Spacecraft Dynamics and Control

Matthew M. Peet
Arizona State University

Lecture 10: Rendezvous and Targeting - Lambert’s Problem

Introduction

In this Lecture, you will learn:

Introduction to Lambert’s Problem

• The Rendezvous Problem
• The Targeting Problem
I Fixed-Time interception
Solution to Lambert’s Problem
• Focus as a function of semi-major axis, a
• Time-of-Flight as a function of semi-major axis, a
I Fixed-Time interception
• Calculating ∆v.

Numerical Problem: Suppose we are in an equatorial parking orbit or radius r.

Given a target with position ~r and velocity ~v , calculate the ∆v required to
intercept the target before it reaches the surface of the earth.

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 2 / 30

Problems we Have Solved

How to change our orbit to a desired one.

• Raise orbit
• Inclination change
Rendezvous?
• OK, when mission is not time-sensitive.
• Must use phasing...
Let θ be the angle between the position vectors
of the two craft at the beginning of the
Hohman transfer.

We need θ = π − no · Thohman = π − 2π TThohman

outer
, where no is the mean motion
of the outer orbit and Thohman is the period of the Hohman transfer.

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 3 / 30

 Problems we Have Solved
Lecture 10
How to change our orbit to a desired one.

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics • Raise orbit

• Inclination change
Rendezvous?
• OK, when mission is not time-sensitive.
• Must use phasing...
Let θ be the angle between the position vectors

Problems we Have Solved of the two craft at the beginning of the

Hohman transfer.

We need θ = π − no · Thohman = π − 2π TThohman

outer
, where no is the mean motion
of the outer orbit and Thohman is the period of the Hohman transfer.
The Problem with phasing

Problem: We have to wait.

Remember what happened to the Death star?

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 4 / 30

 The Problem with phasing
Lecture 10
Problem: We have to wait.

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics

The Problem with phasing

Remember what happened to the Death star?

• The death star had to wait for about 100◦ of phase (or ∆t = 100
T )
360 ds
before it was in range of the rebel base.
• The rebels solved Lambert’s problem and calculated an intercept
trajectory with TOF< ∆T = 100 T .
360 ds
Asteroid Interception

Suppose that:
• Our time to intercept is limited.
• The target trajectory is known.
Problem: Design an orbit starting from ~r0 which intersects the orbit of the
asteroid at the same time as the asteroid.
• Before the asteroid intersects the earth (when r(t) = 6378)

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 5 / 30

Missile Defense
Problem: ICBM’s have re-entry speeds in excess of 8km/s (Mach 26).
• Patriot missiles can achieve max of Mach 5.

Objective: Intercept ballistic trajectory before

missile re-entry
• Before the missile intersects the
atmosphere
• When r(t) = 6378km+ ∼ = 200km

Complications:
• Plane changes may be required.
• The required time-to-intercept may be
small.
I Hohman transfer is not possible

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 6 / 30

The Targeting Problem
Step 1: Determine the orbit of the Target

Step 1 can be accomplished one of two ways:

Method 1:
1. Given ~r(t0 ) and ~v (t0 ), find a, e, i, ωp , Ω and f (t0 )
I we have covered this approach in Lecture 6.
2. Unfortunately, it is difficult to measure ~v

Method 2:
1. Given two observations ~r(t1 ) and ~r(t2 ), find a, e, i, ωp , Ω and f (t0 ).
I Alternatively, find ~v (t1 ) and ~v (t2 )
2. This is referred to as Lambert’s problem (the topic of this lecture)

Note: This is a boundary-value problem:

• We know some states at two points.
• In contrast to the initial value problem, where we know all states at the
initial time.
• Unlike initial-value problems, boundary-value problems cannot always be
solved.
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 7 / 30
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)

The Problem of orbit determination was originally solved by C. F. Gauss

Mathematician First
• Astronomer Second
Boring/Conservative/Grumpy (Monarchist).
Considered by many as one of the greatest
mathematicians
• Professor of Astronomy in Göttingen
• He was a mathematician’s mathematician.

Discovered
• Gaussian Distributions
• Gauss’ Law (collaboration with Weber)
• Non-Euclidean Geometry (maybe)
• Least Squares (maybe)

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 8 / 30

 Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
Lecture 10 The Problem of orbit determination was originally solved by C. F. Gauss

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics Mathematician First

• Astronomer Second
Boring/Conservative/Grumpy (Monarchist).
Considered by many as one of the greatest
mathematicians
• Professor of Astronomy in Göttingen

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) • He was a mathematician’s mathematician.

