List of Contents
List of Contents ................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................. 2
REGEONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION ............................................. 2
2.1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Lithostratigraphic Units of the Muglad Basin: .......................................................... 2
2.2.1 The Precambrian Basement Complex: ................................................................ 2
2.2.2 Late Jurassic / Early Cretaceous–Paleogene – Neogene strata: .......................... 2
2.2.2.1 First Cycle Strata: ......................................................................................... 3
2.2.2.1.1 Abu Gabra Formation: ........................................................................... 3
2.2.2.1.2 Bentiu Formation: .................................................................................. 3
2.2.2.2 Second Cycle Strata: ..................................................................................... 3
2.2.2.2.1 Darfur Group:......................................................................................... 3
2.2.2.2.2 Amal Formation: .................................................................................... 4
2.2.2.3 Third Cycle Strata ......................................................................................... 4
2.2.2.3.1 Kordofan Group ..................................................................................... 4
2.2.2.3.2 Zeraf Formation: .................................................................................... 4
2.2.3 The Paleogene – Neogene-Quaternary Sediments of Umm Ruwaba Formation 5
2.2.4 Holocene to Recent Deposits: ............................................................................. 5
2.3 The tectonic setting development: ............................................................................. 5
Page 1 of 5
CHAPTER TWO
REGEONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION
2.1 Introduction:
The Muglad basin is resultant from rifting action between west and east, Gondwana that famous by central
African shear zone (CASZ), that caused separation of two continents: South America and Africa. The basins
commenced regionally linked to the Central African Rift System (CARS), were developed in late Jurassic
period; CARS extends from Beneu trough in Nigeria then passes Chad basin in Chad and the Central African
Republic and into Muglad basin in Sudan (Fig. 2.1).
2.2 Lithostratigraphic Units of the Muglad Basin:
Muglad Basin is covered by thick sequence of non-marine sediments, which vary in age from Cretaceous to
Neogene. A generalized stratigraphic column is shown by Idris, (2002). Correlation and age assignment have
been established by palynomorph assemblages from which a five part spores/pollen zonation was created and
the subsurface units have been palynologically defined for Lower, Middle and Upper-Cretaceous as well as
paleogene and Eocene/Oligocene (Schull, 1988, Kaska, 1989). Lower cretaceous correlations have been
confirmed by presence of ostracodes, and because of scarcity of Cretaceous-early. Hydrocarbon exploration
in the Muglad Basin commenced in the early 1970s. Chevron and partners delineated a large basinal area,
which extends about 800 km in length and 200 km in width. Several sub-basins have been recognized, whereas
half-graben structures dominate the tectonic style (Fig. 2.1). The maximum sediment thickness in the Muglad
Basin, which was determined seismically, reaches about 15 km thick in the deepest troughs comprising the
three depositional cycles related to the three rift phases. The main stratigraphic units in the Muglad area are:
2.2.1 The Precambrian Basement Complex:
The basement rocks bordering towards the NE and SW constitute the elevated shoulders of the Muglad basin
(Fig. 2.3). These rocks are part of the Sudanese shield and comprise a metamorphic terrain intruded by
localized igneous bodies.
These metamorphic rocks date back to the Archean Era. They experienced multiple deformation and reworking
phases through their evolution that ended with the Pan African TectonoThermal Episode (Schandelmeier et
al., 1987) at about 550 Ma. The Basement rocks were penetrated and cored in at least two wells within the NW
Muglad areas, in Baraka-1 and Adila-1 wells. At these localities the primary composition is granitic and grano-
dioritic gneisses which have been dated as 540 ±40 Ma (Schull, 1988).
2.2.2 Late Jurassic / Early Cretaceous–Paleogene – Neogene strata:
The lower strata (Late Jurassic / Early Cretaceous to Paleogene – Neogene) in the Muglad Basin are non-
marine sediments deposited in lakes, deltas, alluvial fans and fluvial environments. Based on the cyclic
subdivision of the “Nubian Sandstone” of NW Sudan, the sedimentary rocks of the
Muglad Basin belongs to the upper or the Nubian Cycle (the term Nubian Sandstone is also abandoned very
long ago). The following accounts, which are on the stratigraphy and Sedimentology of the Late Jurassic /
Early Cretaceous– Paleogene – Neogene strata were summarized after Schull, 1988 and Kaska, 1989. Kaska,
1989 have established five spore/pollen zones for the Early Cretaceous to Paleogene – Neogene non-marine
sediments of the central Sudan on which age determination and correlations are made.
