for each broiler will depend on:

• target liveweight and/or age at slaughter

• climate and season
• type and/or system of housing and equipment, particularly ventilation

In the UK, the Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock quote stocking densities
at differing liveweights to obtain a biomass of 34.22 kg/m2 (7lb/ft2) and these are given in Table
21. In other countries different standards may apply.

TABLE 21: STOCKING DENSITIES AT DIFFERING LIVEWEIGHTS*

Liveweight (kg) Birds/m2
1.0 34.2
1.4 24.4
1.8 19.0
2.0 17.1
2.2 15.6
2.6 13.2
3.0 11.4
3.4 10.0
3.8 9.0

*As recommended in The Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock, Meat
Chickens and Breeding Chickens, Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(DEFRA), UK.

Stocking Density in Hot Climates

In hot climates, the stocking density applied will depend on the temperature, humidity and
capacity of the ventilation system.

In houses with controlled environment, in hot climates, stocking density should be reduced to a
maximum of 30kg/m2 at slaughter.

In open-sided houses, stocking density should be 20-25kg/m2 at slaughter. At the hottest

times of the year, or at liveweights above 3kg, stocking density may have to be reduced to
16-18kg/m2.

Key Points

✓ Adjust stocking density to allow for the age and weight at which the flock is to be
slaughtered.

✓ Reduce stocking density if target house temperatures cannot be achieved due to hot
climate or season.

✓ Adjust ventilation and feeder and drinker space/bird when stocking density is increased.

80 87
 VENTILATION AND AIR QUALITY

Ventilation

It is essential to deliver a constant and uniform supply of good quality air to bird level. Fresh air
is required at all stages of growth to allow the bird to remain in good health and achieve full
potential.

The minimum ventilation rate for growing broilers is defined as the smallest air change needed
to maintain air quality at a given biomass.

Minimum Ventilation Rate: 0.702m3/hour/kg0.75 liveweight*

*Source: UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service. Other figures may be obtained
from local advisory sources.

The minimum ventilation rate can be used to calculate the rate of air exchange required by
broilers of different liveweight. Table 39 (Appendix 4, page 106) gives the minimum ventilation
rate in m3/hour for broilers of varying liveweights. These figures can be used to calculate the
minimum required settings for the ventilation systems of individual broiler sheds as the age of
the flock increases. The ventilation system should be designed to allow ventilation rate to be
infinitely adjustable between the maximum and minimum settings. Minimum ventilation rates
may be achieved by running fans intermittently.

A maximum ventilation rate for growing broilers in controlled environment sheds in temperate
climates has been defined as the quantity of air required to dissipate heat, such that the
temperature within the house rises no more than 3°C (5.4°F) above outside air temperature.

Maximum Ventilation Rate: 7.20m3/hour/kg0.75 liveweight*

*Source: UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service. Other figures may be obtained
from local advisory sources.

Table 39 (Appendix 4, page 106) gives the maximum ventilation rate in m3/hour for broilers of
varying liveweights.

When evaporative cooling is used, the maximum ventilation rate should maintain temperatures
within 3°C (5.4°F) of the intake temperature. To achieve this the system must be capable of
cooling air at the maximum ventilation rate. If the capacity of the cooling system is exceeded,
or no evaporative cooling is used, then the birds should be cooled by convective heat loss using
tunnel ventilation or supplementary fans as described on page 71. When tunnel ventilation is
being used to cool birds by convective heat loss the maximum ventilation rate will be
exceeded.

Air Quality

As broilers grow they consume oxygen and produce waste gases. Combustion by brooders
contributes to waste gases in the broiler house. The ventilation system must remove these waste
gases from the house and deliver good air quality.

81
 The main contaminants of air within the house environment are dust, ammonia, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and excess water vapour. When in excess, they damage the respiratory tract,
decreasing the efficiency of respiration and reducing bird performance. Continued exposure to
contaminated air may trigger Ascites and Chronic Respiratory Disease. Excess water vapour
may affect temperature regulation and contribute to poor litter quality.

The incidence of high levels of

Ascites and Chronic Respiratory
Disease may indicate air quality
problems due to inadequate
ventilation.

Table 22 shows the major effects of each contaminant and the levels at which problems are
likely to occur.

TABLE 22: EFFECTS OF COMMON BROILER HOUSE

AIR CONTAMINANTS
Ammonia Can be detected by smell at 20ppm or above.
>10ppm will damage the lung surface.
>20ppm will increase susceptibility to
respiratory diseases.
>50ppm will reduce growth rate.
Carbon Dioxide >0.35% causes Ascites. Fatal at high levels.
Carbon Monoxide 100ppm reduce oxygen binding. Fatal at
high levels.
Dust Damage to respiratory tract lining.
Increased susceptibility to disease.
Humidity Effects vary with temperature. At >29°C
(84°F) and >70% relative humidity, growth
will be affected.

Inadequate ventilation causes wet

litter which leads to increased
incidence of hockburn and carcase
downgrading.

Good air quality is best achieved by maintaining ventilation rates at or above the minimum
defined in Appendix 4, Table 39, page 106, especially during the brooding stage.

Chemical additives are available for use in feed or litter to reduce ammonia production.

Sensors which monitor ammonia, carbon dioxide, relative humidity and temperature are
available commercially and can be used in conjunction with automated ventilation systems.

82
Key Points

✓ Use a ventilation system which is capable of achieving the requirements for good air
quality (i.e. minimum ventilation rate) and temperature control (i.e. maximum ventilation
rate).

✓ Maintain ventilation rate at or above the minimum at all times.

✓ Monitor temperature and air quality to determine the appropriate adjustment of

ventilation rate.

Litter material should be spread evenly to a depth of 3-10cm (1-4in), depending on quality of
housing and insulation. A variety of materials may be used, if they satisfy the requirements of
good moisture absorption, biodegradability, comfort and cleanliness, low dust level, freedom
from taint and are consistently available from a biosecure source. (See Table 23). Earth floors
are impossible to clean and disinfect adequately. Concrete floors are preferable since they are
washable and allow more effective litter management.

Poor air quality will limit flock

performance, and increase
susceptibility to disease.

LITTER AND LITTER MANAGEMENT

TABLE 23: CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON LITTER MATERIALS

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
New White Wood Shavings Good absorption and breakdown.
Possible contamination by insecticides,
which can be toxic and chloramisoles
which can cause a musty taint.
Chopped Straw Wheat straw is best. Possible
contamination by agrochemicals, fungi
and mycotoxins. Slow to break down,
best used mixed 50/50 with white wood
shavings.
Shredded Paper Can be difficult to manage in humid
conditions. Glossy paper is unsuitable.
Chaff and Hulls Not very absorbent. Best mixed with other
materials. May be ingested.
Sawdust Not suitable. Dusty and may be ingested.
Chemically Treated Straw Pellets Use as recommended by the supplier.
Sand Commonly used in arid/desert areas on
concrete floors. Can work well, but birds
have difficulty moving about if spread
deeply.
83
 Contamination of litter materials
with mycotoxins and /or fungi may
depress broiler performance.

Earth floors are a biosecurity hazard

because they cannot be cleaned and
disinfected effectively.

If wild birds or rodents have access to the source of litter material, there is a risk of introducing
salmonellae or other pathogens on to the site. Litter storage facilities should be protected from
the weather and secure from access by vermin.

Avoid introducing salmonellae or other

pathogens by careful attention to the
source and storage of the material
both before and after delivery to
the farm.

It is important that litter is kept in a dry and friable condition throughout the life of the flock. If
the litter becomes caked or too wet (i.e. >50% moisture) the incidence of Hockburn and breast
blisters will increase substantially. Every effort should be made to keep litter in good condition
to minimise carcase downgrading.

Wet litter leads to increased

incidence of Hockburn and carcase
downgrading.

Diagram 16 shows the likely causes of poor litter quality, any of which may be the reason for
Hockburn or breast blisters. Certain feed ingredients may also be associated with Hockburn, as
may deficiencies of the vitamin biotin and the trace element molybdenum.

