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CHAPTER: 1

Introduction
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1.0 Introduction

Agriculture is the most important livelihood option for the coastal people of
Bangladesh (Gob and UNDP, 2009). It has a key role to play in tackling the
challenges of the growing population, poverty alleviation, maintaining food
security and adapting to climate change (BCCAAP, 2010; BPRSP, 2005). It has
been identified as being of prime importance for achieving development goals in
coastal areas (BPRSP, 2005). About 40 million people of the coastal areas of
Bangladesh depend on agriculture (BBS, 2011). The area under study in this thesis
is highly vulnerable due to causes that are both natural and human (UNEP and
Gob, 2001). Cyclones, tidal surges, high wave interactions, sea level rise, global
climate change impacts, floods, withdrawal of upstream river water, salt water
intrusion, erosion and saline water-logging are all affecting the agricultural systems
in the coastal areas (Gob, 2010). Along with disasters, the agriculture practices of
this area are always under threat as it is one of the depressed regions of Bangladesh
and it has suffered from sluggish growth partly due to longstanding administrative
negligence (BPRSP, 2005). At present, however, the coastal agricultural of
Bangladesh is transforming, in spite of the many problems and constraints (Islam,
2006a). Embankments in particular have played a crucial role in transformation of
traditional agriculture. After the introduction of surge-protecting
embankments/polders in the 1960s some parts of the coastal region started to enjoy
high yields in traditional crop cultivation (Ali, 2002; Nishat, 1988). However, later
on due to the effects of frequent cyclones and storm surges and poor management
of the embankment, some parts of the coastal areas have become water logged and
saline (Daceop, 1995). This makes these areas unsuitable for traditional cropping
(Daceop, 1995) and in this situation, in the 1970s some farmers started changing
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Agricultural Systems in the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh commercial shrimp

cultivation to mitigate the loss in traditional agriculture to maintain their livelihood
(Karim, 1986). From the 1980s to the present, shrimp cultivation has created a
substantial economic and social transformation in those coastal areas where it has
been taken up (DoF, 2010; Hamid and Alauddin, 1998). Furthermore, in recent
years, shrimp has become a significant foreign exchange earner for Bangladesh
(DoF, 2010; Mahmood, 2006). However, shrimp farming is a subject of criticism
since it can damage the local ecology by increasing the salinity of the water and
soil, change the composition of the soil and bring about rapid changes in land use
and land cover (Deb, 1998; Hagler, 1997; Haque, 2004; Islam et al. 1999; Kori,
1996; Karim and Stellwagen, 1998). There are also claims that it has led to
disintegration of economic and social conditions of coastal rural communities (Ali,
2006; Ali, 2004; Islam and Koudstaal, 2003; Mohmood, 2006). Because of
environmental and social impacts associated with shrimp cultivation, farmers of
some parts of the coastal areas are incorporating vegetables and domestic animals
into existing farming practices, integrating shrimp or prawn and fish with rice and
vegetables. As a whole the people of the coastal areas are trying different
agricultural practices to cope with the changing environment (Mohmood, 2006).
This transformation of agriculture has many positive effects and has reduced some
risks in farming. However, there is a growing concern on how this transforming
agriculture is coping with the existing physical and social economic environment,
how it is supporting people of the area and how beneficial it is in comparison with
shrimp cultivation or traditional agricultural practices. In fact, these changes in
livelihood have raised several issues, all of which can be summarized under the
following research question.
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Changing Agricultural Systems in the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh What is the

revisiting agricultural systems that are practiced for pursuing livelihoods,
especially in comparison with different farming systems that are followed in
different parts of the coastal areas? This can be answered by measuring the
revisiting of agricultural practices.

1.1 Definition about Revisiting

Simply revisit means visiting a place more than two times. Another way we can
say that, when we observe or visit more than two times in a certain place is called
revisiting. Mainly visiting means observation in a place. When we use “re” as a
prefix with the world of visit then its means again visit. Hence, we say that revisit
means again visiting.

