CE 2031 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

UNIT 1 General

INTRODUCTION

“Water is probably the only natural resource to touch all aspects of human
civilization - from agricultural and industrial development to cultural and religious
values embedded in society.”

Water Resources of India

Water resources may be divided broadly into surface water and underground water. Their development has
to be viewed in relation to the need to increase the productivity of land through irrigation, flood control,
drainage and other means and also to domestic. and industrial requirements.

Surface water.- The annual rainfall over the entire country represents something more than 3000 million
acre-feet of water. Of this amount, about 1000 million acre-feet are lost immediately due to evaporation and
roughly 650 million acre-feet seep into the soil, leaving 1350 million acre-feet to flow into the river systems.
The entire surface flow cannot be utilised because topography, flow char- acteristics, climate and soil
conditions impose limits on usability. It has been estimated that only 450 million acre-feet can be harnessed
for purposes of irrigation. Progress in actual utilisation is as follows:

Underground water.: Of the 650 million acre-feet of water that seep down annually into the soil, about 350
million, acre-feet get absorbed in the top layers thereby contributing to soil moisture which is essential for
the growth of vegetation. The remaining 300 million acre-feet percolate down into porous strata and
represent the annual enrichment of underground water. The total storage underground at any particular
time may be several times this amount, but it can be assessed only if a country-wide investigation is
undertaken. The actual utilisation of underground water at present is less than 20 per cent of the annual
enrichment. Over the past eight years, through a series of ground-water exploration projects, efforts have
been made to establish areas favourable to the sinking of tube-wells. For the third Plan, a project including
500 exploratory borings has been accepted. With a view to facilitating the work of exploration and reducing
the need for large-scale drilling, it is also proposed to carry out geo- physical investigations. In peninsular
India such investigations would quickly de ermine the depth of the bed rock and are likely to give first
indications of ground-water availability. A survey pro- gramme is also in hand in Andhra Pradesh for
localising areas of underground water where filter points for extraction of water can be successfully drilled.

17. Utilisation.-The major use of water is for irrigation and hydropower generation, but water is also used for
public water supply, industrial and navigation purposes. Water supply for irrigation can be obtained both
from surface and underground resources.

Water Resources of Tamil Nadu

In Tamil Nadu there are about 34 river basins, which are grouped into 17 major river basins, all flowing
eastwards from the Western Ghats and Deccan Plateau. Out of the 17 river basins, many basins are
water deficient and some have surplus water. The population and area of Tamil Nadu are 7% and 4%
respectively of that of India, but the available water resources are only 3%. Even though the annual
average rainfall is in the order of 925 mm there are a number of rain shadow regions receiving less than or
around 400 mm rainfall making them drought prone. In Tamil Nadu, the surface water potential is about
853 TMC, which includes 261 TMC from neighboring States; while ground water potential assessed is
about 790 TMC. The demand for water is continuously on the rise with the growth of population, industry
and agriculture while there is no rise in the availability of water. Surface water resources have been fully
harnessed by impounding the available water in 62 large dams, 8 small dams, 5 drinking water reservoirs
and 39,202 tanks (PWD Policy Note 2007-08). Map 1. River Map of Tamil Nadu Arungjunai Kaattha
Ayyanar temple tank, Thiruchendur Front cover: Vennar river, Tanjore
In Tamil Nadu nearly 73% of the total area of the State is occupied by a variety of hard & fissured
crystalline rocks like charnockite, gneisses and granites. As per the estimate updated recently, 85%
(671 TMC) of the total ground water potential in Tamil Nadu has been developed and being utilized. Out of
385 revenue blocks, 175 revenue blocks are over exploited and critical, 8 blocks are saline, 105 blocks
of semi-critical and 97 blocks of safe category are available for developing the left over 15% of the
potential (PWD Policy Note 2007-08).The three main sources of surface irrigation in the State are rivers,
tanks and wells. There are 39,202 tanks, 2,295 irrigation main canals and 20,26,276 irrigation wells in the
State. Management of water resources in the state of Tamil Nadu has assumedconsiderable importance
due to growing needs and conflicting nature of interests by various sectors. Many of the river basins are
water stressed due to limited supply and ever expanding demands. Apart from the agricultural needs, the
state has to supply domestic and drinking water to an increasingly urbanized and industrialized population
in addition to the needs of industries, fisheries, environmental flows and community uses (PWD Policy Note
2007-08).
Description of Water resources planning
The goals of water resources project planning may be by the use of constructed facilities, or
structural measures, or by management and legal techniques that do not require
constructed facilities. The latter are called non-structural measures and may include rules to
limit or control water and land use which complement or substitute for constructed facilities.
A project may consist of one or more structural or non-structural resources. Water
resources planning techniques are used to determine what measures should be employed
to meet water needs and to take advantage of opportunities for water resources
development, and also to preserve and enhance natural water resources and related land
resources.
The scientific and technological development has been conspicuously evident during the
twentieth century in major fields of engineering. But since water resources have been
practiced for many centuries, the development in this field may not have been as
spectacular as, say, for computer sciences. However, with the rapid development of
substantial computational power resulting reduced computation cost, the planning strategies
have seen new directions in the last century which utilises the best of the computer
resources. Further, economic considerations used to be the guiding constraint for planning
a water resources project. But during the last couple of decades of the twentieth century
there has been a growing awareness for environmental sustainability. And now,
environmental constrains find a significant place in the water resources project (or for that
matter any developmental project) planning besides the usual economic and social
constraints.
Priorities for water resources planning
Water resource projects are constructed to develop or manage the available water
resources for different purposes. According to the National Water Policy (2002), the water
allocation priorities for planning and operation of water resource systems should broadly be
as follows:
1. Domestic consumption
This includes water requirements primarily for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing of clothes
and utensils and flushing of toilets.

2. Irrigation
Water required for growing crops in a systematic and scientific manner in areas even with
deficit rainfall.

3. Hydropower
This is the generation of electricity by harnessing the power of flowing water.

4. Ecology / environment restoration

Water required for maintaining the environmental health of a region.

5. Industries
The industries require water for various purposes and that by thermal power stations is
quite high.

6. Navigation
Navigation possibility in rivers may be enhanced by increasing the flow, thereby increasing
the depth of water required to allow larger vessels to pass.

7. Other uses
Like entertainment of scenic natural view.

This course on Water Resources Engineering broadly discusses the facilities to be constructed /
augmented to meet the demand for the above uses. Many a times, one project may serve more than
one purpose of the above mentioned uses.