DIAGRAM 16: REASONS FOR POOR QUALITY LITTER

Poor quality litter material

or insufficient depth
Drinker design
High humidity
and adjustment

Poor ventilation
Enteritis due
to disease POOR LITTER QUALITY
High salt,
protein diets

Poor quality fats High stocking density

84
Key Points

✓ Protect broilers from damage and provide a dry, warm covering to the floor by using a
good quality litter material.

✓ Choose litter material that is absorbent, non-dusty and clean. Litter should be readily
available at a low cost from a reliable source.

✓ Use fresh litter for each crop, to prevent reinfection by pathogens.

DRINKING SYSTEMS

It is essential that water is available to broilers at all times (i.e. 24 hours/day). Inadequate water
supply, either in volume or in the number of drinking points, will result in reduced growth rate.
To ensure that the flock is receiving sufficient water, the ratio of water to feed consumed each
day should be monitored. The birds are consuming sufficient water when the ratio of water
volume (ml or l) to feed weight (g or kg) remains close to 1.8:1 (1.6:1 for nipple drinkers).
Water consumption can be measured using water meters installed at the point where the water
supply enters the house.

Table 24 shows the typical water consumption with different drinking systems for broilers at
increasing ages.

Birds will drink more water at high ambient temperatures. Water requirement increases by
approximately 6.5% per degree Centigrade over 21°C (70°F). In tropical areas prolonged high
temperatures will double daily water consumption.

TABLE 24: TYPICAL WATER CONSUMPTION BY BROILERS

AT 21°C (70°F)* IN LITRES/1000 BIRDS/DAY
Nipple Drinkers Nipple Drinkers ‘Bell’ Drinkers
-without cups -with cups
Water Intake 1.6litres/kg Feed 1.7litres/kg Feed 1.8litres/kg Feed
Age (days) Male Female As- Male Female As- Male Female As-
hatched hatched hatched
7 64 60 62 68 64 66 72 67 69
14 113 106 109 120 112 116 128 119 123
21 177 160 169 189 170 180 200 180 190
28 242 211 227 258 224 241 273 237 255
35 293 246 270 311 261 286 330 277 303
42 339 274 307 360 291 326 381 308 345
49 369 287 330 392 305 350 415 323 371
56 381 282 333 405 300 354 428 318 375

*Water requirement increases by 6.5% per degree C over 21°C (70°F).

Note: Water consumption will vary with feed consumption. The figures in the table are based
on daily feed consumption defined in the Performance Objectives for Ross 308.

85
 Sudden increases or decreases in
demand and/or deviation of ratio of
water to feed from 1.8:1 (1.6:1 for
nipples) are early indicators of
stress, disease or suspect feed
quality.

The two drinking systems used most commonly are:

• ‘bell’ drinkers
• nipple drinkers

Bell Drinkers

At day old, a minimum of 6 ‘bell’ drinkers (40cm/16in diameter) should be provided per 1000
chicks; additional sources of water in the form of 6 mini-drinkers or plastic trays per 1000
chicks should also be available. As the broilers become older, and the area of the house in use
is expanded, a minimum of 8 ‘bell’ (40cm/16in diameter) drinkers must be provided per 1000
chicks. (See Table 25, page 88). These should be placed evenly throughout the house so that
no broiler is more than 2m (6.5ft) from water. Additional mini drinkers and trays used at day
old should be removed gradually so that by 3-4 days all chicks are drinking from the automatic
drinkers.

As a guide to level, water should be 0.6cm (0.25in) below the top of the drinker until 7-10 days
and there should be 0.6cm (0.25in) of water in the base of the drinker from 10 days onwards.

Drinkers should be checked for height on a daily basis, and adjusted so that the base of each
drinker is level with the broiler’s back from 18 days onwards. (See Diagram 17). This
minimises faecal contamination of the water. Nipple drinker height is adjusted centrally by
winch, whereas ‘bell’ drinkers require individual adjustment. Water level in the drinkers should
be adjusted to prevent spillage and subsequent problems with wet litter.

DIAGRAM 17: HEIGHT OF BELL TYPE DRINKERS

base of drinker
aligned with bird’s
back

86
Nipple Drinkers

Nipple drinkers installed at 12 birds per nipple (9-10 for heavy broilers) may be preferred to
‘bell’ drinkers because they are less likely to cause spillage and wet litter. (See Table 25, page
88). Nipple systems offer drinking water with lower levels of bacterial contamination than
conventional open systems. Apparent advantages of nipple systems to management of water
supply may be undermined by possible reductions in carcase yield.

High pressure, nipple drinker systems (which do not need drip cups) can further reduce
bacterial contamination of drinking water.

The height adjustment of nipple systems must be monitored very closely and on a daily basis.
In the initial stages of brooding, the nipple lines should be placed at a height at which the bird
is able to drink. The back of the chick should form an angle of 35-45° with the floor whilst
drinking is in progress. As the bird grows, the nipples should be raised so that the back of the
bird forms an angle of approximately 75-85° with the floor and so that the birds are stretching
slightly for the water. (See Diagram 18).

Water pressure should be adjusted so that there is a flow rate of at least 60ml/min available
from each nipple.

Litter under the drinker system should

be level to allow all birds equal
access to water and to prevent
spillage.

DIAGRAM 18: NIPPLE DRINKER HEIGHT ADJUSTMENT

35˚- 45˚ 75˚- 85˚

87
 TABLE 25: MINIMUM DRINKER REQUIREMENTS/1000
BIRDS POST-BROODING
DRINKER TYPE DRINKER REQUIREMENTS
‘Bell’ drinkers 8 drinkers (40cm diameter)/1000 birds
Nipples 83 nipples/1000 birds (12 birds/nipple)
9-10 birds/nipple for heavy broilers)

Adequate water storage must be provided, on the farm, in case of failure of the mains supply.
Ideally, sufficient storage to provide 24 hours water at maximum consumption is required.
The emergency water supply should form part of the daily water system to ensure a clean,
non-stagnant and uncontaminated supply at all times.

Key Points

✓ Make drinking water available to the birds for 24 hours a day.

✓ Provide supplementary drinkers for the first 4 days of the flocks’ life.

✓ Monitor the ratio of water to feed consumption daily, to check that the birds are drinking
sufficient water.

✓ Make allowance for an increase in water intake at high temperatures i.e. by 6.5% per
degree C over 21°C (70°F).

✓ Adjust drinker heights daily.

✓ Provide adequate drinker space, and ensure that the drinkers are easily accessible to the
entire flock.

WATER QUALITY

Depending on the source, water supplied to broilers may contain excessive amounts of various
minerals, or be contaminated with bacteria. Although water supplied as fit for human
consumption will also be suitable for broilers, water from bore holes, open water reservoirs or
poor quality, public supplies can cause problems.

The water supply should be tested to check the level of calcium salts (i.e. hardness), salinity and
nitrates. At cleaning out and prior to delivery, water should be sampled for bacterial
contamination at source, from storage tanks and drinkers.

Drinking water can be a reservoir

of those bacteria responsible for
food poisoning.

88
Table 26 shows maximum acceptable concentration of minerals and organic matter in the water
supply. These are unlikely to be exceeded if water is taken from a mains supply. Water from
wells or bore holes, however, may have excessive nitrate levels and often has high bacterial
counts due to ‘run-off’ from fertilised fields. Where bacterial counts are high, the cause should
be established, and rectified if possible. Chlorination to give between 1 and 3ppm at drinker
level will reduce the count, especially where drinker systems with open water surfaces are in
use. UV irradiation is effective in controlling bacterial contamination.

If the water contains high levels of calcium salts (i.e. is hard), or a high level of iron (>3mg/l),
drinker valves and pipes may become blocked. Sediment will also block water pipes and,
where this is a problem, it is advisable to filter the supply using a filter which has a mesh of
40-50 microns.

Very cold or very warm water will reduce water intake and therefore growth in broilers. In hot
weather, it is good practice to flush the drinker lines at regular intervals to ensure that the water
is as cool as possible.

When water is very cold or very warm

birds will drink less and growth will
be reduced.