Discovered
• Gaussian Distributions
• Gauss’ Law (collaboration with Weber)
• Non-Euclidean Geometry (maybe)
• Least Squares (maybe)

• Gauss focused on simplification/distillation/perfection of existing ideas.

• Actually, Lambert solved Lambert’s problem. Gauss solved the 3
observation problem where we don’t have range, only declination and
right ascension. We won’t actually cover the solution to this problem. It
involves error minimization. However, the story of Gauss and Piazzi is
much more interesting.
• Least-squares is also claimed by Legendre.
• Non-Euclidean geometries discovered in 1829 by Bolyai. Problem of
parallel lines. No hard evidence to support Gauss’ claim (1932). “To
praise it would amount to praising myself. For the entire content of the
work ... coincides almost exactly with my own meditations which have
occupied my mind for the past thirty or thirty-five years”
• Gauss (at 7) is the source of that story about the student who summed
up the numbers from 1 to 100.
• Wanted a heptadecagon inscribed on his tombstone (17-sided equilateral
polygon)
• pauca sed matura
Discovery and Rediscovery of Ceres
The pseudo-planet Ceres was discovered
by G. Piazzi
• Observed 12 times between Jan. 1
and Feb. 11, 1801
• Planet was then lost.
Complication:
• Observation was only declination
and right-ascension.
• Observations were only spread over
1% of the orbit.
I No ranging info.
• For this case, three observations
are needed.
C. F. Gauss solved the orbit
determination problem and correctly
predicted the location.
• Planet was re-found on Dec 31, 1801 in the correct location.
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 9 / 30
The Targeting Problem
Step 2: Determine the desired position of the target

Once we have found the orbit of the target, we can determine where the target
will be at the desired time of impact, tf .

Procedure:
• The difference tf − t0 is the Time
of Flight (TOF)
• Calculate
M (tf ) = M (t0 ) + n(tf − t0 )
• Use M (tf ) to find E(tf ).
• Use E(tf ) to find f (tf ).
• Use f (tf ) to find ~r(tf ).

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 10 / 30

The Targeting Problem
Step 3: Find the Intercept Trajectory (Lambert’s Problem)

For a given
• Initial Position, ~r1
• Final Position, ~r2
• Time of Flight, T OF
the transfer orbit is uniquely
determined.
Challenge: Find that orbit!!!
Difficulties: Figure: For given P1 and P2 and TOF, the
transfer ellipse is uniquely determined.
• Where is the second focus?
• May require initial plane-change.
On the Plus Side:
• May use LOTS of fuel.
• We know the change in true
anomaly, ∆f ...
• For this geometry, TOF only
depends on a.
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 11 / 30
 The Targeting Problem
Lecture 10 Step 3: Find the Intercept Trajectory (Lambert’s Problem)

For a given

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics • Initial Position, ~r1

• Final Position, ~r2
• Time of Flight, T OF
the transfer orbit is uniquely
determined.
Challenge: Find that orbit!!!

The Targeting Problem Difficulties:

• Where is the second focus?
Figure: For given P1 and P2 and TOF, the
transfer ellipse is uniquely determined.

• May require initial plane-change.

On the Plus Side:
• May use LOTS of fuel.
• We know the change in true
anomaly, ∆f ...
• For this geometry, TOF only
depends on a.

The two position vectors ~r1 and ~r2 determine the orbital plane
• So all our calculations will be in that plane
• A 2-D problem
• We’ll make it 3D at the end.
The Targeting Problem
Step 4: Calculate the ∆v

Once we have found the transfer orbit,

• Calculate ~vtr (t0 ) of the transfer
orbit.
• Calculate our current velocity,
~v (t0 )
• Calculate ∆v~ = ~vtr (t0 ) − ~v (t0 )

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 12 / 30

Finding the transfer orbit (The Hard Part)
Semi-major axis of the transfer orbit, a and Focus

The difficult part is to determine a.

• TOF only depends on a
The value of a dictates the location of
the focus.
Focal Circle 1: For given ~r0 and a,
• The set of potential locations for
the second focus is a circle.
I Let r0 = k~r0 k be the distance
from known focus to initial
position.
I Then rf 0 = 2a − r0 is the Figure: Potential Locations of Second
distance from initial position to Focus
the unknown focus.
• The unknown focus lies on a circle
of radius rf 0 = 2a − r0 around our
current (initial) position.
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 13 / 30
 Finding the transfer orbit (The Hard Part)
Lecture 10 Semi-major axis of the transfer orbit, a and Focus

The difficult part is to determine a.