Tools for water resources planning and management

The policy makers responsible for making comprehensive decisions of water resources planning for
particular units of land, preferably a basin, are faced with various parameters, some of which are discussed
in the following sections.
The supply of water
Water available in the unit

This may be divided into three sources

- Rain falling within the region. This may be utilized directly before it reaches the ground, for example, the
roof – top rain water harvesting schemes in water scarce areas.
- Surface water bodies. These static (lakes and ponds) and flowing (streams and rivers), water bodies may
be utilized for satisfying the demand of the unit, for example by constructing dams across rivers.
- Ground water reservoirs. The water stored in soil and pores of fractured bed rock may be extracted to
meet the demand, for example wells or tube – wells.
Water transferred in and out of the unit
If the planning is for a watershed or basin, then generally the water available within the basin is to be used
unless there is inter basin water transfer. If however, the unit is a political entity, like a nation or a state,
then definitely there shall be inflow or outflow of water especially that of flowing surface water. Riparian
rights have to be honored and extraction of more water by the upland unit may result in severe tension.
Note: Riparian rights mean the right of the downstream beneficiaries of a river to the river water.
Regeneration of water within the unit
Brackish water may be converted with appropriate technology to supply sweet water for drinking and has
been tried in many extreme water scarce areas. Waste water of households may be recycled, again with
appropriate technology, to supply water suitable for purposes like irrigation.

Tasks for planning a water resources project

The important tasks for preparing a planning report of a water resources project would include the
following:
• Analysis of basic data like maps, remote sensing images, geological data, hydrologic data, and
requirement of water use data, etc.
• Selection of alternative sites based on economic aspects generally, but keeping in mind environmental
degradation aspects.
• Studies for dam, reservoir, diversion structure, conveyance structure, etc.
- Selection of capacity.
- Selection of type of dam and spillway.
- Layout of structures.
- Analysis of foundation of structures.
- Development of construction plan.
- Cost estimates of structures, foundation strengthening measures, etc.
• Studies for local protective works – levees, riverbank revetment, etc.
• Formulation of optimal combination of structural and non-structural components (for projects with flood
control component).
• Economic and financial analyses, taking into account environmental degradation, if any, as a cost.
• Environmental and sociological impact assessment.
Engineering economy in water resources planning
All Water Resources projects have to be cost evaluated. This is an essential part of planning. Since,
generally, such projects would be funded by the respective State Governments, in which the project would
be coming up it would be helpful for the State planners to collect the desired amount of money, like by
issuing bonds to the public, taking loans from a bank, etc. Since a project involves money, it is essential
that the minimum amount is spent, under the given constraints of project construction. Hence, a few
feasible alternatives for a project are usually worked out. For example, a project involving a storage dam
has to be located on a map of the river valley at more than one possible location, if the terrain permits. In
this instance, the dam would generally be located at the narrowest part of the river valley to reduce cost of
dam construction, but also a couple of more alternatives would be selected since there would be other
features of a dam whose cost would dictate the total cost of the project. For example, the foundation could
be weak for the first alternative and consequently require costly found treatment, raising thereby the total
project cost. At times, a economically lucrative project site may be causing submergence of a costly
property, say an industry, whose relocation cost would offset the benefit of the alternative. On the other
hand, the beneficial returns may also vary. For example, the volume of water stored behind a dam for one
alternative of layout may not be the same as that behind another. Hence, what is required is to evaluate the
so-called Benefit-Cost Ratio defined as below:
The annual cost and benefits are worked out as under.
Annual Cost (C): The investment for a project is done in the initial years during construction and then on
operation and maintenance during the project's lifetime. The initial cost may be met by certain sources like
borrowing, etc. but has to be repaid over a certain number of years, usually with an interest, to the lender.
This is called the Annual Recovery Cost, which, together with the yearly maintenance cost would give the
total Annual Costs. It must be noted that there are many non-tangible costs, which arise due to the effect of
the project on the environment that has to be quantified properly and included in the annual costs.
1.2.10 Assessment of effect on environment and society
This is a very important issue and all projects need to have clearance from the Ministry of Environment and
Forests on aspects of impact that the project is likely to have on the environment as well as on the social
fabric. Some of the adverse (negative) impacts, for which steps have to be taken, are as follows:
• Loss of flora and fauna due to submergence.
• Loss of land having agricultural, residential, industrial, religious, archaeological importance.
• Rehabilitation of displaced persons.
• Reservoir induced seismicity.
• Ill-effect on riverine habitats of fish due to blockage of the free river passage
There would also be some beneficial (positive) impacts of the project, like improvement of public health due
to availability of assured, clean and safe drinking water, assured agricultural production, etc. There could
even be an improvement in the micro-climate of the region due to the presence of a water body.

Need for a National Water Policy

1.1 Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. Planning,
development and management of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.

1.2 As per the latest assessment (1993), out of the total precipitation, including snowfall, of around 4000
billion cubic metre in the country, the availability from surface water and replenishable ground water is put
at 1869 billion cubic metre. Because of topographical and other constraints, about 60% of this i.e. 690
billion cubic metre from surface water and 432 billion cubic metre from ground water, can be put to
beneficial use. Availability of water is highly uneven in both space and time. Precipitation is confined to only
about three or four months in a year and varies from 100 mm in the western parts of Rajasthan to over
10000 mm at Cherrapunji in Meghalaya. Rivers and under ground aquifers often cut across state
boundaries. Water, as a resource is one and indivisible: rainfall, river waters, surface ponds and lakes and
ground water are all part of one system.

1.3 Water is part of a larger ecological system. Realising the importance and scarcity attached to the
fresh water, it has to be treated as an essential environment for sustaining all life forms.

1.4 Water is a scarce and precious national resource to be planned, developed, conserved and
managed

as such, and on an integrated and environmentally sound basis, keeping in view the socio-economic
aspects and needs of the States. It is one of the most crucial elements in developmental planning. As the
country has entered the 21st century, efforts to develop, conserve, utilise and manage this important
resource in a sustainable manner, have to be guided by the national perspective.
1.5 Floods and droughts affect vast areas of the country, transcending state boundaries. One-sixth area of
the country is drought-prone. Out of 40 million hectare of the flood prone area in the country, on an
average, floods affect an area of around 7.5 million hectare per year. Approach to management of droughts
and floods has to be co-ordinated and guided at the national level.

1.6 Planning and implementation of water resources projects involve a number of socio-economic aspects
and issues such as environmental sustainability, appropriate resettlement and rehabilitation of project-
affected people and livestock, public health concerns of water impoundment, dam safety etc. Common
approaches and guidelines are necessary on these matters. Moreover, certain problems and weaknesses
have affected a large number of water resources projects all over the country. There have been substantial
time and cost overruns on projects. Problems of water logging and soil salinity have emerged in some
irrigation commands, leading to the degradation of agricultural land. Complex issues of equity and social
justice in regard to water distribution are required to be addressed. The development, and over-exploitation
of groundwater resources in certain parts of the country have raised the concern and need for judicious and
scientific resource management and conservation. All these concerns need to be addressed on the basis of
common policies and strategies.

1.7 Growth process and the expansion of economic activities inevitably lead to increasing demands for
water for diverse purposes: domestic, industrial, agricultural, hydro-power, thermal-power, navigation,
recreation, etc. So far, the major consumptive use of water has been for irrigation. While the gross irrigation
potential is estimated to have increased from 19.5 million hectare at the time of independence to about 95
million hectare by the end of the Year 1999-2000, further development of a substantial order is necessary if
the food and fiber needs of our growing population are to be met with. The country’s population which is
over 1027 million (2001 AD) at present is expected to reach a level of around 1390 million by 2025 AD.