TABLE 26: MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF MINERALS AND

BACTERIA IN DRINKING WATER
MINERALS/BACTERIA ACCEPTABLE CONCENTRATION
Total Dissolved Solids 300-500ppm
Chloride1 200 mg/l
pH2 6-8
Nitrates 45 ppm
Sulphates3 200 ppm
Iron 1 mg/l
Calcium 75 mg/l
Copper4 0.05 mg/l
Magnesium3 30 mg/l
Manganese 0.05 mg/l
Zinc 5 mg/l
Lead 0.05 mg/l
Faecal Coliforms 0

Notes:
1. Levels of 14mg/l can impair performance if sodium levels are also high (50mg/l).
2. Acid (<pH6) drinking water can affect digestion, corrode drinking equipment,
and be incompatible with medicines and vaccines.
3. High sulphate levels will cause wet droppings. The effect is exacerbated if sodium
or magnesium levels are >50mg/l.
4. Excess copper can impart a bitter taste to the water, and cause liver damage.
Source: World Health Organisation.
89
 Excess levels of some mineral salts
will reduce water intake, and this
will also restrict growth.

If water hygiene is suspect, then treatment by ultra-violet (UV) light or chlorination at the point
of water entry to the house will reduce bacterial contamination.

Research has demonstrated that a high bacterial load in the drinking water supplied to the
young chicken will increase leg problems, especially Femoral Head Necrosis (FHN) and
associated Staphylococcus aureus infections. This bacterial contamination can often increase
downgrading at the factory due to septicaemia.

Birds offered water with a high

bacterial content will experience an
increased incidence of leg problems
and increased downgrading at the
processing plant.

Water that is clean at the point of entry to the broiler house (e.g. good quality mains water) can
become contaminated quickly by exposure to bacteria within the house environment. (See
Diagram 19).

DIAGRAM 19: INCREASE IN BACTERIAL COUNT IN DRINKERS

WHERE WATER IS EXPOSED TO THE BROILER
HOUSE ATMOSPHERE
40,000
Total Count
S.aureus
E.coli

15,000

10,000

0 0 0 0 0 0

after clean-out day old 5 days old

To ensure that the water is clean at the points of consumption, drinkers should be kept clean. In
drinkers with open water surfaces (i.e. ‘bell’ drinkers or nipples with drip cups) chlorination of
the water supply should be considered.

90
Key Points
✓ Provide unrestricted access to good quality water at an appropriate delivery temperature
i.e. 10-120C (50-540 F).
✓ Test the water supply regularly for bacteriological and mineral contaminants, and take
the necessary corrective action.
✓ Flush drinker lines in hot weather to ensure that the water is as cool as possible.
✓ Use fresh, clean drinking water to maintain leg health and reduce carcase downgrading at
the processing point.

FEEDING SYSTEMS

Feed should be provided in the form of sieved crumbs over the first 2-3 days of life. It should
be placed in flat trays or on paper sheeting so that it is readily accessible to the chicks. At least
25% of the floor should be covered with paper. The change to the main feeding system should
be made gradually over the first 2-3 days as chicks begin to show interest in the main system.
(See Chick Management, Preparation for Chick Arrival, Section 1, page 11). The main feeding
system should provide sufficient feeding space to allow the birds to achieve their optimum
growth. (See Table 27, page 93). Where growth modification programmes are used, particular
attention should be paid to feeding space, to allow for the extra competition created.

Insufficient feeding space will

reduce growth rates and cause
poor uniformity.

The main automated feeding systems available for broilers are:

• flat chain/auger
• pan feeders
• tube feeders

All types of feeder should be adjusted to ensure minimum spillage and optimum access for the
birds i.e. the base of the trough or pans should be level with the birds’ backs. (See Diagram 20).
Height of chain feeders is adjustable by winch, whereas height of pan and tube feeders may
have to be adjusted individually.

DIAGRAM 20: HEIGHT OF FEEDERS

91
 Incorrect feeder adjustment can
increase feed spillage. When this
happens, feed conversion will suffer,
and the spilled feed, when eaten, is
likely to carry a higher risk of
bacterial contamination.

With all feeding systems it is good practice to allow the birds to clear the feeders (i.e. consume
all the feed available in the tracks or pans) 3 to 4 times per day. This will stimulate appetite and reduce
feed wastage which results in improved FCR (See Section 2, Growth Management, page 26).

Adjustment of feed depth is easier with chain feeder systems, as a single adjustment to the
hopper only is required. Pan and tube feeder systems, however, require adjustments to be made
to each individual feeder. Careful maintenance of chain feeders will minimise incidence of leg
damage.

Pan and tube feeders (if filled automatically) have the advantage that all are filled
simultaneously, making feed available to the birds immediately. When chain feeders are used,
however, feed distribution takes longer to accomplish and feed is not immediately available to
all the birds.

Uneven distribution of feed can result

in lowered performance and increased
scratching damage associated with
competition at feeders.

TABLE 27: NUMBER OF BROILERS PER FEEDER

TYPE OF FEEDER NUMBER OF BIRDS PER FEEDER
Pan Feeders 1 pan feeder for 65 birds.
Diameter 33cm (13in)
Tube Feeders 1 tube for 70 birds. Diameter 38cm (15in)
Chain Feeders 2.5cm (1in)/bird i.e.
80birds/metre of track

Key Points

✓ Supplement main feeding system using paper and/or trays over the first 3 days.

✓ Supply sufficient feeders for the numbers of birds in the house.

✓ Increase feeder space per bird when using growth control programmes to allow for
increased competition at the feeder.

✓ Adjust feeder height daily, so that the birds’ backs are level with base of the feeder.

92
Appendices

page contents
94 Appendix 1 - Record Keeping

95 Appendix 2 - Nutrition Tables

103 Appendix 3 - Conversion Tables

105 Appendix 4 - Useful Tables & Efficiency Calculations

107 Appendix 5 - Feather Sexing

108 Appendix 6 - Problem Solving

93
 APPENDIX 1 - RECORD KEEPING

Accurate production records are essential for the effective application of responsive
management. Analysis and interpretation of production data (e.g. liveweight, FCR and
mortality) are essential to the upgrading and improvement of performance. Hygiene and disease
status should be monitored. Record keeping and analysis are essential to determine the effects
of changes to nutrition, management, environment and health status.

It is good practice for all processes in a broiler operation to have standard operating protocols
(SOP). These should include documentation of established procedures and monitoring systems.
(See Table 28).

TABLE 28: RECORDS REQUIRED IN BROILER PRODUCTION

Event Records Comments

Chick placement Number of day-olds
Flock of origin
Date and time of arrival
Chick quality i.e. liveweight, uniformity, number of
dead on arrival
Mortality Daily Record by sex if possible
Weekly Record culls separately
Cumulative Post mortem records of excessive mortality
Scoring of coccidial lesions will indicate
level of coccidial challenge
Medication Date As per veterinary instruction
Amount
Batch number
Vaccination Date of vaccination
Vaccine type Any unexpected vaccine reaction should
Batch number be recorded
Liveweight Weekly average liveweight More frequent measurement is required when
Weekly uniformity (CV%) predicting slaughter weight or where growth
modification programmes are applied
Feed Date of delivery Accurate measurement of feed consumed
Quantity is essential to measure FCR and to determine
cost effectiveness of a broiler operation
Date of starting withdrawal
feed
Water Daily consumption Sudden fluctuation in water consumption is
an early indicator of problems
Water to feed ratio
Water quality Mineral and/or bacteriological – especially
where bore holes or open water reservoirs are
used
Level of chlorination
Environment Temperature: Multiple locations should be monitored
daily minimum Automatic systems should be cross-checked
daily maximum manually each day
during brooding, 4 to 5
times per day
External temperature - daily
Relative Humidity – daily
Air quality Dust, CO2, NH3
Litter quality
Information Carcase quality
from slaughter house Health inspection
Carcase composition
Cleaning out Total bacterial counts After disinfection
salmonella, staphyloccus or E. coli may be
monitored if required