These zones are: Early Cretaceous, Middle Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous, Early Paleocene and Oligocene/Late
Eocene. The discovered flora is related to the Africa–South America (ASA) flora province. As a result to the
repeated rifting, subsidence and sedimentation, three coarsening upward cycles have formed:
Page 2 of 5
2.2.2.1 First Cycle Strata:
2.2.2.1.1 Abu Gabra Formation:
This Formation consists of basal sedimentary units that were deposited through the early rift phases in the
recent graben such as developing structures (Table 2.1). Lower Abu Gabra Formation is early syn-rift
sediments of this first cycle deposited during the Neocomian–Barremian. During the Neocomian Abu Gabra
Formation was deposited in fluvial flood plain and lacustrine environments. It comprises clay-stones, siltstone,
and fine-grained sandstones. The maximum thickness of this unit is approximately 370 m in the NW of the
Muglad Basin (Schull, 1988), however seismically it is indicated to be much thicker in the deeper troughs
(Table 2.1).
Within the Albian–Aptian time, the sedimentation was continued in lacustrine and deltaic fan environments
resulting in the Upper Abu Gabra Formation (Table 2.1). Several thousand feet of organic rich lacustrine
claystones and shale were deposited with interbedded fine-grained sands and silts (Table 2.1).The nature of
this deposit was probably the result of a humid climate and lack of external drainage. This unit is estimated to
be up to 1830 m thick and it is the main source rock in the Muglad basin (Schull, 1988).
2.2.2.1.2 Bentiu Formation:
The first depositional cycle ended with deposition of the predominantly sandy sequence of the Bentiu
Formation during Late Albian–Cenomanian (Table 2.1). The deposition of the Bentiu Formation most
probably represents a period of ceasing of the initial active rifting.
This period constitutes the sag phase of the basin development that followed the rapid initial tectonic
subsidence. This formation consists predominantly of thick sandstone beds, deposits of braided and
meandering streams, intercalated with thin claystone beds (Table 2.2). The Bentiu Formation represents a
change in the depositional style from an internal to an external drainage system. The Bentiu Formation may
reach up to over 1500 m thickness in some localities, and typically shows good reservoir quality (Schull, 1988).
2.2.2.2 Second Cycle Strata:
2.2.2.2.1 Darfur Group:
The deposition of the Darfur Group during Turonian–Late Senonian represents the second rift phase. It is
characterized by a coarsening upward sequence comprising five formations from bottom to top; these are
Aradeiba, Zarga, Ghazal and Baraka Formations (Table 2.1).
At the bottom of the sequence the Aradeiba Formation was first assigned by Chevron to include mainly the
thick sandstone-clay strata which lie over the thick sandstone sequences of the Bentiu Formation and underlie
the Zaraga Formation. In litho-facies criteria, the boundary between Aradeiba and Bentiu Formations is seen
as an upward passage from predominantly fluvial sandstone at the top of the Bentiu Formation to very thick
mudstone – shale sequences at the base of the Aradeiba Formation. The formation consists of mudstone, sub-
fissile shale, siltstone and moderately thick Interbeds of fine to medium grained sandstone (Table 2.1). The
mudstones and the shales are dominantly grey in color and locally grading into siltstones of the same color.