1.8 Production of food grains has increased from around 50 million tonnes in the fifties to about 208 million
tonnes in the Year 1999-2000. This will have to be raised to around 350 million tonnes by the year 2025
AD. The drinking water needs of people and livestock have also to be met. Domestic and industrial water
needs have largely been concentrated in or near major cities. However, the demand in rural areas is
expected to increase sharply as the development programmes improve economic conditions of the rural
masses. Demand for water for hydro and thermal power generation and for other industrial uses is also
increasing substantially. As a result, water, which is already a scarce resource, will become even scarcer in
future. This underscores the need for the utmost efficiency in water utilisation and a public awareness of
the importance of its conservation.

1.9 Another important aspect is water quality. Improvements in existing strategies, innovation of new
techniques resting on a strong science and technology base are needed to eliminate the pollution of
surface and ground water resources, to improve water quality. Science and technology and training have to
play important roles in water resources development and management in general.

1.10 National Water Policy was adopted in September, 1987. Since then, a number of issues and
challenges have emerged in the development and management of the water resources. Therefore, the
National Water Policy (1987) has been reviewed and updated.

Information System
2.1 A well developed information system, for water related data in its entirety, at the national / state level, is
a prime requisite for resource planning. A standardised national information system should be established
with a network of data banks and data bases, integrating and strengthening the existing Central and State
level agencies and improving the quality of data and the processing capabilities.

2.2 Standards for coding, classification, processing of data and methods / procedures for its collection
should be adopted. Advances in information technology must be introduced to create a modern information
system promoting free exchange of data among various agencies. Special efforts should be made to
develop and continuously upgrade technological capability to collect, process and disseminate reliable data
in the desired time frame.

2.3 Apart from the data regarding water availability and actual water use, the system should also include
comprehensive and reliable projections of future demands of water for diverse purposes.

Water Resources Planning

3.1 Water resources available to the country should be brought within the category of utilisable resources to
the maximum possible extent.

3.2 Non-conventional methods for utilisation of water such as through inter-basin transfers, artificial
recharge of ground water and desalination of brackish or sea water as well as traditional water
conservation practices like rainwater harvesting, including roof-top rainwater harvesting, need to be
practiced to further increase the utilisable water resources. Promotion of frontier research and
development, in a focused manner, for these techniques is necessary.

3.3 Water resources development and management will have to be planned for a hydrological unit such as
drainage basin as a whole or for a sub-basin, multi-sectorally, taking into account surface and ground water
for sustainable use incorporating quantity and quality aspects as well as environmental considerations. All
individual developmental projects and proposals should be formulated and considered within the framework
of such an overall plan keeping in view the existing agreements / awards for a basin or a sub-basin so that
the best possible combination of options can be selected and sustained.

3.4 Watershed management through extensive soil conservation, catchment-area treatment,

preservation of forests and increasing the forest cover and the construction of check-dams should be
promoted. Efforts shall be to conserve the water in the catchment.

3.5 Water should be made available to water short areas by transfer from other areas including
transfers from one river basin to another, based on a national perspective, after taking into account the
requirements of the areas / basins.

Institutional Mechanism

4.1 With a view to give effect to the planning, development and management of the water resources on a
hydrological unit basis, along with a multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary and participatory approach as well as
integrating quality, quantity and the environmental aspects, the existing institutions at various levels under
the water resources sector will have to be appropriately reoriented / reorganised and even created,
wherever necessary. As maintenance of water resource schemes is under non-plan budget, it is generally
being neglected. The institutional arrangements should be such that this vital aspect is given importance
equal or even more than that of new constructions.

4.2 Appropriate river basin organisations should be established for the planned development and
management of a river basin as a whole or sub-basins, wherever necessary. Special multi-disciplinary units
should be set up to prepare comprehensive plans taking into account not only the needs of irrigation but
also harmonising various other water uses, so that the available water resources are determined and put to
optimum use having regard to existing agreements or awards of Tribunals under the relevant laws. The
scope and powers of the river basin organisations shall be decided by the basin states themselves.

Water Allocation Priorities

5. In the planning and operation of systems, water allocation priorities should be broadly as follows:

• Drinking water

• Irrigation

• Hydro-power

• Ecology

• Agro-industries and non-agricultural industries

• Navigation and other uses.

However, the priorities could be modified or added if warranted by the area / region specific considerations.

Project Planning

6.1 Water resource development projects should as far as possible be planned and developed as
multipurpose projects. Provision for drinking water should be a primary consideration.

6.2 The study of the likely impact of a project during construction and later on human lives,
settlements, occupations, socio-economic, environment and other aspects shall form an essential
component of project planning.

6.3 In the planning, implementation and operation of a project, the preservation of the quality of
environment and the ecological balance should be a primary consideration. The adverse impact on the
environment, if any, should be minimised and should be offset by adequate compensatory measures. The
project should, nevertheless, be sustainable.

6.4 There should be an integrated and multi-disciplinary approach to the planning, formulation, clearance
and implementation of projects, including catchment area treatment and management, environmental and
ecological aspects, the rehabilitation of affected people and command area development. The planning of
projects in hilly areas should take into account the need to provide assured drinking water, possibilities of
hydro-power development and the proper approach to irrigation in such areas, in the context of physical
features and constraints of the basin such as steep slopes, rapid run-off and the incidence of soil erosion.
The economic evaluation of projects in such areas should also take these factors into account.

6.5 Special efforts should be made to investigate and formulate projects either in, or for the benefit of,
areas inhabited by tribal or other specially disadvantaged groups such as socially weak, scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes. In other areas also, project planning should pay special attention to the needs of
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and other weaker sections of the society. The economic evaluation
of projects benefiting such disadvantaged sections should also take these factors into account.

6.6 The drainage system should form an integral part of any irrigation project right from the
planning stage.

6.7 Time and cost overruns and deficient realisation of benefits characterising most water related
projects should be overcome by upgrading the quality of project preparation and management. The
inadequate funding of projects should be obviated by an optimal allocation of resources on the basis of
prioritisation, having regard to the early completion of on-going projects as well as the need to reduce
regional imbalances.

6.8 The involvement and participation of beneficiaries and other stakeholders should be encouraged
right from the project planning stage itself.

Ground Water Development

7.1 There should be a periodical reassessment of the ground water potential on a scientific basis, taking
into consideration the qualit y of the water available and economic viability of its extraction.

7.2 Exploitation of ground water resources should be so regulated as not to exceed the recharging
possibilities, as also to ensure social equity. The detrimental environmental consequences of over-
exploitation of ground water need to be effectively prevented by the Central and State Governments.
Ground water recharge projects should be developed and implemented for improving both the quality and
availability of ground water resource.

7.3 Integrated and coordinated development of surface water and ground water resources and their
conjunctive use, should be envisaged right from the project planning stage and should form an integral part
of the project implementation.