94
 APPENDIX 2 - NUTRITION TABLES

TABLE 29: FEED SPECIFICATIONS FOR AS-HATCHED OR FEMALE BROILERS GROWN

TO 1.6-1.8KG (3.5-4.0LB) LIVEWEIGHT AT APPROXIMATELY 35 DAYS
Starter Grower Finisher
Age fed Days 0-10 11-24 25-slaughter
Crude protein % 22-25 21-23 19-21
Energy per kg: kcal 3010 3175 3225
MJ 12.60 13.30 13.50
AMINO ACIDS
Tot.1 Digest2 Tot. Digest Tot. Digest
Arginine % 1.48 1.33 1.31 1.18 1.11 1.00
iso-Leucine % 0.95 0.84 0.84 0.74 0.71 0.63
Lysine % 1.44 1.27 1.25 1.10 1.05 0.92
Methionine % 0.51 0.47 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36
Methionine + Cystine % 1.09 0.94 0.97 0.84 0.83 0.72
Threonine % 0.93 0.80 0.82 0.70 0.71 0.61
Tryptophan % 0.25 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.17
Valine % 1.09 0.94 0.96 0.83 0.81 0.70
MINERALS
Calcium % 1.00 0.90 0.85
Available Phosphorus % 0.50 0.45 0.42
Magnesium % 0.05-0.5 0.05-0.5 0.05-0.5
Sodium % 0.16 0.16 0.16
Chloride % 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22
Potassium % 0.40-0.90 0.40-0.90 0.40-0.90
ADDED TRACE
MINERALS PER KG
Copper mg 8 8 8
Iodine mg 1 1 1
Iron mg 80 80 80
Manganese mg 100 100 100
Molybdenum mg 1 1 1
Selenium mg 0.15 0.15 0.10
Zinc mg 80 80 60
ADDED VITAMINS PER WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE
KG BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED
FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED
Vitamin A iu 15000 14000 12000 11000 12000 11000
Vitamin D3 iu 5000 5000 5000 5000 4000 4000
Vitamin E iu 75 75 50 50 50 50
Vitamin K mg 4 4 3 3 2 2
Thiamin (B1) mg 3 3 2 2 2 2
Riboflavin (B2) mg 8 8 6 6 5 5
Nicotinic Acid mg 60 70 60 70 35 40
Pantothenic Acid mg 18 20 18 20 18 20
Pyridoxine (B6) mg 5 4 4 3 3 2
Biotin mg 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.05 0.05
Folic Acid mg 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.50
Vitamin B12 mg 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.011 0.011
MINIMUM
SPECIFICATION
Choline per kg mg 1800 1600 1400
Linoleic acid % 1.25 1.20 1.00
Key: Tot.1 – Total Digest2 – Digestible
NOTES
These feed specifications should be used as a guide. They require adjustment for local conditions and
markets. A withdrawal feed should be fed to meet local requirements for drug withdrawal times. This
can be formulated to the same standards as the finisher or to a slightly lower specification.
95
 TABLE 30: FEED SPECIFICATIONS FOR AS-HATCHED BROILERS GROWN TO
2.3-2.5KG (5.1-5.5LB) LIVEWEIGHT AT 42-45 DAYS
Starter Grower Finisher
Age fed Days 0-10 11-28 29-slaughter
Crude protein % 22-25 20-22 18-20
Energy per kg: kcal 3010 3175 3225
MJ 12.60 13.30 13.50
AMINO ACIDS
Tot.1 Digest.2 Tot. Digest Tot. Digest
Arginine % 1.48 1.33 1.28 1.16 1.07 0.96
iso-Leucine % 0.95 0.84 0.82 0.72 0.68 0.60
Lysine % 1.44 1.27 1.23 1.08 1.00 0.88
Methionine % 0.51 0.47 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34
Methionine + Cystine % 1.09 0.94 0.95 0.82 0.80 0.69
Threonine % 0.93 0.80 0.80 0.69 0.68 0.58
Tryptophan % 0.25 0.22 0.21 0.18 0.18 0.16
Valine % 1.09 0.94 0.94 0.81 0.78 0.67
MINERALS
Calcium % 1.00 0.90 0.85
Available Phosphorus % 0.50 0.45 0.42
Magnesium % 0.05–0.5 0.05–0.5 0.05 – 0.5
Sodium % 0.16 0.16 0.16
Chloride % 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22
Potassium % 0.40–0.90 0.40–0.90 0.40–0.90
ADDED TRACE
MINERALS PER KG
Copper mg 8 8 8
Iodine mg 1 1 1
Iron mg 80 80 80
Manganese mg 100 100 100
Molybdenum mg 1 1 1
Selenium mg 0.15 0.15 0.10
Zinc mg 80 80 60
ADDED VITAMINS WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE
PER KG BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED
FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED
Vitamin A iu 15000 14000 12000 11000 12000 11000
Vitamin D3 iu 5000 5000 5000 5000 4000 4000
Vitamin E iu 75 75 50 50 50 50
Vitamin K mg 4 4 3 3 2 2
Thiamin (B1) mg 3 3 2 2 2 2
Riboflavin (B2) mg 8 8 6 6 5 5
Nicotinic Acid mg 60 70 60 70 35 40
Pantothenic Acid mg 18 20 18 20 18 20
Pyridoxine (B6) mg 5 4 4 3 3 2
Biotin mg 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.05 0.05
Folic Acid mg 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.50
Vitamin B12 mg 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.011 0.011
MINIMUM
SPECIFICATION
Choline per kg mg 1800 1600 1400
Linoleic acid % 1.25 1.20 1.00
Key: Tot.1 – Total Digest.2 – Digestible

NOTES
These feed specifications should be used as a guide. They require adjustment for local conditions and
markets. A withdrawal feed should be fed to meet local requirements for drug withdrawal times. This
can be formulated to the same standards as the finisher or to a slightly lower specification.

96
 TABLE 31: FEED SPECIFICATIONS FOR MALE BROILERS GROWN TO APPROXIMATELY
3KG (APPROXIMATELY 6.6LB) LIVEWEIGHT AT 56-59 DAYS
Starter Grower Finisher 1 Finisher 2
Age fed Days 0-10 11-28 29-42 43-slaughter
Crude protein % 22-25 20-22 18-20 17-19
Energy per kg: kcal 3010 3150 3200 3200
MJ 12.60 13.20 13.40 13.40
AMINO ACIDS
Tot.1 Digest.2 Tot. Digest. Tot. Digest. Tot.1 Digest.2
Arginine % 1.48 1.33 1.26 1.13 1.07 0.96 1.02 0.92
iso-Leucine % 0.95 0.84 0.81 0.71 0.68 0.60 0.65 0.57
Lysine % 1.44 1.27 1.20 1.06 1.00 0.88 0.95 0.84
Methionine % 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.36 0.33
Methionine + Cystine % 1.09 0.94 0.94 0.81 0.80 0.69 0.76 0.66
Threonine % 0.93 0.80 0.79 0.68 0.68 0.58 0.64 0.55
Tryptophan % 0.25 0.22 0.21 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.18 0.15
Valine % 1.09 0.94 0.92 0.80 0.78 0.67 0.74 0.64
MINERALS
Calcium % 1.00 0.90 0.90 0.85
Available Phosphorus % 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.42
Magnesium % 0.05–0.5 0.05–0.5 0.05–0.5 0.05 – 0.5
Sodium % 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
Chloride % 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22 0.16-0.22
Potassium % 0.40–0.90 0.40–0.90 0.40–0.90 0.40–0.90
ADDED TRACE
MINERALS PER KG
Copper mg 8 8 8 8
Iodine mg 1 1 1 1
Iron mg 80 80 80 80
Manganese mg 100 100 100 100
Molybdenum mg 1 1 1 1
Selenium mg 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10
Zinc mg 80 80 80 60
ADDED VITAMINS WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE WHEAT MAIZE
PER KG BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED BASED
FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED FEED
Vitamin A iu 15000 14000 12000 11000 12000 11000 12000 11000
Vitamin D3 iu 5000 5000 5000 5000 4000 4000 4000 4000
Vitamin E iu 75 75 50 50 50 50 50 50
Vitamin K mg 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2
Thiamin (B1) mg 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
Riboflavin (B2) mg 8 8 6 6 5 5 5 5
Nicotinic Acid mg 60 70 60 70 35 40 35 40
Pantothenic Acid mg 18 20 18 20 18 20 18 20
Pyridoxine (B6) mg 5 4 4 3 3 2 3 2
Biotin mg 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Folic Acid mg 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
Vitamin B12 mg 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011
MINIMUM
SPECIFICATION
Choline per kg mg 1800 1600 1400 1400
Linoleic acid % 1.25 1.20 1.00 1.00
Key: Tot.1 – Total Digest.2 – Digestible

NOTES
These feed specifications should be used as a guide. They require adjustment for local conditions and
markets. A withdrawal feed should be fed to meet local requirements for drug withdrawal times. This can
be formulated to the same standards as the finisher or to a slightly lower specification. Birds may be reared
using a controlled feeding and/or lighting programme to allow optimum bird performance.

