8.

2 Aerodynamics
8.2.1: Airflow around a body:
When a body is moved through the air, or any fluid that has viscosity, such as water, there is a
resistance produced which tends to oppose the body. For example, if you driving in an open top
car there is a resistance from the air acting in the opposite direction to the motion of car. This
air resistance can be felt on your face o hands as you travel.in the aeronautical world, this air
resistance is known as drag.it is undesirable for obvious reasons. For exam aircraft engine
power is required to overcome this air resistance and unwanted heat is generated by friction as
the air flow over the aircraft hull during flight.

We consider the effect of air resistance by studying the behavior of airflow over a flat plate. If a
flat plate is placed edge on to the relative airflow, then there is little or no alteration to the
smooth passage of air over it. On the other hand, if the plate is offered into the airflow at some
angle of inclination to it angle of attack (AOA), it will experience a reaction that tends to both
lift it and drag it back. This is the same effect that you can feel on your hand when placed into
the airflow as you are travelling, e.g. in the open topped, car mentioned earlier. The amount of
reaction depend upon the speed and AOA between the, flat plate and relative airflow.

The ease with which a fluid flows is an indication of its viscosity. Cold heavy oils, such as those
used to lubricate large gearboxes, have high viscosity, and flow very slowly, whereas petroleum
spirit is extremely light and volatile and flows very easily and so has low viscosity.

We thus define viscosity as: the property of a fluid that offers resistance to the relative motion
of its molecules. The energy losses due to friction within a fluid are dependent on its viscosity.
As a fluid moves, there is developed a shear stress in it, the magnitude of which depends on the
viscosity of the fluid. You have already met the concept of shear stress (r) and should
remember that it can be defined as the force required to slide one unit area of a substance over
the other.
Sound Wave and Aircraft Speed:
The speed at which sound waves travel in a medium is dependent on the temperature and the
bulk modulus (K) of the medium concerned i.e. the temperature and density of the material
concerned. The denser the material the faster is the speed of the sound waves. For air treated
as a perfect gas, the speed of sound (a) is given by:

γP K
a= √ ρ
= √ γRT =√
ρ

You should recognize γ as the ratio of the specific heats from your work on thermodynamics

for air at standard temperature and pressureγ =1.4 , also remembering that R is the

characteristic gas constant which for air is 287 J/kgK.

Then as an approximation the speed of sound may be expressed as:

a=√ γRT

a=√ ( 1.4 ) X 287 T

a=20.05 √T
For an aircraft in flight the Mach number (M) named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach
may be defined as:

The aircraft flight speed

Note that the flight speed must be the aircraft TAS.

Example 8.2.1: An is flying at a TAS of 240 m/s at an altitude where the temperature is 230 K.
what is the speed of sound at this altitude an what is the aircraft Mach number?

The local speed of sound is given by:

a=√ γRT

a=20.05 √ 230

Then using square root tables and multiplying, a= (20.05) X (15.17) =304 m/s

Noting from the ISA values that the speed of sound at sea level is 340.3 m/s. You can see that
the speed of sound decreases with increase in altitude.

Now using our relationship for Mach number, then

240
M= =0.789 M
304

Effects of Compressibility:

Our theory based on the incompressible behavior of fluids is still sufficiently valid for air when it
flows below speeds of approximately130-150 m/s. As speed increases compressibility effects
become more apparent. The table below shows one or two values of speed against error when
we assume that air is incompressible.
8.2.2 Flow over boundary layer:

As an object moves through a fluid or as a fluid moves past an objective the molecules of the
fluid near the object are disturbed and move around the object. Aerodynamic forces are
generated between the fluid and the objective. The magnitude of this force depend on the
shape of the object, the speed of object, the mass of fluid going by the object and on two other
important properties of the fluid, the viscosity or stickiness, and the compressibility or
springiness of the fluid.

Figure 8.2.2: boundary layer

Aerodynamic forces depend in a complex way on the viscosity of the fluid. As the fluid moves
past the object, the molecules right next to the surface stick to the surface. The molecules just
above the surface are slowed down in their collisions with the molecules sticking to the surface.
These molecules in turn slow down the flow just above them. The farther one moves away from
the surface, the fewer the collisions affected by the object surface.
This creates a thin layer of fluid near the surface in which the velocity changes from zero at the
surface to the free stream value away from the surface. Engineers call this layer the boundary
layer because it occurs on the Boundary of the fluid.

When a body such as an aircraft wing is immersed in a fluid, which is flowing past it, the fluid
molecules in contact with the wings surface tend to be brought to rest by friction and stick to it.
The next molecular layer of the fluid tends to bind to the first layer by molecular attraction but
tends to shear slightly creating movement with respect to the first stationary layer. This process
continues as successive layers shear slightly relative to the layer underneath them. This
produces a gradual increase in velocity of each successive layer of the fluid (say air) until the
free stream re we velocity is reached some distance away from the body immersed in the fluid.