7.4 Over exploitation of ground water should be avoided especially near the coast to prevent ingress of
seawater into sweet water aquifers.

Drinking Water

8. Adequate safe drinking water facilities should be provided to the entire population both in urban and in
rural areas. Irrigation and multipurpose projects should invariably include a drinking water component,
wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water. Drinking water needs of human beings and
animals should be the first charge on any available water.
Irrigation

9.1 Irrigation planning either in an individual project or in a basin as a whole should take into account
the irrigability of land, cost-effective irrigation options possible from all available sources of water and
appropriate irrigation techniques for optimising water use efficiency. Irrigation intensity should be such as to
extend the benefits of irrigation to as large a number of farm families as possible, keeping in view the need
to maximise production.

9.2 There should be a close integration of water-use and land-use policies.

9.3 Water allocation in an irrigation system should be done with due regard to equity and social justice.
Disparities in the availability of water between head-reach and tail-end farms and between large and small
farms should be obviated by adoption of a rotational water distribution system and supply of water on a
volumetric basis subject to certain ceilings and rational pricing.

9.4 Concerted efforts should be made to ensure that the irrigation potential created is fully utilised. For
this purpose, the command area development approach should be adopted in all irrigation projects.

9.5 Irrigation being the largest consumer of fresh water, the aim should be to get optimal productivity
per unit of water. Scientific water management, farm practices and sprinkler and drip system of irrigation
should be adopted wherever feasible.

9.6 Reclamation of water logged / saline affected land by scientific and cost-effective methods should
form a part of command area development programme.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation

10. Optimal use of water resources necessitates construction of storages and the consequent resettlement
and rehabilitation of population. A skeletal national policy in this regard needs to be formulated so that the
project affected persons share the benefits through proper rehabilitation. States should accordingly evolve
their own detailed resettlement and rehabilitation policies for the sector, taking into account the local
conditions. Careful planning is necessary to ensure that the construction and rehabilitation activities
proceed simultaneously and smoothly.

Financial and Physical Sustainability

11. Besides creating additional water resources facilities for various uses, adequate emphasis needs to be
given to the physical and financial sustainability of existing facilities. There is, therefore, a need to ensure
that the water charges for various uses should be fixed in such a way that they cover at least the operation
and maintenance charges of providing the service initially and a part of the capital costs subsequently.
These rates should be linked directly to the quality of service provided. The subsidy on water rates to the
disadvantaged and poorer sections of the society should be well targeted and transparent.

Participatory Approach to Water Resources Management

12. Management of the water resources for diverse uses should incorporate a participatory approach; by
involving not only the various governmental agencies but also the users and other stakeholders, in an
effective and decisive manner, in various aspects of planning, design, development and management of
the water resources schemes. Necessary legal and institutional changes should be made at various levels
for the purpose, duly ensuring appropr iate role for women. Water Users’ Associations and the local bodies
such as municipalities and gram panchayats should particularly be involved in the operation, maintenance
and management of water infrastructures / facilities at appropriate levels progressively, with a view to
eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the user groups / local bodies.

Private Sector Participation

13. Private sector participation should be encouraged in planning, development and management of water
resources projects for diverse uses, wherever feasible. Private sector participation may help in introducing
innovative ideas, generating financial resources and introducing corporate management and improving
service efficiency and accountability to users. Depending upon the specific situations, various combinations
of private sector participation, in building, owning, operating, leasing and transferring of water resources
facilities, may be considered.

Water Quality

14.1 Both surface water and ground water should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased
programme should be undertaken for improvements in water quality.

14.2 Effluents should be treated to acceptable levels and standards before discharging them into natural
streams.

14.3 Minimum flow should be ensured in the perennial streams for maintaining ecology and social
considerations.

14.4 Principle of ‘polluter pays’ should be followed in management of polluted water.

14. 5 Necessary legislation is to be made for preservation of existing water bodies by preventing
encroachment and deterioration of water quality.

Water Zoning

15. Economic development and activities including agricultural, industrial and urban development, should
be planned with due regard to the constraints imposed by the configuration of water availability. There
should be a water zoning of the country and the economic activities should be guided and regulated in
accordance with such zoning.

Conservation of Water

16.1 Efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be optimised and an awareness of water
as a scarce resource should be fostered. Conservation consciousness should be promoted through
education, regulation, incentives and disincentives.
16.2 The resources should be conserved and the availability augmented by maximising retention,
eliminating pollution and minimising losses. For this, measures like selective linings in the conveyance
system, modernisation and rehabilitation of existing systems including tanks, recycling and re-use of
treated effluents and adoption of traditional techniques like mulching or pitcher irrigation and new
techniques like drip and sprinkler may be promoted, wherever feasible.

Flood Control and Management

17.1 There should be a master plan for flood control and management for each flood prone basin.

17.2 Adequate flood-cushion should be provided in water storage projects, wherever feasible, to
facilitate better flood management. In highly flood prone areas, flood control should be given overriding
consideration in reservoir regulation policy even at the cost of sacrificing some irrigation or power benefits.

17.3 While physical flood protection works like embankments and dykes will continue to be necessary,
increased emphasis should be laid on non-structural measures such as flood forecasting and warning,
flood plain zoning and flood proofing for the minimisation of losses and to reduce the recurring expenditure
on flood relief.

17.4 There should be strict regulation of settlements and economic activity in the flood plain zones along
with flood proofing, to minimise the loss of life and property on account of floods.

17.5 The flood forecasting activities should be modernised, value added and extended to other
uncovered areas. Inflow forecasting to reservoirs should be instituted for their effective regulation.

Land Erosion by Sea or River

18.1 The erosion of land, whether by the sea in coastal areas or by river waters inland, should be
minimised by suitable cost-effective measures. The States and Union Territories should also undertake all
requisite steps to ensure that indiscriminate occupation and exploitation of coastal strips of land are
discouraged and that the location of economic activities in areas adjacent to the sea is regulated.

18 . 2 Each coastal State should prepare a comprehensive coastal land management plan, keeping in view
the environmental and ecological impacts, and regulate the developmental activities accordingly.

Drought-prone Area Development

19.1 Drought-prone areas should be made less vulnerable to drought-associated problems through
soil-

moisture conservation measures, water harvesting practices, minimisation of evaporation losses,

development of the ground water potential including recharging and the transfer of surface water from
surplus areas where feasible and appropriate. Pastures, forestry or other modes of development which are
relatively less water demanding should be encouraged. In planning water resource development projects,
the needs of drought-prone areas should be given priority.
19.2 Relief works undertaken for providing employment to drought-stricken population should preferably be
for drought proofing.

Monitoring of Projects

20.1 A close monitoring of projects to identify bottlenecks and to adopt timely measures to obviate time
and cost overrun should form part of project planning and execution.

20.2 There should be a system to monitor and evaluate the performance and socio-economic impact of
the project.

Water Sharing / Distribution amongst the States

21.1 The water sharing / distribution amongst the states should be guided by a national perspective with
due regard to water resources availability and needs within the river basin. Necessary guidelines, including
for water short states even outside the basin, need to be evolved for facilitating future agreements amongst
the basin states.