97
 TABLE 32: NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF SOME COMMONLY
C Prot. Energy AMEn Arginine iso-Leucine Lysine Methionine Meth + Cyst
T* D* T D T D T D T D
g MJ kcal g g g g g g g g g g

BARLEY 107 11.7 2790 5.2 4.4 3.6 2.9 3.7 2.9 1.8 1.4 4.1 3.3

MAIZE 87 13.7 3275 4.0 3.6 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.7 3.7 3.4

WHEAT 119 12.7 3020 5.7 4.9 3.9 3.5 3.3 2.7 1.9 1.6 4.6 4.0

SORGHUM 101 13.5 3215 3.9 3.1 3.9 3.5 2.3 1.8 1.7 1.5 3.6 3.0

OATS 112 11.0 2620 7.1 6.7 4.0 3.5 4.4 3.8 1.8 1.6 5.0 4.3

MAIZE GLUTEN FEED 209 8.0 1915 8.8 7.7 6.0 4.9 6.3 4.9 3.5 2.9 8.0 6.0

MAIZE GLUTEN MEAL 607 14.9 3565 18.8 17.8 24.0 22.8 9.8 8.7 14.5 13.7 25.3 23.3

WHEATFEED/MIDDLINGS 156 7.6 1825 9.8 8.7 4.7 3.7 5.9 4.9 2.4 1.8 5.6 4.2

WHEAT BRAN 150 6.2 1475 9.9 8.2 4.5 3.6 5.8 4.3 2.2 1.8 5.3 4.1

RICE BRAN RAW 129 9.9 2370 9.9 8.4 4.5 3.4 5.7 4.2 2.6 2.0 5.4 3.9

RICE BRAN EXT. 147 6.8 1610 5.2 4.5 10.3 7.6 6.6 4.8 2.9 2.2 5.9 4.2

FIELD BEANS (white) 300 11.2 2665 25.9 24.1 11.8 10.2 18.5 16.3 2.1 1.6 5.9 4.4

PEAS 227 11.4 2715 19.0 17.5 9.1 8.3 16.1 14.8 2.2 1.8 5.4 4.1

SOYABEANS, HEATED 356 14.4 3450 26.0 22.6 16.0 13.9 21.6 19.0 4.9 4.2 10.5 8.7

SOYABEAN MEAL, 48 473 9.3 2230 34.0 32.6 20.9 19.4 28.0 25.5 6.4 5.9 13.4 11.8

SUNFLOWER MEAL, 39 386 6.7 1600 31.6 28.8 15.8 14.2 13.6 11.6 8.7 7.5 15.3 12.0

RAPE/CANOLA MEAL 343 7.1 1700 20.2 18.2 13.3 11.0 18.2 14.6 6.9 6.1 15.0 12.2

FISH MEAL 66 660 13.6 3250 37.8 34.8 27.0 24.9 49.5 44.0 18.3 16.8 24.3 21.2

HERRING MEAL 706 14.1 3360 40.3 37.0 29.8 27.4 54.3 48.3 20.5 18.8 26.8 23.3

MEAT & BONE MEAL** 538 12.6 3000 36.7 29.8 16.0 13.0 27.8 21.8 7.8 6.4 13.6 9.7

T* = Total amino acid content; D* = Digestible amino acid content

NOTES
These data are given as a rough guide. Local information on the composition of raw materials should ALWAYS be
used in preference.
Data are based on information published by Degussa AG; CVB, Netherlands; National Research Council, USA.
**Meat and Bone Meal is a very variable product and is increasingly excluded from broiler feeds on the grounds of
biosecurity. Data relate to a sample with 54% protein, 14% fat and 23% ash.

98
USED FEED INGREDIENTS (PER KILOGRAM)
Threonine Tryptophan Valine Ca Av.P Na Cl K Choline Linoleic Dry
T D T D T D acid Matter
g g g g g g g g g g g mg g g

BARLEY 3.6 2.7 1.3 0.9 5.2 4.2 0.6 1.4 0.1 1.0 4.8 990 8.6 880

MAIZE 3.1 2.6 0.7 0.6 4.0 3.5 0.3 0.9 0.1 0.5 3.6 620 18.8 880

WHEAT 3.4 2.8 1.4 1.3 5.0 4.3 0.7 1.3 0.1 0.4 4.2 1000 6.8 880

SORGHUM 3.3 2.6 1.1 1.0 5.0 4.3 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.7 3.8 660 12.2 880