1.2 Agriculture Revisiting in Daceop Upozila

The word ‘revisiting’ is often used observation or visit again in a certain place. But
the world agriculture revisiting use another purpose. Revisiting and agriculture
revisiting is not same. Agriculture revisiting means agricultural crops planting in
certain place again. At the previous time the coastal zone in Bangladesh (mainly
Daceop Upozila) most of the agricultural land use cultivating crops but at the
middle times (may be years of 1990) use most of cultivating land as shrimp
cultivation.
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In that period shrimp cultivation was more beneficial. For this reason all farmers
used their field shrimp cultivation. When the farmers used their field shrimp
cultivation then they entered saline water. As entering saline water the soil became
polluted. Hence, at that time none but crops produce. Not only enable to produce
crops but also enable to produce other trees and vegetable. Above this causes the
coastal regions farmers (mainly in Daceop Upozila) decided to stop shrimp
cultivation (may be years of 2003) and started previous crops cultivation. This
system is called revisiting agriculture.

The words revisiting agriculture have been at the center of the environment and
development. The best known definition of revisiting agriculture that “revisiting
agriculture is planting crops in a certain place again” There is broad consensus that
these factors should incorporate three elements: environmental, economic and,
social.

On the basis of the above basic concept, the revisiting agriculture activity can be
assessed. Agriculture is one of the human activities that are a major concern in the
present world due to the global food crisis and environmental problems. Interest in
the sustainability of agricultural and food systems can be traced to environmental
concerns that began to appear in the 1950s–1960s.

The interest has evolved over the last 20 years, now appearing in the political
agenda at the international and national levels, with particular emphasis on
ecological concerns. Agriculture profoundly affects many natural ecological
systems and, in its relation with economics and society, also affects the life of
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humans around the world. Agro-ecosystems can be conceived as social-ecological

systems that combine human actors with other biological and physical elements in
the process of food and fiber production.

The social element of revisiting agriculture mainly derives from the fact that each
of us is involved directly or indirectly in all aspects of agriculture. In most
definitions of revisiting agriculture, the need to maintain resilience in
environmental and social systems by meeting a complex array of interacting
environmental, social and economic conditions is central. The revisiting agriculture
current and future food demands can be met without unnecessarily compromising
economic, ecological, and social.

1.3 Conceptual Framework of the project

In any assessment, indicators should be chosen only after first developing and
clearly expressing a conceptual overview of the situation and objectives of the
measurement process. For our study in Bangladesh revisiting agriculture is defined
as “producing food in a productive and economically efficient manner, using
practices that maintain or enhance the quality of the local and surrounding
environment-soil, water, air and all living things. It is also sustainable in
supporting the health and quality of life of individual farmers, their families and
the community as a whole”.
After setting out a conceptual statement a second step is to further refine and
expand the overview to establish specific areas that require investigation. These
areas are called categories. To draw a description of the total situation of any
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agriculture system, it is then necessary as third step to select appropriate indicators

that allow assessment within these categories. Recognizing that agriculture is a
process of food production as well as a way of life, six categories are chosen so as
to reflect its various dimensions. These categories are based on issues of
sustainable development. The categories (modified from van Loon et al., 2005)
are:

Productivity: For the needs of the farm family as well as to satisfy national and
global requirements, revisiting agriculture must be capable of producing high
yields. For this study, standard measures of crop yield, shrimp/fish harvest, etc.
will be used, and also comparisons will be made on the basis of economic value of
the harvested product.
Stability: For revisiting agriculture it is necessary that the high level of
productivity be maintained over an indefinite period of time. This requires that the
quality of the resources on which production is based also be maintained and even
enhanced. For this study an examination of the long-term prospects of traditional
and altered agriculture systems will be carried out based on data of land, soil,
water, climate and other related issues.

Efficiency: To be revisited, all resources required for agriculture - human, animal

and material-should be used in a way that is not wasteful, but maximizes output per
unit input. This is especially true of non-renewable resources. For this project the
measures will be the ratio of product output to input of various resources, primarily
non-renewable resources, including measures of energy ratios.
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Revisiting agriculture Systems in the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh assessment of

agricultural systems in Bangladesh used ecological, economic and social
dimension categories for the evaluation of conventional and ecological agricultural
systems.