21.2 The Inter-State Water Disputes Act of 1956 may be suitably reviewed and amended for timely
adjudication of water disputes referred to the Tribunal.

Performance Improvement

22. There is an urgent need of paradigm shift in the emphasis in the management of water resources
sector. From the present emphasis on the creation and expansion of water resources infrastructures for
diverse uses, there is now a need to give greater emphasis on the improvement of the performance of the
existing water resources facilities. Therefore, allocation of funds under the water resources sector should
be re-prioritised to ensure that the needs for development as well as operation and maintenance of the
facilities are met.

Maintenance and Modernisation

23.1 Structures and systems created through massive investments should be properly maintained in
good health. Appropriate annual provisions should be made for this purpose in the budgets.

23.2 There should be a regular monitoring of structures and systems and necessary rehabilitation and
modernisation programmes should be undertaken.

23.3 Formation of Water Users' Association with authority and responsibility should be encouraged to
facilitate the management including maintenance of irrigation system in a time bound manner.

Safety of Structures

24. There should be proper organisational arrangements at the national and state levels for ensuring the
safety of storage dams and other water-related structures consisting of specialists in investigation, design,
construction, hydrology, geology, etc. A dam safety legislation may be enacted to ensure proper inspection,
maintenance and surveillance of existing dams and also to ensure proper planning, investigation, design
and construction for safety of new dams. The Guidelines on the subject should be periodically updated and
reformulated. There should be a system of continuous surveillance and regular visits by experts.

Science and Technology

25. For effective and economical management of our water resources, the frontiers of knowledge need to
be pushed forward in several directions by intensifying research efforts in various areas, including the
following:

• hydrometeorology;
• snow and lake hydrology;

• surface and ground water hydrology;

• river morphology and hydraulics;

• assessment of water resources;

• water harvesting and ground water recharge;

• water quality;

• water conservation;

• evaporation and seepage losses;

• recycling and re-use;

• better water management practices and improvements in operational technology;

• crops and cropping systems;

• soils and material research;

• new construction materials and technology (with particular reference to roller compacted concrete, fiber
reinforced concrete, new methodologies in tunneling technologies, instrumentation, advanced numerical
analysis in structures and back analysis);

• seismology and seismic design of structures;

• the safety and longevity of water-related structures;

• economical designs for water resource projects;

• risk analysis and disaster management;

• use of remote sensing techniques in development and management;

• use of static ground water resource as a crisis management measure;

• sedimentation of reservoirs;

• use of sea water resources;

• prevention of salinity ingress;

• prevention of water logging and soil salinity;

• reclamation of water logged and saline lands;

• environmental impact;

• regional equity.

Training

26. A perspective plan for standardised training should be an integral part of water resource development.
It should cover trainin g in information systems, sectoral planning, project planning and formulation, project
management, operation of projects and their physical structures and systems and the management of the
water distribution systems. The training should extend to all the categories of personnel involved in these
activities as also the farmers.

Conclusion

27. In view of the vital importance of water for human and animal life, for maintaining ecological balance
and for economic and developmental activities of all kinds, and considering its increasing scarcity, the
planning and management of this resource and its optimal, economical and equitable use has become a
matter of the utmost urgency. Concerns of the community needs to be taken into account for water
resources development and management. The success of the National Water Policy will depend entirely on
evolving and maintaining a national consensus and commitment to its underlying principles and objectives.
To achieve the desired objectives, State Water Policy backed with an operational action plan shall be
formulated in a time bound manner say in two years. National Water Policy may be revised periodically as
and when need arises.

Collection of Hydrological and Meterological data

The movement of water through the Earth can be measured in a number of ways. This information is
important for both assessing water resources and understanding the processes involved in the hydrologic
cycle. Following is a list of devices used by hydrologists and what they are used to measure.

• Rain gauge - rain and snowfall

• Stream gauge - stream flow (see: discharge (hydrology))
• Radar - cloud properties
• Piezometer - groundwater pressure and, by inferrence, groundwater depth (see: aquifer test)
• Tensiometer - soil moisture
• Satellite
• Disdrometer - precipitation characteristics
• Time domain reflectometer - soil moisture
• Sling psychrometer - humidity
• Infiltrometer - infiltration

Unit- 3 Water Resources Needs

Consumptive use of water
Consumptive use of water means that no water is returned to the water source from which it was
withdrawn; the water is consumed and is not available for use by other water user downstream.

Non-consumptive water use

Non-consumptive water use returns the water to the stream for renewed use by other water users
downstream

Estimation of Water requirements for irrigation

Irrigation may be done through individual effort of the farmers or through group cooperation between
farmers, like Farmers’ Cooperatives. The demands have to be estimated based on the cropping pattern,
which may vary over the land unit due to various factors like; farmer’s choice, soil type, climate, etc.
Actually, the term “Irrigation Water Demand” denotes the total quantity and the way in which a crop requires
water, from the time it is sown to the time it is harvested

Consumptive irrigation requirements (CIR)

it is the quantity of water, actually required by the plants. If a part of Consumptive use is provided
by the natural rainfall,
CIR = Cu-Re
If p> 7.5cms per month, then Re =0.8P-2.5 cm / month
If p< 7.5cms per month, then Re =0.6P-1.0 cm / month

Methods for Estimation

Water allowance method
Outlet discharge factor method
Standard duties method
Critical growth period method

O.D.F = 8.64 x Kor period/ Kor depth

Domestic water requirement for urban population

This is usually done through an organized municipal water distribution network. This water is
generally required for drinking, cooking, bathing and sanitary purposes etc, for the urban areas. According
to National Water Policy (2002), domestic water supplies for urban areas under various conditions are
given below. The units mentioned “lpcd” stands for Liters per Capita per Day”.
1. 40 lpcd where only spot sources are available
2. 70 lpcd where piped water supply is available but no sewerage system
3. 125 lpcd where piped water supply and sewerage system are both available. 150 lpcd may be allowed
for metro cities.