OATS 3.7 3.1 1.6 1.2 5.5 4.8 1.1 1.7 0.1 0.7 4.7 950 16.8 880

MAIZE GLUTEN FEED 7.5 5.6 1.4 1.2 10.0 8.3 1.2 3.7 2.4 2.1 12.6 1510 17.2 890

MAIZE GLUTEN MEAL 20.4 18.7 3.3 2.7 27.4 26.0 0.4 1.8 0.1 0.5 1.6 330 16.3 890

WHEATFEED/MIDDLINGS 4.9 3.7 2.2 1.8 7.0 5.0 1.0 2.9 0.3 0.3 13.7 1440 14.0 870

WHEAT BRAN 4.7 3.5 2.2 1.8 6.8 5.3 1.9 3.5 0.4 1.3 12.5 1230 14.0 870

RICE BRAN RAW 4.8 3.3 1.7 1.3 7.0 5.2 1.0 2.5 0.1 0.4 10.6 1130 38.5 890

RICE BRAN EXT. 5.4 3.7 1.8 1.4 7.9 5.9 1.4 2.8 0.2 0.7 12.1 1230 3.6 890

FIELD BEANS (white) 10.2 9.0 2.6 2.1 13.2 11.0 1.1 2.3 0.2 0.7 13.4 1670 5.2 870

PEAS 8.4 7.1 2.1 1.8 10.4 9.1 1.1 1.8 0.1 0.6 11.0 642 4.0 870

SOYABEANS, HEATED 14.0 11.9 4.8 3.5 17.1 14.7 2.3 2.2 0.1 0.3 17.6 2860 97.0 880

SOYABEAN MEAL, 48 18.1 16.3 6.2 5.4 22.1 20.1 2.7 2.7 0.2 0.3 22.6 2730 7.0 870

SUNFLOWER MEAL, 39 14.1 10.5 5.1 4.1 19.3 16.3 3.7 2.9 0.3 1.2 14.7 2890 6.8 900

RAPE/CANOLA MEAL 14.8 22.9 4.5 3.7 17.5 14.6 7.3 3.6 0.3 0.3 12.6 6700 3.1 880

FISH MEAL 66 27.2 24.5 7.1 6.3 32.3 29.7 34.9 17.6 10.3 15.8 10.0 3050 0.1 910

HERRING MEAL 30.1 27.1 7.7 6.8 35.6 32.8 26.4 15.5 10.3 16.2 13.9 5300 0.1 910

MEAT & BONE MEAL** 18.3 14.0 3.7 2.8 24.8 19.9 73.3 22.6 7.6 6.3 4.8 1900 8.1 940

99
 TABLE 33: QUALITY FEATURES FOR FEED INGREDIENTS

Ingredient Quality Feature Notes

CEREALS Mycotoxins
Contaminants, weed seeds
Maize Mycotoxins
Wheat Viscosity (soluble NSP*) Modified by enzymes
Ergot contamination
Barley Beta glucans Modified by enzymes
Sorghum Tannins
Rice Trypsin inhibitor Heating effective
CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS Freshness
ROOT CROPS Contamination
Tapioca Cyanide levels
LEGUME SEEDS
Peas Tannins Use white-flowered varieties
De-hulling effective
Protease inhibitors Select suitable varieties
Heating effective
Beans, faba Tannins Use white-flowered varieties
De-hulling effective
Beans, phaseolus Lectins Heating effective
Lupin seed Glycosides Use 'sweet' varieties only
OIL SEEDS Stability of oil content
Toasted soya beans Urease levels Ensure proper processing
Trypsin inhibitors
Fat digestibility
Rape seed Glucosinolates Use low erucic acid, low
glucosinolate varieties only
OIL SEED MEALS
Soya bean meal As for soya beans Use soya 49 if possible
Rapeseed meal Glucosinolates Double zero varieties only
Sunflower meal 'Fibre' (hull removal) Use decorticated meals
Cottonseed meal Gossypol Iron addition can be used
ANIMAL PRODUCTS Microbial quality Proper processing is essential
Amino acid availability
Meat & bone meals Calcium/phosphorus level
Fat content Saturated fatty acid levels
Poultry by-product meals Pathogen control
Feather content
Feather meals Amino acid availability Proper processing is essential
Fish meals Gizzerosine Causes gizzard erosion
Fats and Oils See Table 12, page 49

*NSP: non-starch polysaccharides.

100
 TABLE 34: INCLUSION LIMITS FOR SOME COMMON FEED
INGREDIENTS IN BROILER FEEDS
Ingredient Starter Grower Finisher
Lower Upper Upper Upper Notes
limit limit limit limit
% % % %
CEREALS
Maize
Wheat 15 50 50 50 Lower limit for pellet quality
Barley 10 20 25 Use enzymes
Sorghum 50 50 50 Depends on tannin level
Rice 15 15 15
BY-PRODUCTS AND ROOTS
Wheat bran/middlings 10 15 15
Rice bran 5 10 15
Maize gluten feed 5 10 15
Molasses 5 5 5
Tapioca 5 10 20
LEGUMES
Peas 5 15 20 Suitable variety
Beans, faba 5 10 10 Suitable variety
Beans, phaseolus
Lupin seed 5 15 20 White or yellow flowering
varieties
OIL SEEDS AND MEALS
Full fat rapeseed 2.5 5 7.5
Full fat soya bean 15 20 20 Control total fat level
Soya bean meal 10 25 25 25 If higher levels, use different sources
Sunflower meal 5 10 15 Depends on fibre content
Cottonseed meal 0 5 10
ANIMAL MEALS
Meat meals 8 10 15
Fish meals 5 10 10 5 Subject to availability/cost
Feather meal 0 5 5
FATS AND OILS
Tallow/lard etc. 0 3 5 Depends on age of bird
Vegetable fats 1 5 5 7 Minimum for pelleting and
dustiness

101
 TABLE 35: PERCENTAGE LOSS OF VITAMINS IN BROILER FEEDS
STORED IN DIFFERENT CONDITIONS
Vitamin Form Type of Ideal Premix Premix &
Premix Conditions Stored Feed Stored
Mash Pellets Mash Pellets Mash Pellets
A Beadlet A/D3V1 3 8 4 9 11 16
VM2 4 9 8 13 15 19
VMC3 5 10 12 17 19 23
D3 Beadlet A/D3 V 2 8 3 9 11 17
VM 2 9 5 11 13 18
VMC 3 9 9 15 17 22
E Acetate V 1 7 1 7 4 10
VM 1 7 4 10 7 13
VMC 1 7 7 13 10 16
K MSBC4 V 7 35 8 36 26 49
VM 12 39 22 46 37 56
VMC 12 39 33 53 46 62
B1 Thiamin V 3 17 4 18 15 27
HCl VM 8 21 24 35 33 42
VMC 8 39 30 40 38 47
B2 Riboflavin V 1 10 1 10 7 16
VM 1 10 5 14 11 19
VMC 3 12 8 17 14 22
B6 Pyridoxine V 3 13 3 13 9 19
VM 4 14 8 18 14 23
VMC 6 16 13 22 19 27
Pantothenic Calcium V 1 10 1 10 6 15
Acid Pantothenate VM 1 10 1 10 6 15
VMC 2 11 13 21 18 25
Biotin V 3 13 3 13 10 20
VM 4 14 7 17 14 23
VMC 6 16 13 22 20 28
Folic Acid V 1 11 1 11 3 13
VM 2 12 6 16 8 16
VMC 3 13 16 25 18 26
Niacin Nicotinic V 4 13 4 13 12 20
Acid VM 6 15 10 18 18 25
VMC 6 15 13 21 20 28
Vitamin C Ascorbic V 11 56 14 57 39 70
Acid VM 16 58 37 69 55 78
VMC 16 58 37 69 55 78
Vitamin C Protected V 5 27 7 29 25 42
VM 8 30 18 37 34 49
VMC 8 30 27 44 41 55
Choline Choline V - - - - - -
chloride VM - - - - - -
VMC - - - - 1 4
Storage Conditions:
Vitamin storage 0 days 0 days 0 days
Premix storage; 15°C (59°F), 60%RH 14 days 56 days 56 days
Feed storage; 20°C, 60%RH 7 days 7 days 28 days
Key: V1 - Vitamins VM2 - Vitamins and Minerals VMC3 - Vitamins, Minerals and Choline
MSBC - Menadione Sodium Bisulphite Complex
Data are based on information published in the BASF Vitamin Stability Estimation Programme
102
 APPENDIX 3 - CONVERSION TABLES

Length
1 metre (m) = 3.281 feet (ft)
1 foot (ft) = 0.305 metre (m)
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.394 inch (in)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimetres (cm)

Area
1 square metre (m2) = 10.76 square feet (ft2)
1 square foot (ft2) = 0.093 square metre (m2)

Volume
1 litre (l) = 0.22 gallon (gal)
1 imperial gallon (gal) = 4.54 litres (l)
1 imperial gallon (gal) = 1.2 US gallons (gal US)
1 cubic metre (m3) = 35.31 cubic feet (ft3)
1 cubic foot (ft3) = 0.028 cubic metre (m3)

Weight
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilogram (kg)
1 gram (g) = 0.035 ounce (oz)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams (g)

Energy
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) = 0.239 calories (cal)
1 kilocalorie per kilogram (kcal/kg) = 4.184 Megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg)
1 Megajoule per kilogram (MJ/kg) = 108 calories per pound (cal/lb)
1 Joule (J) = 0.735 foot pound (ft lb)
1 foot pound (ft lb) = 1.36 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) = 0.00095 British thermal unit (Btu)
1 British thermal units (Btu) = 1055 Joules (J)

Pressure
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 6895 Newtons per square metre (N/m2)
or Pascals (Pa)
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 0.06895 bar
1 bar = 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)
1 bar = 105 Newtons per square metre (N/m2)
or Pascals (Pa)
= 100 kilopascals (kPa)
1 Newton per square metre or Pascal (N/m2)
= 0.000145 pound per square inch (lb/in2)

103
 Stocking Density
1 square foot per bird (ft2/bird) = 10.76 birds per square metre (bird/m2)
10 birds per square metre (bird/m2) = 1.08 square feet per bird (ft2/bird)
15 birds per square metre (bird/m2) = 0.72 square feet per bird (ft2/bird)
20 birds per square metre (bird/m2) = 0.54 square feet per bird (ft2/bird)
1 kilogram per square metre (kg/m2) = 0.205 pound per square foot (lb/ft2)
15 kilograms per square metre (kg/m2) = 3.08 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
34.2 kilograms per square metre (kg/m2) = 7.01 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
40 kilograms per square metre (kg/m2) = 8.20 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)

Temperature
Temperature (°C) = 5/9 (Temperature °F - 32)
Temperature (°F) = 32 + 9/5 (Temperature °C)

TABLE 36: TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART

°C °F °C °F
0 32.0 22 71.6
2 35.6 24 75.2
4 39.2 26 78.8
6 42.8 28 82.4
8 46.4 30 86.0
10 50.0 32 89.6
12 53.6 34 93.2
14 57.2 36 96.8
16 60.8 38 100.4
18 64.4 40 104.0
20 68.0

Operating Temperature
Operating temperature is defined as the minimum house temperature plus 2/3 of the difference
between minimum and maximum house temperatures. It is important where there are
significant diurnal temperature fluctuations.

e.g. Minimum house temperature 16°C (61°F).