While revisiting agriculture has become an important issue in developed countries,

there are few studies in Bangladesh that have addressed the issue. Revisiting
agriculture has only recently been directly addressed through policy initiatives,
although the term sustainability has often been mentioned. Most of the policies
have indicated the need of revisiting agriculture by ensuring good environmental
management, increasing economic activities and development the society.
Recently the national strategy of revisiting agriculture of Bangladesh recognized
sustainable development in agriculture through formulating a sustainable
agricultural strategy for crops, fisheries and livestock sectors Agricultural Systems
in the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh assessment of agricultural systems in
Bangladesh used ecological, economic and social dimension categories for the
evaluation of conventional and ecological agricultural systems.
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1.4 Research objectives

Based on empirical data obtained from primary observation and other sources, the
present study attempts to examine the revisiting agriculture practices in the coastal
Bangladesh. Specific objectives of the research are:

1. To understand and draw a profile of traditional and changing agriculture systems

in coastal areas of Bangladesh;
2. To develop a set of representative indicators, in order to analyses agriculture
revisiting;
3. To give some recommendations based on the findings that support best
agriculture practice for revisiting agriculture in coastal regions of Bangladesh.

1.5 Scope of study area

An understanding of revisiting agriculture is indispensable for designing coastal

agricultural policies. Different studies have revealed that, due to transformation of
practices in this area, the natural resource base has potentially been damaged but at
the same time there have been some positive impacts on coastal society.
While many aspects of the present agricultural systems appear to be attractive,
there is no conclusive evidence about the long term benefits to individuals and the
wider community. In this situation, it is expected that the study will assist farm
families and policy makers in understanding the features of coastal revisiting
agriculture.
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In order to do this assessment, a supporting goal is to identify and develop

communicable indicators for productivity, stability, efficiency, durability,
compatibility and equity. For this, there is a need to apply a variety of
multidisciplinary methods in gathering and analyzing information.

1.6 Brief profile of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a low-lying deltaic country in the tropical zone of South Asia

(NPDM, 2007; Rashid, 1991).The physiography of the country consists of
floodplains (79.1%), some terraces (8.3%) and hilly areas (12.6%) (FAO, 2007).
A network of 230 rivers with their tributaries and distributaries crisscross the
country, and among them 57 are trans-boundary rivers (Suvedi, 2005). Being the
downstream and deltaic portion of a vast watershed, it is naturally vulnerable to the
water quality and quantity that flows into it from upstream.

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 2004 and Global Climate
Risk Index (CRI)-2010 (Harmeling, 2010) recognized Bangladesh as a highly
vulnerable country in terms of natural calamities. It is also widely recognized to be
one of the most vulnerable countries to the potential effects of climate change. The
country could lose 17% of its land by 2050 because of rising sea level by 1 m
(IPCC, 2007). In the coming decades therefore, the rising sea level could create
more than 20 million climate refugees in Bangladesh (PBS, 2008; Walker, 2010).
Along with many natural calamities, Bangladesh is grappling with the largest mass
poisoning of a population in history because of groundwater used for drinking that
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has been contaminated with naturally occurring inorganic arsenic (Smith et al.,
2000); up to 77 million people are exposed to toxic arsenic from drinking water
(BBC, 2010).

Bangladesh has a typical monsoon climate. The average annual rainfall is about
2000 mm, of which approximately 70% occurs during the monsoon season. The
relative humidity is persistently high, varying from 70% in March to 89% in July.
The average annual temperature is 26oC (BMD, 2011).

The total land area of Bangladesh is about 14.4 million ha (BBS, 2011). Depending
on the flooding depth, land is categorized as highland (20%), medium highland
(35%), medium lowland (20%), lowland (8%) and very lowland (1%)
(Kashem,2006). Based on the features of the physical environment that are relevant
to land use, the land is divided into 30 agro-ecological zones and 88 sub-regions
(FAO/UNDP, 1999).