Domestic and livestock water requirement for rural population

This may be done through individual effort of the users by tapping a local available source or
through co-operative efforts, like Panchayats or Block Development Authorities. The accepted norms for
rural water supply according to National Water Policy (2002) under various conditions are given below.
• 40 lpcd or one hand pump for 250 persons within a walking distance of 1.6 km or elevation difference of
100 m in hills.
• 30 lpcd additional for cattle in Desert Development Programme (DDP) areas.
Water requirements for Navigation
 Navigation is the cheap means of transport without any consumptive use of water.
 Since no water is consumed for navigation, a minimum depth of about 2.8 m is essential
for safe and economical navigation.
For big ships a depth of about 3.7 m is needed

Water Characteristics
1. Physical characteristics
a. Turbidity
b. Color
c. taste and Odor
d. Specific Conductivity
2. Chemical characteristics
a. Determination of total solids
b. Determination of pH value
c. determination of hardness of water

Scope and aims of master plan

It is possible that the water availability in a basin (Watershed) is not sufficient to meet the maximum
demands within the basin. This would require Inter-basin water transfer, which is described below:
The National water policy adopted by the Government of India emphasizes the need for inter-basin transfer
of water in view of several water surplus and deficit areas within the country. As early as 1980, the Minister
of Water Resources had prepared a National perspective plan for Water resources development. The
National Perspective comprises two main components:
a) Himalayan Rivers Development, and
b) Peninsular Rivers Development
Interlinking is required when water is to be transformed from surplus to deficit areas.
As per internationally accepted standards if annual per capita water availability is
 Below 1700- region is termed as water stressed
 Below 1000- region is termed as water scarce
India’s position
 India accounts for 15% of the world population and 4% of the world’s water
resources
 Utilization surface water: 690 BCM/year
 Replenishible Ground Water: 432 BCM/year
 Total: 1132 BCM/year

Per capita annual water availability (cu.m/capita/year)

  The past
 1951-5177
 2001-1820
 Future estimates
 2025:1341
 2050:1140
As per internationally water availability standards, India is water stressed today and will
be water scarce tomorrow.
Uneven water availability
a. India has highly uneven water availability in space and time
b. The country receives rain fall for only 3-4 months
c. The Brahmaputra-Barak-Ganga basin accounts for 60% of surface water
resources
d. This region is also rich in ground water
e. Western and southern India experience severe deficit in both surface and ground
water.
f. 60% of the country experiences water deficit, while parts of the country suffer
from floods
Himalayan Rivers Development:
1. Construction of storage reservoirs on the principal tributaries of the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra in India, Nepal, and Bhutan,
2. Along with interlinking canal systems to transfer surplus flows of the eastern
tributaries of the Ganga to the West,
3. Apart from linking of the main Brahmaputra and its tributaries with the Ganga and
Ganga with Mahanadi.
Benefits:
The Himalayan component would provide additional irrigation of about 22 million
hectare and generation of about 30 million KW of hydropower, besides providing
substantial flood control in the Ganga & Brahmaputra basins. It would also provide the
necessary discharge for augmentation of flows at Farakka required interalia to flush the
Calcutta port and the inland navigation facilities across the country.
Peninsular Rivers Development:
This component is divided into four major parts.
1. Interlinking of Mahanadi-Godavari-Krishna-Cauvery rivers and building storages
at potential sites in these basins. This is the major interlinking of the river
systems where surpluses from the Mahanadi and the Godavari are intended to
be transferred to the needy areas in the South.
2. Interlinking of west flowing rivers, north of Bombay and south of Tapi. This
scheme envisages construction of as much optimal storage as possible on these
streams and interlinking them to make available appreciable quantum of water
for transfer to areas where additional water is needed. The scheme provides for
taking water supply canal to the metropolitan areas of Bombay; it also provides
irrigation to the coastal areas in Maharashtra.
3. Interlinking of Ken-Chambal Rivers. The scheme provides for a water grid for
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh and interlinking canal backed by as much
storage as possible.
 4. Diversion of other west flowing rivers. Heavy rainfall on the western side of the
Western Ghats runs down numerous streams, which empty, into the Arabian
Sea.
 
Benefits:
Construction of an interlinking canal system backed up by adequate storages could be
planned to meet all requirements of Kerala as also for transfer of some waters towards
east to meet the needs of drought affected areas. The peninsular
Component is expected to provide additional irrigation of about 13 million hectare and is
expected to generate about 4 million KW of power.
 
 
Expected benefits of interlinking of rivers:
 Surface water irrigation: 25 million Ha
 Ground water irrigation: 10 million Ha
 Hydropower generation: 34 million KW
 Improved agriculture: It will help in ensuring food security
 Flood and drought control
 Alternative means of transport: river transport is a cheap and non-polluting
 Higher GDP growth: creation of more employment opportunities will
approximately lead to a 4% growth in the GDP.
Lead to national unity and national security
The disadvantages of this networking project have been enumerated below and
later there are some details elaborating the same.
1. No inclusion of people’s participation
2. Lack of consensus among citizens
3. Criss-cross construction of dams and canal systems, which will cause
displacement of people
4. Submergence of land, forests and reserves
5. Negative impact on flora and fauna.
6. Acquisition of large tracts of land
7. If control is transferred to the center then decisions might be taken under
political pressure.
Arguments against interlinking of rivers
(1) Legal angles and election tangles
At present, there are serious disputes between various states of the Indian Union
concerning sharing of river water. The disputes occur on account of the Chief Executive
of any State having to take decisions and make claims in the interest of the people of
his/her State since after all, that is the purpose for which he/she is elected. A Central
Law to dictate water sharing between all the states from the network has the potential to
precipitate new problems. This is because there is no guarantee for change in the very
political climate that causes inter-state disputes in the first place, despite the present of
river-sharing agreements and authorities. Furthermore, if control is transferred to the
center then decisions might be taken under political pressure.
(2) Financing
The effect on the economic and political independence of India due to borrowing an
enormous amount of money (estimated today at Rs.5.6 lakh crores as conveyed by
Government of India to the Supreme Court, but it would surely increase) needs to be re-
considered. This especially when India is almost in a debt trap with rising debt servicing
almost equalling loans received from financial institutions like World Bank or Asian
Development Bank. It is also necessary to consider whether we will be in a financial and
physical position to maintain the huge assets when created (dams, canals, tunnels,
captive electric power generation plants, etc.) in order for the system to continue to
function and give the benefits for which it is designed. If we cannot maintain the
network, the capital assets created will deteriorate and be lost and the benefits of the
project and incomes from it will not be available, though the loan liability would remain.
This will inevitably lead to take over of assets by the creditor Banks to consolidate the
entry of foreign interests into India. The political aspect of forcible project
implementation is increasing disaffection among displaced people who already number
tens of millions since Independence.
(3) Flood period
The basic idea of networking rivers is to convey unwanted floodwaters from one place
to another where it is deficient and needed. But this idea does not consider that the
period when it is surplus in the donor area (July to October in the Ganga-Brahmaputra
basins) is not the time when it is needed most in the recipient area (January to May in
the peninsular rivers). In such a situation, it will be necessary to construct enormous
holding reservoirs that will add to financial, social and environmental costs.
(4) Desertification
Flooding per se is not undesirable because it results in deposition of alluvium
particularly in the delta areas of rivers to maintain the fertility of the land by
compensating loss of topsoil due to natural erosion. Any system that prevents or
severely reduces natural flooding (by diversion of floodwater) will cause land fertility to
gradually reduce over the years, thus desertifying the land. The greatest loss that land
can suffer is desertification by loss of topsoil. The land that will be so lost to cultivation is
the most fertile delta land, and therefore the impact of this on total food production
needs to be factored into the discussion. History tells us that entire civilizations have
vanished due to desertification.
(5) River pollution
Annual floods flush industrial and municipal pollution in the Ganga down to the ocean.
Reducing the flow in the Ganga by diversion will increase the concentration of pollution
in the river. A live example is the Yamuna, from which Haryana and Delhi draw so much
water that it barely flows after Delhi and the water quality at Delhi is so poor as to be
positively poisonous. It is relevant to note that the expensive project to clean the Ganga
has not succeeded even with annual flooding. This is not to argue that pollution of river
water is inherent and may never be checked at source, but that this factor is yet another
that needs to be included in the legitimacy check for the project.
(6) Security
India has a national electric power grid that functions with difficulty because supply does
not meet demand. However it is kept functional because electric power can be switched
from one circuit to another in the grid. Further it is not easy to deliberately interfere
physically with the flow of very high voltage (upto 132 kV) electricity on overhead
conductors atop huge pylons. But a national water grid is entirely different because
water does not flow instantaneously like electricity, it cannot be switched like electric
power, and it can very easily be tampered with enroute to divert, pump out or interrupt
flow. A canal breached deliberately or due to natural circumstances combined with poor
maintenance would spell disaster for the areas around the breach. Water is basic for
human survival unlike electric power, and motivation for interference is that much more.
Maintenance of a network of canals, dams, etc., will have to be done under central
supervision. Flow can be prevented or caused by the simple expedient of taking control
of sluice gates as demonstrated by farmers during the recent Cauvery water problem.
Thus security of the network will be an enormous load on security forces of Central and
State Governments. In contrast, decentralized systems can be maintained, repaired and
protected by those who benefit from them and live nearby.
(7) Land acquisition
One cannot consider the acquisition of 8000 sq km of land when acquisition of land
even in acres is a vexed issue, which has taken years. Even if fresh legislation makes it
possible within a short period, its implementation will cause untold misery and injustice
to the displaced people in obtaining compensation due to systemic corruption. Besides,
land for resettlement is mostly not available.
Thus, we must scrutinize closely and guard against our tendencies to address the
political challenges of progressive policy and lawmaking for resolution of conflicts over
natural resources with technology-heavy solutions
 