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics • TOF only depends on a

The value of a dictates the location of
the focus.
Focal Circle 1: For given ~r0 and a,
• The set of potential locations for
the second focus is a circle.
I Let r0 = k~r0 k be the distance

Finding the transfer orbit (The Hard Part) from known focus to initial
position.
I Then rf 0 = 2a − r0 is the Figure: Potential Locations of Second
distance from initial position to Focus
the unknown focus.
• The unknown focus lies on a circle
of radius rf 0 = 2a − r0 around our
current (initial) position.

• That TOF only depends on a was Lambert’s conjecture! Only proved

rigorously the year (1776) before he died (1777, Tuberculosis?).
• Was originally a clerk is the iron mines. Then a tutor.
• The application to rendezvous and targeting is modern.
Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus

Focal Circle 2: The same geometry

holds for the final position vector, ~r.
• The set of potential locations for
the second focus is a circle.
I Let r = k~rk be the distance
from the known focus to the
target position.
I Then rf = 2a − r is the distance
from the final position to the
unknown focus.
• The unknown focus lies on a circle
of radius rf = 2a − r around the Figure: Potential Locations of Second
Focus using Final Destination
target position.

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 14 / 30

Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus

Geometry: By intersecting the two

circles about ~r0 and ~r,
• We find two potential locations for
the focus (F 0 and F 00 )
We can discard the more distant focus.

Figure: Potential Locations of Second

Focus for a given choice of a
Note the focal locations vary continuously as we change a.
• As a increases, both circles get proportionally bigger.
• This changes the vacant focal locations.

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 15 / 30

The “minimum energy” transfer
The smallest achievable a

Note: As we vary a, the set of foci points F 0 and F 00 form a hyperbola.

Conclusions
• There is a min-energy transfer
corresponding to smallest a.
I amin = r0 +r+c where
4
c = k~r − ~r0 k.
I The minimum energy transfer
yields the smallest a for which it
is possible to have the two
points on the same orbit.
I Focus for the minimum energy
transfer lies on the line between
~r0 and ~r.
I This is NOT the Hohman Figure: Potential Locations of Second
Focus for a given a
transfer.
Question: How to use TOF to find a?

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 16 / 30

 The “minimum energy” transfer
Lecture 10 The smallest achievable a

Note: As we vary a, the set of foci points F 0 and F 00 form a hyperbola.

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics Conclusions

• There is a min-energy transfer
corresponding to smallest a.
I amin = r0 +r+c where
4
c = k~r − ~r0 k.
I The minimum energy transfer
yields the smallest a for which it

The “minimum energy” transfer is possible to have the two

points on the same orbit.
I Focus for the minimum energy
transfer lies on the line between
~r0 and ~r.
I This is NOT the Hohman Figure: Potential Locations of Second
Focus for a given a
transfer.
Question: How to use TOF to find a?

µ
• Minimum Energy means the orbit has minimum energy as per E = − 2a .
The ∆v required is not necessarily minimized.
• That means you probably don’t want to use this transfer.
• c = k~r − ~r0 k is the chord.
• At minimum energy orbit, F 0 = F 00 ! ∆t the long way is the same as ∆t
the short way.
Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus

From Geometry, we already know

• θ = ∆f = f (tf ) − f (t0 ) - change in true
anomaly.
• ∆t = T OF
Can we use these to find a?
Can’t Use Kepler’s Equation:
r
µ
∆t = E(tf ) − E(t0 ) − e(sin E(tf ) − sin E(t0 ))
a3
Figure: Geometry of the
Problem: We know ∆f , but not ∆E! Problem
• E depends on e as well as f and a
• We don’t know e

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 17 / 30

 Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus
Lecture 10
From Geometry, we already know

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics • θ = ∆f = f (tf ) − f (t0 ) - change in true

anomaly.
• ∆t = T OF
Can we use these to find a?
Can’t Use Kepler’s Equation:

Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus

r
µ
∆t = E(tf ) − E(t0 ) − e(sin E(tf ) − sin E(t0 ))
a3
Figure: Geometry of the
Problem: We know ∆f , but not ∆E! Problem
• E depends on e as well as f and a
• We don’t know e

• LHS of Kepler’s equation is ∆M = n∆t

Note the 4 possible transfers on the attached graphic!
Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus
Solution

First: Calculate some lengths

• c = k~r − ~r0 k is the chord.
• s = c+r12+r2 is the semi-perimeter.
I NOT semiparameter.
Then we get Lambert’s Equation:
s
a3
∆t = (α − β − (sin α − sin β))
µ

where
  r Figure: Geometry of the Problem
r
hαi s β s−c
sin = , sin =
2 2a 2 2a
Conclusion: We can express TOF, solely as a function of a.
• albeit through a complicated function.
• But we are given TOF and need to FIND a
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 18 / 30
 Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus
Lecture 10 Solution

First: Calculate some lengths

• c = k~r − ~r0 k is the chord.