1.7 Brief profile of the coastal areas

The coastal zone of Bangladesh covers 47 201 (32%) km2 land area of the total
geographical area of the country (Shamsuddoha and Chowdhury, 2007; MoWR,
2005). The entire zone is low lying with 62% of land have an elevation of less than
3 meters and 86% less than 5 meters (Islam et al.,2006). Depending on elevation
and other factors, the defined coastal area can reach from 37 to195 km from the
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shore (MoWR, 2005). The whole coast runs along the northern border of the Bay
of Bengal, forming a 710 km long coastline (MoWR, 2005).

Physiographical most of the coastal zone consists of extensive flat coastal and
deltaic land of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, which is crossed by large tidal
rivers discharging into the Bay of Bengal (Rashid and Kabir,1998). In general,
much of the western part of the coastal zone is a moribund or mature delta; the
middle part is an active delta; and the eastern part is a stable landmass (Ahmed,
2003) Continuous accretion and deposition are taking place in active delta of the
coastal regions due to strong river and tidal currents (Chowdhury and
Hossain,2006). In this project study areas were selected from the active delta
(Bhola Sadar) and the mature delta (the other four sites).

The coastal region covers 19 administrative districts encompassing 153 upazilas

(sub-districts, formerly called thanas) and the Exclusive Economic Zone (MoWR,
2005). Out of these 19 districts, 12 meet the sea or lower estuary directly (MoWR,
2005). Among the upazilas, 51 from 12 districtsface the coast or lower estuary and
these areas are known as exposed coast (Islam et al., 2006; PDO-ICZMP, 2003).
The remaining 102 upazilas that are further inland from the exposed coast are
within what is termed the interior coast (MoWR, 2005). The upazilas in the
exposed coast havealready met or crossed the threshold limit tidal movement,
salinity, cyclone risk - and the upazilas in interior coast have met or exceed any
two or one of the three parameters (PDO-ICZMP, 2003).In the coastal zone, 62%
of land has an elevation of 3 m or less and 86% is less than 5 m above sea level
(Islam et al., 2006). Since the 1960s, the southeast coast of Bangladesh is protected
by implementing cross dams (Wheeler and Gravgaard, 2010). The coastal people
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pursue their livelihoods in a unique environment with a combination of natural

disasters and man-made changes (WRPO, 2006).

The National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (BPRSP, 2005)

acknowledges the Coastal Zone as a special focus area that is distinct in many
respects and requiring of special attention acknowledging the fact that “there is
considerable interface between the persistence of chronic poverty and unfavorable
agricultural environments, (e.g. salinity-prone, flood-prone, river erosion prone,
drought-prone areas)”. Later on, the Government of Bangladesh formulated
Coastal Zone Policy, 2005 and Coastal Development Strategy, 2006 and adopted
an Estuary Development Programmed along with other initiatives to address
coastal vulnerabilities.
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Pic 1.4: Bengal delta, Source: Banglapedia, 2010

According to 2011 Population Census, the coastal zone comprises 6.85 million
households with a population of 35.1 million (BBS, 2011). In the coastal zone the
net cultivable area is 1.95 million ha indicating that the average landholding per
household is half the already small national average.
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The net-cropped area of coastal zone in Bangladesh has been decreasing over the
years due to various causes that are soil-related or associated with climate risk and
socio-economic problems; the most common one is land inundation and salinity
intrusion by tidal water. A comparative study of Bangladesh Soil Resource
Development Institute (SRDI) shows that from 1973 to 2000 about 0.170 million
ha (20.4%) land of coastal areas is affected by salinity (SRDI, 1997; SRDI, 2001).
One of the main economic activities in the coastal zone is aquaculture (Islam and
Ahmad, 2004).

The significance of shrimp farming has grown rapidly over the last 30 years (Alam
and Phillips, 2004). Shrimp areas have expanded from 51 812 ha in 1983 to 137
996 ha in 1994 and 218 649 ha in 2004 (DoF, 1995 and 2005). At present,
Bangladesh supplies around 2.5% of the global shrimp trade (DoF, 2004).
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CHAPTER-2:
Methodology
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Assessment of revisiting agricultural is a complex task, involving many factors.