Maximum house temperature 28°C (82°F).

Operating Temperature = [(28-16) x 2/3] + 16 = 24°C

(Centigrade)

Operating Temperature = [(82-61) x 2/3] + 61 = 75°F

(Fahrenheit)

Ventilation
1 cubic foot per minute (ft3/min) = 1.699 cubic metres per hour (m3/hour)
1 cubic metre per hour (m3/hour) = 0.589 cubic foot per minute (ft3/min)

Insulation
U value measured in Watts per square metre per degree Centigrade (W/m2/°C)
104
Light
1 foot candle = 10.76 lux
A simple formula to calculate the number of lamps required for a broiler house is as follows:
*Number of Lamps = Floor area (m2) x max. lux required
wattage of lamp x K factor

K factor depends on lamp wattage as shown in Table 38:

TABLE 37: LAMP WATTAGE AND K FACTORS

POWER OF LAMP K FACTOR

(Watts)
15 3.8
25 4.2
40 4.6
60 5.0
100 6.0

* This formula is for tungsten bulbs at a height of 2 metres above bird level. Fluorescent lights
provide 3 to 5 times the number of lux per Watt as tungsten bulbs.

APPENDIX 4 - USEFUL TABLES &

EFFICIENCY CALCULATIONS

TABLE 38: EUROPEAN EFFICIENCY FACTOR (EEF)

Liveability x Liveweight in kg
x 100
Age in days x FCR

e.g Age 42 days, liveweight 2089g e.g Age 46 days, liveweight 2360g
Mortality 4.89%, FCR 1.71 Mortality 5.71%, FCR 1.78

95.11 x 2.089 94.29 x 2.360

x 100 = 277 x 100 = 272
42 x 1.71 46 x 1.78

Note: The higher the value the better the technical performance. Used extensively in certain
European countries to compare flocks within an integration or country. Cannot be used to
compare performances between countries.

105
 TABLE 39: MINIMUM & MAXIMUM VENTILATION RATES AT VARYING LIVEWEIGHTS

Liveweight Ventilation Rate (m3/hour) Liveweight Ventilation Rate (m3/hour)

(kg) (kg)
minimum maximum minimum maximum
0.050 0.074 0.761 1.800 1.091 11.189
0.100 0.125 1.280 1.900 1.136 11.652
0.150 0.169 1.735 2.000 1.181 12.109
0.200 0.210 2.153 2.100 1.225 12.560
0.250 0.248 2.546 2.200 1.268 13.006
0.300 0.285 2.919 2.300 1.311 13.447
0.350 0.319 3.276 2.400 1.354 13.883
0.400 0.353 3.621 2.500 1.396 14.315
0.450 0.386 3.956 2.600 1.437 14.742
0.500 0.417 4.281 2.700 1.479 15.165
0.550 0.448 4.598 2.800 1.520 15.585
0.600 0.479 4.908 2.900 1.560 16.000
0.650 0.508 5.212 3.000 1.600 16.412
0.700 0.537 5.510 3.100 1.640 16.821
0.750 0.566 5.803 3.200 1.680 17.226
0.800 0.594 6.090 3.300 1.719 17.629
0.850 0.621 6.374 3.400 1.758 18.028
0.900 0.649 6.653 3.500 1.796 18.424
0.950 0.676 6.928 3.600 1.835 18.817
1.000 0.702 7.200 3.700 1.873 19.208
3.800 1.911 19.596
1.100 0.754 7.734 3.900 1.948 19.982
1.200 0.805 8.255 4.000 1.986 20.365
1.300 0.855 8.766 4.100 2.023 20.745
1.400 0.904 9.267 4.200 2.060 21.124
1.500 0.951 9.759 4.300 2.096 21.500
1.600 0.999 10.243 4.400 2.133 21.874
1.700 1.045 10.719 4.500 2.169 22.245
Source: UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service.

Notes:

For further explanation see Housing and Environment, Section 6, page 81.

Minimum ventilation rate is the quantity of air required per hour to supply sufficient oxygen to
the birds and maintain air quality.

Minimum ventilation rate = 1.95 x 10-4 m3/sec/kg0.75

Maximum ventilation rate in controlled environment sheds in temperature climates is the

quantity of air required per hour to remove metabolic heat such that the temperature within the
building is maintained at not greater than 3oC (5.4oF) above external temperature.

Maximum ventilation rate = 2.00 x 10-3 m3/sec/kg0.75

Maximum ventilation rates will be exceeded when cooling birds using convective heat loss eg.
tunnel ventilation.

Source: UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service

106
 APPENDIX 5 - FEATHER SEXING

Identification of males and females at day old may be accomplished easily at the hatchery as
most strains of Ross Broiler are feather sexable. In feather sexable broilers, fast feathering chicks
are female, slow feathering chicks are male. The type of feathering is identified by observing the
relationship between coverts (upper layer) and the primaries (lower layer) which are found on
the outer half of the wing.

MALE CHICKS

In the slow feathering male chick the primaries are the same length or shorter than the
coverts.

DIAGRAM 21: ROSS MALE BROILER CHICK WING FEATHERS

Same length primaries Shorter primaries

FEMALE CHICKS

In the fast feathering female chick the primaries are longer than the coverts.

DIAGRAM 22: ROSS FEMALE BROILER CHICK WING

Longer primaries

107
 APPENDIX 6 - PROBLEM SOLVING

TABLE 40: QUICK REFERENCE

Problem Possible causes Action

High Early Mortality Poor chick quality Check hatchery practice and egg hygiene
(>1% in first week) Check chick transport
Incorrect brooding Re-adjust brooders
Disease Post mortems on dead chicks, take
veterinary advice

High Mortality Metabolic diseases Check ventilation rates

(post 7 days) (Ascites, Sudden Check feed formulation
Death Syndrome) Avoid excessive early growth rates
Check hatchery ventilation
Infectious diseases Establish cause (post mortem)
Take veterinary advice on medication
and vaccination
Leg problems Check calcium, phosphorus and
vitamin D3 levels in diet
Use lighting programmes to increase
bird activity

Poor Early Growth Nutrition Check starter ration - availability

and Uniformity and quality
Check water supply - availability
and quality
Chick quality Check hatchery procedures:
Egg hygiene, storage, incubation conditions
hatch time, transport time and conditions
Environmental Check temperature and humidity profiles
conditions Check daylength
Check air quality - CO2, dust,
minimum ventilation rate
Appetite Check poor stimulation of appetite - low
proportion of birds with full crops

Poor Late Growth Low nutrient intake Check feed quality and formulation
and Uniformity Check feed intake and accessibility
Excessive early restriction
Lighting programme too restrictive
Infectious disease See High Mortality
Environmental Check ventilation rates
conditions Check stocking density
Check house temperatures
Check water and feed availability

Poor Litter Quality Nutrition Poor quality fats in diet

Excess salts in diet
Excess protein in diet
Environment Insufficient litter depth at start
Inappropriate litter material
Drinker design and adjustment
(spillage problems)
Humidity too high
Stocking density too high
Insufficient ventilation
Infectious disease Causing enteritis, take veterinary advice

108
Problem Possible causes Action
Poor Feed Poor growth See Poor Early Growth, Poor Late Growth
Conversion High mortality (esp. See High Mortality
late mortality)
Feed wastage Check settings/adjustments of feeders
Allow birds to clear feeders twice daily
Environment Check house temperature is not too low
Infectious disease See High Mortality
Nutrition Check feed formulation and quality

Poor Feather Cover Environment Check house temperature is not too high
Nutrition Check ration for methionine and
cystine content and balance