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics • s = c+r12+r2 is the semi-perimeter.

I NOT semiparameter.
Then we get Lambert’s Equation:
s
a3
∆t = (α − β − (sin α − sin β))
µ

Finding Semi-major axis, a and Focus where

r   r Figure: Geometry of the Problem
hαi s β s−c
sin = , sin =
2 2a 2 2a
Conclusion: We can express TOF, solely as a function of a.
• albeit through a complicated function.
• But we are given TOF and need to FIND a

• The semi-perimeter is half the perimeter of the triangle shown in the

figure.

Figure: Potential Locations of Second

Focus for a given a

Figure: Geometry of the Problem

Solving Lambert’s Equation
Bisection
Given ∆t, find a:
s r   r
a3 hαi s β s−c
∆t = (α − β − (sin α − sin β)) , sin = , sin =
µ 2 2a 2 2a

There are several ways to solve

Lambert’s Equation
• Newton Iteration
I More Complicated than Kepler’s
Equation
• Series Expansion
I Probably the easiest...
• Bisection
I Relatively Slow, but easy to
understand
I Only works for monotone
Figure: Plot of ∆t vs. a using Lambert’s
functions. Equation

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 19 / 30

 Solving Lambert’s Equation
Lecture 10 Bisection
Given ∆t, find a:
s r   r
a3 hαi s β s−c

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics ∆t =

µ
(α − β − (sin α − sin β)) , sin
2
=
2a
, sin
2
=
2a

There are several ways to solve

Lambert’s Equation
• Newton Iteration
I More Complicated than Kepler’s

Solving Lambert’s Equation Equation

• Series Expansion
I Probably the easiest...
• Bisection
I Relatively Slow, but easy to
understand
I Only works for monotone
Figure: Plot of ∆t vs. a using Lambert’s
functions. Equation

• In the figure, am is the minimum energy transfer orbit. (Recall NOT

minimum ∆v).
• tm is the transfer time (TOF) obtained by plugging am into Lambert’s
equation.
• tp is the flight time of a parabolic orbit (corresponding to a = ∞)
• The function is monotone in the interval T OF ∈ [tp , tm ]
• The other branch of the plot (T OF > tm ) corresponds to use of the
distant focus F 00 .
Solving Lambert’s Equation via Bisection
q
a3
Define g(a) = µ (α(a) − β(a) − (sin α(a) − sin β(a))).
Root-Finding Problem:
F(x)
Find a :
such that g(a) = ∆t F(a 1)
F(a 2)
F(a 3)
Bisection Algorithm: b1
x
s r0 +r+c a1
1 Choose amin = 2 = 4 F(b 2)

2 Choose amax >> amin F(b 1)

amax +amin
3 Set a = 2
4 If g(a) > ∆t, set amin = a
5 If g(a) < ∆t, set amax = a
6 Goto 3
This is guaranteed to converge to the
unique solution (if it exists).
• We assume Elliptic transfers.

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 20 / 30

 Solving Lambert’s Equation via Bisection
Lecture 10 Define g(a) =
q
a3
µ (α(a) − β(a) − (sin α(a) − sin β(a))).
Root-Finding Problem:

Spacecraft Dynamics
F(x)
Find a :
2020-03-03 such that g(a) = ∆t F(a 1)
F(a 2)
F(a 3)
Bisection Algorithm: b1
x
s r0 +r+c a1
1 Choose amin = 2 = 4 F(b 2)

2 Choose amax >> amin F(b 1)

amax +amin

Solving Lambert’s Equation via Bisection 3 Set a = 2

4 If g(a) > ∆t, set amin = a
5 If g(a) < ∆t, set amax = a
6 Goto 3
This is guaranteed to converge to the
unique solution (if it exists).
• We assume Elliptic transfers.

• By Elliptic solutions, we mean that we assume that the transfer orbit is

elliptic.
• Parabolic solutions are possible, but not covered by Lambert’s equations.
• We must check to make sure the solution is not parabolic before starting.
Bisection
Some Implementation Notes

Make Sure a Solution Exists!!