Developing a comprehensive suite of indicators is one useful way of assessing
sustainability. Indicators can be qualitative or quantitative; they are often relative
in terms of time and space and are influenced by the socioeconomic and agro
ecological conditions of the area.
In this study, an indicator-based procedure is used to assess revisiting agricultural
in the coastal zones of Bangladesh; supported by descriptive data obtained by
various types of primary and secondary data. Ethical approval was obtained from
the General Research Ethics Board (GREB) to conduct this research through the
Office of Research Services, Queen’s University, and Kingston, Ontario. After
ethical approval, the research methodology of the study advanced in three main
phases. In the first phase, issues of revisiting relevant to the adapted agriculture of
the study area were identified through literature survey, brainstorming and
discussion with experts. On the basis of the identified issues, a questionnaire was
established. In this phase, correspondence was carried out with a local university of
Bangladesh for selection of study areas, pre-test of the questionnaire, and arranging
for students to assist with data collection.
Phase two dealt with primary and secondary data collection. Farmers were the
source of primary data. General discussions were held with them to monitor the
situation. Various documents of the Government and NGOs were acted as major
sources of secondary data. Ensuring full participation of the sampled farmers at all
stages was the main strategy of primary data collection. IN phase three, primary
and secondary data were summarized and tabulated. After tabulation, both
qualitative and quantitative techniques were applied to assess the sustainability of
agricultural systems.
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Identify possible issues for six Development of

Literature Review
Categories of sustainability Questionnaire
Start Data Collection

Selection of the sample size for Finalization of the

questionnaire survey, key informants questionnaire Pretest of the
and FGD participants questionnaire

Establish linkage with local university

and Selection of study areas

Preparation of Google
imagery maps of the
selected study areas
Summarize
and its environs and tabulation of the collected data
Secondary data
from government Ground truthing of
Ground truthing of
and NGOs the study areas, GPS
the study areas,
documents, books, reading and field
GPS
reports, internet etc. observation
reading and field
Second field study to verify the issue rose from observation
first field study

Finalization of the collected data

Qualitative and Quantitative analysis, MCDA

Preparation of final report and presentation

2. Fig: Flow chart of the research methodology

2.1 Literature Review

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A literature review was carried out to collect available data related to sustainability
of coastal agriculture in Bangladesh. At the same time literature was sought that
would assist in understanding appropriate qualitative and quantitative techniques
for data analysis. Documents, policy reports, presented papers, articles, academic
journals, books and related websites of government and non-government bodies
were reviewed. The literature also assisted in identifying gaps in current
knowledge and targeting the types of data needed for the assessment. The source
organizations of secondary data are listed in Table.

Table 2.1: Literature Review

Sl. No. Name of the Source Organization Abbreviation
Government Organizations
1. Bangladesh Statistical Bureau BBS
2. Department of Agriculture Extension DoAE
3. Department of Fisheries DoF
4. Department of Livestock Services DoLS
5. Bangladesh Water Development Board BWDB
6. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council BARC
7. Soil Resources Development Institute SRDI
8. Bangladesh Meteorological Department BMD
9. Department of Environment DoF
10. Comprehensive Disaster Management Programmed CDMP
NGOs(Non-Government Organizations)
1. Bangladesh Resource Center on Indigenous BARCIK
2. Coastal Environment Conservation Center CECC
3. Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies BCAS
4. Bangladesh Rural Advancement Centre BRAC
5. Sushilon
6. Centre for Policy Dialog
7. Bangladesh Institute for Development Studies BIDS
International Organizations
1. International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN
2. United States Agency for International Development USAID- Bangladesh
3. Asian Development Bank ADB
4. World bank WB
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5. United Nations UN
6. Food and Agriculture Organization FAO
7. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC

8. World Health Organization WHO

9. Canadian International Development Agency CIDA
Source: Literature review, 2011

2.2 Questionnaire
A 35-page questionnaire was developed to collect field level primary data
(Appendix A). The questionnaire was pre-tested through 5 interviews, and after
pretest needed improvements were made. The questionnaire was in English, but
interviews were conducted in the local language, Bangla. The issues of revisiting
agriculture were kept in mind during development of the questionnaire, and it was
designed to be comprehensive, but also simple enough to allow for appropriate
collection and interpretation of information.