(8) No public debate
Neither the feasibility reports of the Task Force and nor the development of the
networking plan have been subjected to extensive and intensive public debate.
The proposed river network is a mega project comprising of a system of interlinked
projects and has to be therefore subjected to multi-disciplinary scrutiny. The people
involved in the decision making about networking of rivers do not look into the holistic
view of the situation but only examine it by associating it with their knowledge and
expertise in special fields.
Democratic action and enlightened self-interest by all citizens of India is the need of the
hour.
The head of Task Force Mr. Suresh Prabhu in an interview allayed all fears discussed
above. He said that experts in all fields are working to minimize the ill effects of this
grandiose plan. He also discussed the global experience on transferring water from one
basin to another. He mentioned china’s attempt to transfer major water from the Yang
Tse river in the south to the Yellow river and beyond in the north. He said than the plan
is being implemented in an eco-friendly manner and that the benefits will surely
outweigh the costs.

Concept of basin as a unit of development

   The total land area that contributes water to a river is called a Watershed, also
called differently as the Catchment, River basin, Drainage Basin, or simply a Basin. The
image of a basin is shown in Figure 1.
A watershed may also be defined as a geographic area that drains to a common point,
which makes it an attractive planning unit for technical efforts to conserve soil and
maximize the utilization of surface and subsurface water for crop production.
Thus, it is generally considered that water resources development and
management schemes should be planned for a hydrological unit such as a Drainage
Basin as a whole or for a Sub-Basin, multi-sectorially, taking into account surface and
ground water for sustainable use incorporating quantity and quality aspects as well as
environmental considerations.

• Water transferred in and out of the unit

If the planning is for a watershed or basin, then generally the water
available within the basin is to be used unless there is inter basin water transfer. If
however, the unit is a political entity, like a nation or a state, then definitely there shall
be inflow or outflow of water especially that of flowing surface water. Riparian rights
have to be honored and extraction of more water by the upland unit may result in severe
tension.
• Regeneration of water within the unit
Brackish water may be converted with appropriate technology to supply
sweet water for drinking and has been tried in many extreme water scarce areas. Waste
water of households may be recycled, again with appropriate technology, to supply
water suitable for purposes like irrigation.

Water Budget and Development

A water budget reflects the relationship between input and output of water
through a region
Given :

1. Regional precipitation, 46.4 in/y (from Ries; 1990);

2. Evapotranspiration, 25.5 in/y (a generic value based on 55% of precipitation; see Johnston and Baer, 1987);
3. Overland flow, 9 in/y (a generic value not actually assessed for the specific watershed);
4. Baseflow, 9.9 in/y (a generic value);
5. Runoff, 18.9 in/y (a generic value);
6. Subsea outflow, 2 in/y (a generic value).
For purposes of this watershed, you may assume there is no streamflow or ground-water
flow into the basin.(Although not measured directly, Reis (1990; Table 6, p. 26) estimated an annual mean runoff of the
watershed of 80.2 ft3/s based on comparisons with other similar watersheds. Is this a reasonable number, based on the
parameters assumed here?)

Find : 

A. Annual Water Budget for the Basin

B. Annual Water Budget for the Streams
C. Annual Water Budget for the Groundwater Reservoir
D. Annual Streamflow from the Basin
E. Average Rate of Groundwater Recharge

A. Annual Water Budget for the Basin

  Input Output

Precipitation 46.4 in/y  

Evapotranspiration   25.5 in/y

Overland flow    

Baseflow    

Infiltration   _

Runoff   18.9 in/y

Subsea outflow   2 in/y

Total 46.4 in/y 46.4 in/y

For the basin as a whole, the input into the basin comes from precipitation only. For the output,
water leaves by evapotranspiration, subsea outflow, or runoff. In this case runoff pertains to any
water above the surface that leaves the system, including water discharging from the streams. 
Overland flow and baseflow are not included because those are internal changes within the
system.

B. Annual Water Budget for the Streams

  Input Output

Precipitation    
Evapotranspiration    

Overland flow 9 in/y  

Infiltration   _

Baseflow 9.9 in/y  

Runoff   18.9 in/y

Subsea outflow    

Total 18.9 in/y 18.9 in/y

When calculating the budget for the stream, we must consider the internal changes within the
watershed. The streams receive their water supply from either the surface or the ground, which
are overland flow and baseflow respectively. The output of the streams, as explained above, is
the runoff. All other components are not within the scope of the stream. It is also important to
note that the surface area of the streams are minimal when compared to the ground, and
therefore precipitation and evapotranspiration effects are not considered.

C. Annual Water Budget for the Groundwater Reservoir

This represents the partitioning of water that penetrates below the earth's surface. Accordingly,
"infiltration" is the difference between precipitation (46.4 in/y) and overland flow (9 in/y).