The thickness of this formation in Heglig and Unity areas ranges between 242.5–385 meter. The upper
boundary of this formation with the overlying Zarga Formation is hard to pick, because of the similarity
between the upper part of Aradeiba and the lower part of Zarga Formation. In Unity and Heglig Fields, this
formation acts as a major reservoir horizon and as a seal as well. Palynological studies by (RRI, 1991) suggest
a lacustrine depositional environment with fluvial – deltaic channels and assigned a Turonian–Cretaceous age
for this formation. The Zarga Formation was originally identified by Chevron. Its Coniacian age was assigned
by (RRI, 1991). The Zarga Formation overlies comformably the Aradeiba Formation. The upper boundary of
this formation with the overlying Ghazal Formation is recognized by litho-facies criteria as an upward passage
from the mudstone – shale intervals at the top of the formation, to a more arenaceous siltstone section at the
base of Ghazal Formation. The formation consists of interbedded sequences of mudstone, sandstone and
siltstone. It is more argillaceous towards the basin centre. The sandstone as seen from the wells of Unity and
Heglig Fields is coarse to fine- grained. The mudstone and the siltstone are yellow to brown in color and
Page 3 of 5
slightly calcareous. This formation was identified in all wells of the SE Muglad Basin and particularly in the
Unity and Heglig Fields with variable thicknesses ranging between ± 45.5–288 feet. Similar to the Aradeiba
Formation, the Zarga Formation was deposited in a lacustrine environment with fluvial–deltaic channels (RRI,
1991). The name of the Ghazal Formation was given by Chevron to describe the sediments of the uppermost
reservoir horizon in Unity and Heglig Fields. Recently, (RRI, 1991) has assigned a Coniacian–Santonian age
to this formation. This formation was identified in all wells of the SE Muglad Basin, and particularly in the
Unity and Heglig Fields. However, in the NW Muglad Basin this formation is undifferentiated. The thickness
of this formation in Unity and Heglig areas ranges between ± 118–318 feet.
The formation is lithologically similar to the underlying Zarga Formation. It contains mudstone, shale, siltstone
and sandstone. The mudstone is yellow to brown in color, slightly calcareous and occasionally grading into
brown siltstone. The sandstone is mainly medium- to coarse-grained. The upper boundary is identified by an
upward passage from a section of equally interbedded mudstone, siltstone and sandstone sequences to
predominantly arenaceous intervals at the base of the overlying Baraka Formation. On the basis of abundant
microspores and freshwater algae, RRI, (1991) proposed a fluvial and alluvial fan environment for this
formation. The Baraka Formation was originally identified by Chevron in the Muglad Basin as the topmost
arenaceous strata of the Darfur Group.
Unlike the other members of the Darfur Group, the Baraka Formation does not contribute to the reservoir zones
in the Unity and Heglig Fields; this is because of the absence of adequate sealing. The age (Lower Campanian)
of the formation was assigned by (RRI, 1991) using palynological evidence. This formation was identified in
all of the wells of the SE Muglad Basin. The thickness of this formation in the SE Muglad area ranges between
91–364 feet. The Baraka Formation consists mainly of sandstone interbedded with thin beds of green to grey
mudstone. The sandstone is dominantly fine to coarse-grained and occasionally very coarse. The presence of
abundant microspores and freshwater algae (RRI, 1991), suggests that the formation was essentially deposited
in fluvial to alluvial fan environment. However, the presence of minor evaporitic intercalations, may further
suggest short periods of hyper salinity.
2.2.2.2.2 Amal Formation:
The Amal Formation declared the onset of depositional processes during the Paleogene – Neogene period;
however, this Formation represents the closure of the second depositional cycle in the Muglad basin (Table
2.2). During the Paleocene the massive sandstones sequence of the Amal Formation (up to 762 m thick) was
deposited in high-energy environments comprising regionally extensive alluvial plains with coalescing braided
streams and alluvial fans (Table 2.1). The Amal sandstone is composed dominantly of course to medium
grained quartz arenite, which forms potentially excellent reservoirs (Schull, 1988).
2.2.2.3 Third Cycle Strata
2.2.2.3.1 Kordofan Group
This group constitutes the final depositional cycle in the Muglad Basin (Table 2.2). The third rifting phase
was created by the reactivation of extensional tectonism during Late Eocene– Oligocene time (Schull, 1988).
The syn-rift sediments of this cycle consist of the Nayil and Tendi Formations, which represent the middle part
of the Kordofan Group. These formations are dominated by claystones deposited in fluvial/ floodplain and
lacustrine environments. The lacustrine facies of the Nayil and Tendi formations appear to have only minor
oil source potential, however they offer an excellent seal for the underlying massive sandstones of the Amal
Formation. On top of the section of the Kordofan Group the Adok Formation was deposited during the Late
Miocene. It comprises medium to coarse-grained sandstone, rarely interbedded with thin beds of claystones
(Schull, 1988).