2.3 Selection of Study area

Daceop upazilas is selected for study areas. Several criteria were considered during
their selection: farmers doing intensive shrimp farming with little rice; farmers
doing intensive shrimp and rice with the same weight; farmers growing traditional
crops but using modern methods; farmers doing integrated shrimp, rice and
vegetable farming; and farmers doing mostly traditional agriculture. The criteria
and locations were selected through literature review and consultation with local
experts. Here, traditional agriculture means growing crops and following practice
that have been used over many years. Five maps from Google imagery were
produced to get an idea about the environs of the study areas before undertaking
the field study. A number of matrixes were used in order to enable optimum
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choices of the study areas. The selected study Upazila is Daceop Upazila in Khulan
District.

2.4 Events in Field Study

The field study was carried out from January to June, 2013. First step of the field
study was to visit and observe the selected study areas to understand the
agricultural activities and environment inform helpers about the objectives of the
research and contact key informants. The second step was to establish contact with
different organizations as sources of secondary information and to arrange logistic
support for data collection activities. After this, approximately six months were
spent in carrying out the various components of the survey.

2.5 Verification of the Study Areas

Philosophy of ground-trothing techniques was applied to verify the nature of the
agricultural systems and associate environments of the elected study areas. This
was especially pertinent in order to relate satellite image data (Google) to real
features and material on the ground. Prior to ground-trothing field visits, checklists
were prepared for the issues which needed to be verified.
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Picture 2.5: Activities for verification of the study areas. (A) Verification of agricultural system and surrounding
environs of Daceop with local people, (B) Verification of agricultural system and surrounding environs of Daceop
with key informants.

2.6 Field Observation

Field observation was used to collect information on the agricultural system and
people involved with emphasis on issues of sustainability. Advantages of the use of
direct observation as a research method have been emphasized by many
researchers. Simpson and Tuson (1995) noted that there is almost no research
strategy to which data collection by observation cannot contribute. In the present
situation, a detailed examination of the agricultural settings was important as
background for carrying out the farmers’ survey as well as the interviews of
various stakeholders.
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Picture 2.6: Field observation

2.7 Selection of Sample Size

Five different categories of farmer were considered from selected study areas and
the plan was to select at least five farmers from each category. In the end, 211
households were covered which represent 6.71% of the total 3141 households. The
numbers of surveyed households in different categories of the farmer are presented
in Table.
Table 2.7 Selection of Sample Size

Categories of Study Areas

Farmer Chilna Decop Suterkhlai Bajua Tildanga Total
Farmer
Landless farmer 5 10 10 5 5 35
Marginal farmer 5 12 15 4 5 40
Small farmer 16 17 18 6 6 63
Medium farmer 12 9 11 4 5 41
Large farmer 7 12 5 3 5 32
Total farmer 45 60 59 22 26 211
Note: Farmers are categorized according to operated land. Landless: <0.01 acres, Marginal: 0.01
- <0.50 acres, Small: 0.50 - < 2.5 acres, Medium: 2.5 - < 5.0 acres, Large: > 5.0 acres (Source:
BBS, 2010)

2.8 Household Questionnaire Survey

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Before conducting each household survey, informed consent was obtained from the
participants. Stratified purposeful sampling was applied during household
questionnaire survey. Stratification illustrates characteristics of particular
subgroups of interest and facilitates comparisons. The household questionnaire was
related to agricultural production, input and output, education, equity, occupation,
assets, awareness, marketing system, health situation and care, sanitation and other
related aspects of agricultural revisiting.

2.9 FGD (Focus Group Discussion)

Focus group discussion (FGD) is one of the most widely used participatory
methods. Focus group discussions were used to enable different categories of
people, including disadvantaged groups to identify their priorities and interests. In
this study, FGDs were conducted in all study areas with different farmers groups to
understand and collect information related to issues of sustainability.