  Input Output

Precipitation _  

Evapotranspiration   25.5 in/y

Overland flow _  

Infiltration 37.4 in/y _

Baseflow   9.9 in/y

Runoff    

Subsea outflow   2 in/y

Total 37.4 in/y 37.4 in/y

For the groundwater budget, water that enters the ground is the precipitation minus the overland
flow. Water leaves by evapotranspiration, baseflow and subsea outflow. Baseflow leaves the
ground and enters into the streams, and subsea outflow leaves the ground and enters a larger
body of water at a distant location.

D. Annual Streamflow from the Basin

The flow-rate is expressed in units of volume per unit time - typically, cubic feet per second
(cfs). In this case assume that the total streamflow leaving the basin is the sum of overland flow
and baseflow: 18.9 in/y. This value multiplied by the drainage area gives the discharge. Using
this relation, and converting units leads to

(18.9 in/y)(1 ft/12 in)(1 y/31536000 s)(30.9 mi 2)(2.79E7 ft2/mi2) = 43.1 cfs

E. Average Rate of Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge is the amount of water actually entering the watertable. This is often
expressed in units of millions of gallons per day per square mile of surface area (mgd/mi 2). By
examining question C, the water that enters this system is the precipitation minus the overland
flow and evapotranspiration.

46.4 in/y - 9 in/y - 25.5 in/y = 11.9 in/y

(11.9 in/y)(1/12 ft/in)(1/31536000 y/s)(30.9 mi 2)(2.79E7 ft2/mi2) = 27.1 cfs

(27.1 cfs)(0.646 mgd/cfs) / (30.9 mi2) = 0.567 mgd/mi2

Unit 5 Economics Analysis

Economic Analysis
It help to analyze the contribution of alternative courses of action to various objectives and to make
explicit trade-off between them. Such analyses may be performed at the sectorial level ( macro-level) or at
the micro-level
Estimation of cost and evaluation of benefits
All Water Resources projects have to be cost evaluated. This is an essential part of planning. Since,
generally, such projects would be funded by the respective State Governments, in which the project
would be coming up it would be helpful for the State planners to collect the desired amount of
money, like by issuing bonds to the public, taking loans from a bank, etc. Since a project involves
money, it is essential that the minimum amount is spent, under the given constraints of project
construction. Hence, a few feasible alternatives for a project are usually worked out. For example, a
project involving a storage dam has to be located on a map of the river valley at more than one
possible location, if the terrain permits. In this instance, the dam would generally be located at the
narrowest part of the river valley to reduce cost of dam construction, but also a couple of more
alternatives would be selected since there would be other features of a dam whose cost would
dictate the total cost of the project. For example, the foundation could be weak for the first
alternative and consequently require costly found treatment, raising thereby the total project cost. At
times, a economically lucrative project site may be causing submergence of a costly property, say
an industry, whose relocation cost would offset the benefit of the alternative. On the other hand, the
beneficial returns may also vary. For example, the volume of water stored behind a dam for one
alternative of layout may not be the same as that behind another. Hence, what is required is to
evaluate the so-called Benefit-Cost Ratio defined as below:
Benefit-Cost ratio = Annual benefits(B)/ annual cost(C)
The annual cost and benefits are worked out as under.
Annual Cost (C): The investment for a project is done in the initial years during construction and
then on operation and maintenance during the project's lifetime. The initial cost may be met by
certain sources like borrowing, etc. but has to be repaid over a certain number of years, usually with
an interest, to the lender. This is called the Annual Recovery Cost, which, together with the yearly
maintenance cost would give the total Annual Costs. It must be noted that there are many non-
tangible costs, which arise due to the effect of the project on the environment that has to be
quantified properly and included in the annual costs.

Discount rate
It is the rate of interest for discounting future cash flows.
Discounting factors

1. Single payment factor

a. compound amount factor

b. present worth factor

2. Uniform annual series

a. sinking fund factor

b. Compound amount factor

c. Capital recovery factor

d. present worth factor

Discount formulas*

1. Single-payment compound amount factor : 

2. Single-payment present worth factor : 

 
3. Sinking fund factor : 

4. Capital recovery factor :

5. Uniform-series compound amount factor : 

 6. Uniform-series present worth factor :

  * In the above equations, i=interest rate,

n= number of interest period, P= present sum of money

F= future sum of money, A= an end-of-period payment (annual amount)

Computer application in WRE

Application areas of GIS in Water Resources Engineering

There are many areas in Water Resources Engineering where GIS may be successfully applied.
Some examples have been given in this lesson in the previous sections, and some more are
illustrated below.

Project planning for a storage structure

In this example, a dam is proposed to be constructed across a river, for which the following
information may be desired:
 Watershed area contributing to the project site
 Reservoir surface area and volume, given the height of the dam
 villages that may be inundated under reservoir

For the above, the following themes may be stored in a GIS:

 Elevation contours of the watershed area, including the project site
 Satellite image derived land-use map of the watershed
 Village boundary map, showing location of habitation clusters
Using the above data, one may obtain desired in information as follows:
 Watershed area may be found by using the elevation contour data, and using a suitable GIS
software that has a tool to delineate the watershed boundary. Once the boundary is
identified, the area calculation tool may be used in the GIS software to calculate the
watershed area.
 Reservoir surface area can similarly found using the area calculation tool. Volume
calculation tool of the GIS software may be used to find out the storage volume, which is the
space between a plane at the reservoir surface and the reservoir bottom.
 By overlying the reservoir extent over the village boundary map and the locations of
habitation clusters one may identify the villages that are likely to be inundated once the
reservoir comes up. The area of the cultivable village farms that would be submerged may
also be similarly identified, as it would be required to pay compensation for the loss to the
villagers.
 The amount of forest land that is going to be submerged may be identified by overlaying the
reservoir area map over the land use map, for which compensatory afforestation has to be
adopted.

Project planning for a diversion structure

Here, a barrage is proposed across a river to divert some of its water through a canal, for which the
following information may be desired:
• Location site of the barrage
• Location and alignment of the off taking canal
• Command area that may be irrigated by the canal

The interpretation of Field of Useful Helpful in

remotely sensed images application interpreted
may provide valuable information
information to the Water
Resources Engineer,
some of which are
discussed below for
various fields of
applications Sl. No.
Irrigation Crop area, Estimating the amount of
1. Engineering Crop yield, irrigation water that is to be
Crop growth supplied to an irrigated area
condition, over different seasons
Crop areas
that are water
stressed and
are in need of
water
Hydrology Different types Estimating runoff from a
2. of soils, rocks, watershed, where the land-
forest and cover type and soil moisture
 vegetation of a would decide the amount
water shed, that would infiltrate
soil moisture
Reservoir Plan views of Estimating the extent of
3. sedimentation reservoir sedimentation of a reservoir
extent at by comparing the extent of
different times reservoir surface areas for
of the year different storage heights
and over
several years
Flood Flood Flood plain mapping and
4. monitoring inundated zoning
areas
Water Identification Recent information helpful in
5. Resources of wasteland planning and designing of a
Project (from MSS water resources project
Planning images), based on the present
mapping of conditions of the project
infrastructure
features (from
PAN images)
like existing
roads,
embankments,
canals, etc.
apart from
plan view of a
river