• First calculate the minimum TOF.
• This corresponds to a parabolic trajectory
√ s 3 !
2 s3

s−c 2
∆tp = 1−
3 µ s

I Can get there even faster by using a hyperbolic approach (Not Covered).
• We should also calculate the Maximum TOF
s
a3min
∆tmax = (αmax − βmax − (sin αmax − sin βmax ))
µ

where r   r
hα
max
i s βmax s−c
sin = , sin =
2 2amin 2 2amin
• One can exceed this by going the long way around (Not Covered Here)
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 21 / 30
Calculating ~v (t0 ) and ~v (tf )
Once we have a, calculating ~v is not difficult.

~v (t0 ) = (B + A)~uc + (B − A)~u1 , ~v (tf ) = (B + A)~uc − (B − A)~u2

where
r r  
µ α µ β
A= cot , B= cot
4a 2 4a 2

and the unit vectors

• ~u1 and ~u2 point to positions 1 and 2.

~r(t0 ) ~r(tf )
~u1 = , ~u2 =
r1 r2
• ~uc points from position 1 to 2.

~r(tf ) − ~r(t0 )
~uc =
c
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 22 / 30
Calculating ∆v

Once we have found the transfer orbit,

• Calculate ~vtr (t0 ) of the transfer
orbit.
• Calculate our current velocity,
~v (t0 )
I If a ground-launch, use rotation
of the earth.
I If in orbit, use orbital elements.
~ = ~vtr (t0 ) − ~v (t0 )
• Calculate ∆v

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 23 / 30

Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
Problem: Suppose that Brasil launches an ICBM at Bangkok, Thailand.
• We have an interceptor in the air with position and velocity
   
~r = 6045 3490 0 km ~v = −2.457 6.618 2.533 km/s.
• We have tracked the missile at rt = 12214.839 10249.467 2000 km
 
 
heading ~v = −3.448 .924 0 km/s.
Question: Determine the ∆v required to intercept the missile before re-entry,
which occurs in 30 minutes.

6000

4000

2000

0 6000

4000
−2000
2000
−4000
−5000
0
−6000
−2000 0
−5000
0
5000 −4000 5000
10000
15000 5000 10000
−5000 0 −6000
10000
15000 10000 5000 0 −5000

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 24 / 30

 Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
Lecture 10 Problem: Suppose that Brasil launches an ICBM at Bangkok, Thailand.
• We have an interceptor in the air with position and velocity

Spacecraft Dynamics
   
~r = 6045 3490 0 km ~v = −2.457 6.618 2.533 km/s.
2020-03-03 • We have tracked the missile at rt = 12214.839 10249.467 2000 km
 
heading ~v = −3.448 .924 0 km/s.
 

Question: Determine the ∆v required to intercept the missile before re-entry,

which occurs in 30 minutes.

Numerical Example of Missile Targeting 6000

4000

2000

0 6000

4000
−2000
2000
−4000
−5000
0
−6000
−2000 0
−5000
0
5000 −4000 5000
10000
15000 5000 10000
−5000 0 −6000
10000
15000 10000 5000 0 −5000

• The figure shows both the path of the ICBM and the current (temporary)
orbit of the interceptor.
• The ∗ indicates the current positions of the ICBM and interceptor in their
respective orbits.
Numerical Example of Missile Targeting

The first step is to determine the position of the ICBM in t + 30min.

Recall: To propagate an orbit in time:

1. Use ~rt0 and ~vt0 to find the orbital
elements, including M (t0 ).
2. Propagate Mean anomaly
M (tf ) = M (t0 ) + n∆t where
∆t = 1800s. 5000

3. Use M (tf ) to find true anomaly, −5000

f (tf ). 0
0
I Requires iteration to solve
−5000
Kepler’s Equation. 5000

15000
10000
4. Use the orbital elements, including 5000
0
−5000
10000

f (tf ) to find ~r(tf )

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 25 / 30

 Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
Lecture 10
The first step is to determine the position of the ICBM in t + 30min.

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics Recall: To propagate an orbit in time:

1. Use ~rt0 and ~vt0 to find the orbital
elements, including M (t0 ).
2. Propagate Mean anomaly
M (tf ) = M (t0 ) + n∆t where
∆t = 1800s.