Pic 2.9: FGD

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2.10 Key Informant Interviews

Key informant interviews were carried out to verify information from household
questionnaire surveys and focus groups. A key informant is anyone who has
significant knowledge on a particular topic. The key informant survey is a method
of obtaining information from persons whose professional and/or organizational
roles imply that they have knowledge about specific characteristics of the
population being studied as well as potential pathways and constraints for
community change.
In order to efficiently develop agriculture, there is an agricultural extensions office,
a fisheries office and a livestock office in upazila. Through unstructured and
informal discussions, varieties of information were collected from the key
informants employed in these offices. The experts were encouraged to speak in
their minds. A total of 20 key informant interviews were conducted.
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Pic 2.10: Key informant interviews

2.11 Summarizing and Tabulating Collected Data

Collected data were compiled, edited, and summarized. For easy modification and
refinement of information, five databases for each of the study area were prepared
in Excel format.

2.12 Quantitative Data

Preliminary quantitative methods such as percentage, weighted average, mean etc.

were used to prepare tables and graphs. Normality of quantitative data was checked
by visual observation.
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2.13 Qualitative Data Analysis

From qualitative data, simple percentages of various issues of sustainability of

agriculture were calculated. The collected qualitative data were coded before
entering to the computer.

2.14 Selection of Indicators

For the present study, agricultural sustainability was defined in terms of the six
categories – productivity, stability, efficiency, durability, compatibility and equity -
defined above. In order to assess sustainability within these categories, a suite of
indicators was selected from standard sources or developed for the particular
situation in coastal Bangladesh. Indicators are an aggregation of information that
indicates the change or determines the status of particular issues. Indicators are
most often based on quantifiable data but may also be based on qualitative data
depending on the purpose of the indicator. The indicators were developed on the
basis of being policy-relevant, practical, available in standardized measurements
and related to a reference level. Although it was difficult for every indicator to
conform to all of these requirements, it was important that they be adhered to as far
as possible. It was also important that indicators be selected according to their
ability to describe some aspect of sustainability of agriculture in its broadest sense.
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CHAPTER-3:

Study Area
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A brief description of the study areas is given in this chapter. The selected study
areas (Daceop upazila) is located in the coastal zone of Bangladesh as shown in
primary information obtained from a selected union within upazila as well as
secondary information from the upazila and broader district.
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Pic
3: Location of the study areas in Bangladesh (Source: CGIS, 2010)

3.1 Location and Area:

Dacope is located at 22.5722°N 89.5111°E . It has 25377 units of house hold and
total area 991.58 km². Dacope Upazila (khulna district) with an area of 99158 km2,
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is bounded by batiaghata upazila on the north, pashur river on the south, rampal
and mongla upazilas on the east, paikgachha and koyra upazilas on the west. Main
rivers are Pasur, Sibsa, Manki, Bhadra. The southern part of this upazila is
surrounded by Sundarban (11790.13 hectors).

PicSource: L.G.E.D

3.1.1 Administrative: Administration Dacope thana was established in 1913 and

was turned into an upazila in 1983. It consists of 10 union parishads, 26 mouzas,
107 villages. Marks of War of Liberation Mass killing site: 1 (Bazua High School
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 32
Upozila

courtyard); Monument: Smriti Amlan (in front of the upazila parisad

building).NGO activities Operationally important NGOs are Asa, BRAC, Proshika,
World Vision, Gonoshahajjo Sangstha, HEED Bangladesh, Step, Rupantar,
Prodipon.

3.1.2 Physiography: Daceop is located in the tidal floodplain of the Pasur delta
and is influenced by diurnal tidal cycles. The area is characterized by flat land and
smooth relief created by the deposition of sediment from the Pasur distribute rise.
Within the area there is a tidal river and a close network of interconnected creeks.
In general, river banks of the area are elevated about a meter or less above the
water level. Most parts of the region are less than 500 m from a tidal river or creek.
The natural drainage, other than the main river channel, is impeded by extensive
embankments and polders.