2.2.2.3.2 Zeraf Formation:
The third cycle ended the deposition of the Zeraf Formation during Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene/ Recent.
Sandstones and sands dominate in the Adok and Zeraf Formations, with only minor clay Interbeds. Deposition
happened mainly in braided stream environments (Table 2.1). In the seismic sections the Zeraf Formation
shows no evidence of disturbance of the sedimentary horizons due tectonic faulting.
Page 4 of 5
2.2.3 The Paleogene – Neogene-Quaternary Sediments of Umm Ruwaba
Formation
The Paleogene – Neogene – Quaternary sediments of the Umm Ruwaba Formation represent the most
widespread formation within the south central Sudan basins. It covers the surface area of the Muglad Basin.
And consists of unconsolidated to semi-consolidated gravels, sands, clayey sands and clays of fluvial and
lacustrine environments, deposited during the Miocene – Pliocene (El Shafie, 1975). The sediments of the
Umm Ruwaba Formation generally show rapid facies changes, which make the lateral correlation somewhat
difficult (Ahmed; 1983).
2.2.4 Holocene to Recent Deposits:
These are unconsolidated sands, clayey sands and black clays, which vary considerably in thickness. Black
clays vary in thickness from a few centimeters to over 10 meters and conformably overlie the Umm Ruwaba
Formation. Wind-blown sand deposits (Qoz), are widely spread in the north western part of the Muglad Basin.
Fluvial deposits are found along the major drainage systems and are generally composed of sandy and clayey
sediments, which sometimes form shallow aquifers. The weathering products along the western side of the
Nubba Mountains form narrow bands of washed out debris deposits around the hills (Vail; 1978).
This basin was a part of a trend of Cretaceous sedimentary basins of rift origin. As indicated earlier, the
sedimentary filling of these basins is characterized by thick non marine clastic sequence of Jurassic –
Cretaceous and Neogene age, that deposited in deepest trough and extensive basinal area (Schull, 1988). The
first depositional cycle (Early Cretaceous) consists mainly of suboxic organic-rich shales comprising the main
lacustrine source beds of the Sharif and Abu Gabra Formations, which are overlain in the sag phase by medium-
to coarse- grained sandstones of the Bentiu Formation. Over 45,000 ft (13,716 m) of sediment was deposited
in the deepest trough and extensive basinal areas are underlain by more than 20,000 ft (6,096m) of sedimentary
rocks. (Schull, 1988). The second depositional cycle (Late Cretaceous–Paleocene) is the Darfur Group,
comprising fluvial and deltaic clay stones at the bottom (Aradeiba Formation) and thin sandstone beds (Zarga
and Ghazal Formations), thickening toward the top of the section (Baraka Formation) and overlain by the
coarser Amal Formation.
The main stratigraphic units in the Muglad area are:
The Precambrian Basement Complex.
Late Jurassic / Early Cretaceous–Paleogene – Neogene strata.
The Paleogene – Neogene–Quaternary sediments of Umm Rawaba Formation.
Holocene to recent deposits.
2.3 The tectonic setting development:
The Central and Southern Sudan Interior Rift Basins are defined by extensive NW–SE, NNW–SSE, N–S, NE–
SW, and E–W rifts that began to develop in the Late Jurassic? to Early Cretaceous time (Schull; 1988,
Schandelmeier and Puddlo;1990) (Table 2.2). The development of these rift basins is thought to have been
attributed to processes operated not only within the central areas of Africa but also along the eastern and
western continental margins of Africa. Depending on (RRI, 1991), in Late Jurassic time a triple junction might
have begun to develop along the Kenya coastline, separating the Malagasy island from the African continent.
The failed arm of this triple junction might have extended from the Lamu Embayment through the Anza Trough
in northern Kenya and into the southern Sudan (Fig. 2.4). At the same time (Late Jurassic?) and to the west,
the African and South American cratons began to separate (Schull, 1988; Schandelmeier and Puddlo, 1990).
As a consequence of these major events a shear reactivation along the Central African Shear Zone developed
which has led to the development of parallel and sub-parallel half graben of predominantly NW–SE orientation
in the central and southern Sudan cratonic areas (Fig. 2.4).
Page 5 of 5