Numerical Example of Missile Targeting

5000

3. Use M (tf ) to find true anomaly, −5000

f (tf ). 0
0
I Requires iteration to solve
−5000
Kepler’s Equation. 5000

15000
10000
4. Use the orbital elements, including 5000
0
−5000
10000

f (tf ) to find ~r(tf )

• This figure shows the position of the ICBM at the initial point and the
desired point of interception.
Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
The next step is to determine whether an intercept orbit is feasible using
TOF=30min.
Geometry of the Problem:
r0 = k~r0 k = 6, 980km, r = k~rt (tf )k = 12, 282km,
c + r + r0
c = k~r0 − ~rt (tf )k = 7, 080km, s = = 13, 171km
2
Minimum Flight Time: Using the formula, the minimum (parabolic) flight
time is √ s 3 !
2 s3

s−c 2
tmin = tp = 1− = 18.2min
3 µ s
Thus we have more than enough time.
Maximum Flight Time: Geometry yields a minimum semi-major axis of
s
amin = = 6, 586km
2
Plugging this into Lambert’s equation yields a maximum flight time of
tmax = 37.3min.
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 26 / 30
Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
What remains is to solve Lambert’s equation:
s
a3
∆t = (α − β − (sin α − sin β))
µ
where r   r
hαi s β s−c
sin = , sin =
2 2a 2 2a
Initialize our search parameters using a ∈ [al , ah ] = [amin , 2s].
1. a1 = al +a2
h
= 8, 232 - T OF = 21.14min - too low, decrease a
1.1 Set ah = a1
al +ah
2. a2 = 2 = 7, 409 - T OF = 24min - too low, decrease a
2.1 Set ah = a2
al +ah
3. a3 = 2 = 6, 997 - T OF = 26.76min - too low, decrease a
3.1 Set ah = a3
4. · · ·
al +ah
K. ak = 2 = 6, 744 - T OF = 29.99
K.1 Close Enough!
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 27 / 30
 Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
Lecture 10 What remains is to solve Lambert’s equation:
s
a3

2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics where

∆t =
µ
(α − β − (sin α − sin β))

r   r
hαi s β s−c
sin = , sin =
2 2a 2 2a
Initialize our search parameters using a ∈ [al , ah ] = [amin , 2s].
1. a1 = al +a2
h
= 8, 232 - T OF = 21.14min - too low, decrease a

Numerical Example of Missile Targeting 1.1 Set ah = a1

2. a2 = al +ah
2
2.1 Set ah = a2
= 7, 409 - T OF = 24min - too low, decrease a

al +ah
3. a3 = 2 = 6, 997 - T OF = 26.76min - too low, decrease a
3.1 Set ah = a3
4. · · ·
al +ah
K. ak = 2 = 6, 744 - T OF = 29.99
K.1 Close Enough!

• In this example, amax was chosen as 2s. However, this was just a guess
and if the TOF is near the parabolic flight time, a larger value should be
chosen.
Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
Now we need to calculate ∆v.
~v (t0 ) = (B + A)~uc + (B − A)~u1 , ~v (tf ) = (B + A)~uc − (B − A)~u2
where
r r  
µ α µ β
A= cot = .597, B= cot = 4.2363
4a 2 4a 2
and the unit vectors
     
.866 .52 .0493
~u1 =  .5  , ~u2 = .8414 , ~uc = .9666
0 .1451 .2516
which yields
 
~vt (t0 ) = 3.3901 6.4913 1.2163 km/s
Calculating ∆v
 
∆v = ~vt (t0 ) − ~v = 5.847 −.1267 −1.3167 km/s
For a total impulse of 6km/s.
M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 28 / 30
Numerical Example of Missile Targeting

5000

−5000

−5000

5000
−5000
0
5000
10000 10000
15000

Figure: Intercept Trajectory

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 29 / 30
 Numerical Example of Missile Targeting
Lecture 10
2020-03-03 Spacecraft Dynamics 5000

−5000

−5000

Numerical Example of Missile Targeting 0

5000
−5000
0
5000
10000 10000
15000

Figure: Intercept Trajectory

• This figure shows the ICBM and the path of the intercept trajectory.
Summary

This Lecture you have learned:

Introduction to Lambert’s Problem

• The Rendezvous Problem
• The Targeting Problem
I Fixed-Time interception
Solution to Lambert’s Problem
• Focus as a function of semi-major axis, a
• Time-of-Flight as a function of semi-major axis, a
I Fixed-Time interception
• Calculating ∆v.

Next Lecture: Rocketry.

M. Peet Lecture 10: Spacecraft Dynamics 30 / 30