Factory Downgrading Ascites See High Mortality

Blisters and burns Check stocking density
(e.g. Hockburn) Check litter quality
Increase bird activity (e.g. feeding or
lighting programmes)
Bruises and breaks Check handling procedures at
weighing and catching
Scratching Excessive light stimulation
Check handling procedures at
weighing and catching
Check access to feed and water
Oregon Disease Birds excessively disturbed during
(Deep Muscular growth e.g. at partial depletion (thinning),
Myopathy) weighing etc.
Poor feed distribution.
Excessive fatness Check nutritional balance of diet
Check house temperature not too high

109
 KEY WORDS INDEX

Absorbents 44 Depletion 5, 6, 26-28, 30-32, 34,

Air Quality 4, 15, 19, 66, 81-83, 56-58, 109
94, 106, 108 Diet Specifications 38, 44
Amino Acids 38, 40, 45, 79, 95-97 Digestion Enhancers 43, 65
Ammonia (NH3) 19, 61, 82, 94 Disinfectants 61
Antibiotic 43, 54, 65 Downgrading 27, 35, 36, 47, 79, 82, 84,
Anti-mould Agent 43 90, 91, 109
Antioxidants 43, 44 Drinking Systems 6, 85, 86
Ascites 5, 27, 40, 45, 54, Dust 11, 50, 58, 59, 82, 83, 85,
65-67, 82, 108, 109 94, 101, 108
As-hatched 22, 26, 30, 31, 44, 95, 96 E. coli 67, 90, 94
Behaviour 8, 15-19, 29, 30, 75 Energy 1, 14, 23, 38-41, 47, 50, 66, 76,
Biosecurity 10, 48, 50, 55, 56, 63, 64, 78, 79, 95- 98, 103
75, 84, 98 Enzymes 39, 42, 43, 100, 101
Blisters 31, 79, 84, 109 Fat 23, 38, 39, 41, 43-46, 49-51, 66, 76,
Brooding 5, 6, 8, 10-17, 19, 20, 22, 78, 79, 84, 98, 100, 101, 108, 109
45, 66, 74, 82, 87, 88, 94, 108 Feather Sexing 23, 107
Bruising 35, 79 Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) 4, 5, 20,
Calcium 41, 42, 60, 66, 88, 89, 95-97, 26-29, 31, 38, 50, 51, 65, 92, 94, 105
100, 102, 108 Feed Distribution 27, 92, 109
Campylobacter 55, 65 Feed Specification 55, 95-97
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 19, 79, 82 Feeding Space 27, 28, 79, 91
Carcases 6, 36, 47, 64 Feeding Systems 27, 91, 92
Catching 6, 29, 34-36, 109 Femoral Head Necrosis (FHN) 54, 67, 90
Chick Placement 12, 94 Finisher Diet 40, 46, 49-51, 95-97, 101
Chick Quality 5, 8, 9, 54, 94, 108 Fogging 60, 71-73, 75
Cleaning Out 57, 62, 63, 88, 94 Food Safety 4, 55, 65
Climate 32, 38, 47, 70, 71, 74, 75, Fumigation 58, 61
80, 81, 106 Grower Diet 20, 40, 45, 49-51, 95-97, 101
Coccidiosis 51, 65 Growth 4-6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 20, 22-32, 34, 38,
Coefficient of Variation (CV%) 22-25, 94 40, 41, 43-48, 50, 51, 54, 65-67, 74, 75,
Control of Feed 25-27, 48, 56 77-79, 81, 82, 85, 89-92, 94, 108, 109
Controlled Environment 9, 35, 70, 71, 74, Growth Control 25-32
80, 81, 106 Growth Promoters 43, 65
Conversion Tables 103 Hatchery 5, 6, 8-10, 54, 63-67, 107, 108
Cooling Systems 70-73, 75 Health Management 63
Crude Protein 95-97 Heat Stress 9, 32, 36, 40-42, 75-79
Daylength 20, 29-32, 108 Hockburn 31, 36, 79, 82, 84

110
Housing Design 57, 70-75 Pre-processing Management 33-36
Humidity 10, 11, 13-19, 32, 71, 73, 77, Prebiotics 44, 45
82, 94, 102 Premixes 42, 44, 48
Hygiene 9, 10, 54-57, 62, 67, 90, 94, 108 Probiotics 44, 45
Infectious Bronchitis (IB) 63, 64, 66, 67 Problem Solving 108
Infectious Bursal Disease 63, 64 Processing 5, 6, 23, 25-27, 30, 34-36, 40,
(IBD, Gumboro) 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 64, 79, 90, 91, 100
Ingredients 38-45, 47-50, 84, 99-101 Protein 95-97
Intermittent Lighting 28, 29, 31, 32 Records 68, 94
Leg Health 4, 5, 22, 27, 29, 31, 41, 54, Relative Humidity (RH) 10, 11, 13-19, 32,
65, 67, 79, 91 71, 73, 77, 82, 94, 102
Light Intensity 20, 28-30, 35, 36, 70 Respiratory Disease 27, 66, 82
Lighting 4, 14, 20, 23, 25, 26, 28-32, Responsive Management 5, 6, 75, 94
34, 45, 70, 77, 97, 108, 109 Salmonellae 47, 51, 55, 56, 84
Litter 10, 12, 17, 28, 36, 40, 41, 47, Separate Sex Growing 23-25, 46
50, 51, 55-59, 61, 64, 72, 73, 77, 79, Slaughter 20, 24, 25, 29-31, 34, 35,
82-87, 94, 108, 109 44, 46, 51, 52, 55, 80, 94-97
Liveability 4, 26, 27, 30, 74, 79, 105 Spot Brooding 13-16
Liveweight 5, 8, 12, 17, 19, 20, 22-32, 38, Staphylococcus 90
44-46, 64, 77, 80, 81, 94-97, 105, 106 Starter Diet 40, 45, 46, 49-51, 95-97, 101, 108
Meat Yield 4, 5, 9, 26, 46 Stocking Density 4, 23, 36, 38, 67, 74,
Medication 94, 108 77-80, 84, 104, 108, 109
Metabolisable Energy (ME) 39 Sudden Death Syndrome (SDS) 29, 65-67
Minerals 38, 41, 42, 48, 49, 73, 88, Temperature 1, 4, 8-19, 28, 35, 36, 55,
89, 95-97, 102 61, 65, 66, 70-72, 74-78, 80-83, 85, 88,
Modified Broiler Growth 25-32 91, 94, 104, 106, 108, 109
Mortality 12, 29, 32, 35, 54, 65, 66, Trace Minerals 42, 48, 49, 95-97
75, 94, 105, 108, 109 Tunnel Ventilation 71, 72, 81, 106
Mycotoxin 44, 47, 54, 67, 68, 83, 84, 100 Uniformity 5, 8, 10, 11, 15, 17, 22, 23,
Newcastle Disease (ND) 63, 64 25, 79, 91, 94, 108
Nutrients 4, 9, 23, 25-28, 38-40, 42-47, Vaccination 8, 10, 55, 63, 64, 67, 94, 108
50-52, 78, 79, 98, 108 Ventilation 4, 11, 17, 19, 28, 35, 36, 57,
Nutrition 4, 26, 30, 37-52, 54, 65, 67, 58, 60, 65, 66, 70-75, 80-84, 104, 106, 108
68, 78, 94, 95, 108, 109 Vitamins 38, 42, 43, 48-50, 55, 79,
Open-sided Housing 30, 59, 60, 70, 74 95-97, 102
Organic Acids 39, 44, 51, 54 Water Consumption 85, 94
Pad Cooling 71, 72 Water Quality 11, 75, 88, 94
Pelleting 44, 50, 55, 101 Welfare 1, 4-6, 20, 22, 29, 34, 36,
Phosphorus 41-43, 66, 95-97, 100, 108 38, 48, 57, 70, 79, 80
Physiological Development 5, 10, Whole Wheat Feeding 34, 35, 45, 51, 52, 56
27, 29, 54, 76 Whole House Brooding 13, 15, 16, 17

111
Aviagen Limited Aviagen Incorporated
Newbridge 5015 Bradford Drive
Midlothian Huntsville Alabama 35805
EH28 8SZ USA
Scotland
UK

tel +44 (0) 131 333 1056 tel +1 256 890 3800
fax +44 (0) 131 333 3296 fax +1 256 890 3919
email [email protected] email [email protected]

website www.aviagen.com