3.1.3 Climate: Like other parts of Bangladesh, this area experiences tropical
monsoon climate with a hot and rainy summer and a pronounced dry season in the
cooler months. Annual average rainfall of the area is about 1682 mm and annual
average temperature is 25.8°C. The rainy season is characterized by hot and humid
winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal during April to September, resulting in
heavy rainfall with about 80% of the total rainfall occurring in this period.
November to March is cool and dries.
3.1.4 Land and Soil Type: About 78% land of the area is classified as medium
high land. The soil is mostly grey or dark grey, non-calcareous, heavy salty clay.
There is a general pattern of grey, slightly calcareous loamy soils in the river
banks. Organic matter content is medium. Extremely acidic soils (acid sulfate
soils) occur in patches throughout the area.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 33
Upozila

3.1.5 Water Resources: The region abounds in water resources; however most of
these are rich in salt content. High salinity is also noticed in ground water under
near-surface aquifers. Hence, the main water resource is rain water.
3.1.6 Present Land Use: Transplanted ‘Aman’ rice is the principal crop during and
after the rainy season (the kharif season), a time when water salinity is low. ‘Aus’
rice and rabi (dry, winter) season crops may grow in non-saline upland areas. In
homestead areas betelnut, coconut, vegetables, local fruits can be grown. However,
most of the land is devoted to Bagda (a type of saltwater shrimp) cultivation (Field
Study, 2013).
3.1.7 Salinity: Salinity in soil and water is a common feature of the area. The
salinity is dominated by the presence of a prolonged low saline regime during the
monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Tidal waves play an important role in salinity
intrusion and drainage congestion/inundations in this area. Salinity dominates
agriculture, ecosystems and human activities.
3.1.8 Population: As of the 1991 Bangladesh census, Dacope has a population of
143131. Males constitute are 52.25% of the population, and females 47.75%. This
Upazila's eighteen up population is 78759. Dacope has an average literacy rate of
37.6% (7+ years), and the national average of 32.4% literate.
3.1.9 Livelihood: Most people of the area are involved in agriculture or related
activities either on their land or as workers for other people. Besides agriculture
some people are also involved in fishing, fish business, transport, shop keeping and
a variety of other occupations. The staple food is rice and most people are
accustomed to consuming fish and vegetables as part of their daily diet (Field
Study, 2013).
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 34
Upozila

CHAPTER-4:
Data
Analysis &
Discussion
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 35
Upozila

Data analysis was carried out in response to the objectives set out in Chapter One.
The overall goal was to compare the levels of agricultural revisiting in Daceop
study areas.

4.1 Profile of the Respondent Households

A total of 211 households were surveyed, based on interviews with one of the
senior household members; among them only 6 were female respondents. A profile
of the respondent households is presented in table. It was found that the average
age of the respondents was between 40 and 50 years.
Table 4.1: Profile of the Respondent Households

Items Study areas

Chilna Dacope Suterkhlai Bajua Tildanga
Total number of 45 60 59 22 26
respondents
Sex Male 44 100 54 100 100
Female 1 0 5 0 0
Family size (Average 6 5 5 6 7
family member)
Average age 40 41.4 49.2 47.4 42
Literacy level (%)
Illiterate(No schooling) 18 28 63 9 50
Primary schooling 24 8 10 27 15
Secondary schooling 42 38 12 41 27
Tertiary schooling (SSC 16 25 15 23 8
and HSC
equivalent and above)
Occupatio Agricultural 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
n (Primary)
al status Others 33% 48% 32% 36% 34%
(%) (Secondary)
Land holding (Ha/HH) 2.25 3.50 1.12 1.31 2.32
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 36
Upozila

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2013

Educational status of the sample households was considered under the following
categories: illiterate, completed primary schooling, high schooling and tertiary
schooling. Among respondents, illiteracy rate is highest in Suterkhlai and Tildanga.
Thirty to fifty years ago the number of primary school going students was
unusually low in rural areas of Bangladesh. As a result, the illiteracy rate remains
high among adults in many parts of the country. In Suterkhlai, the average age of
the respondents is about 50 years and illiteracy is high among them. Most of the
aged respondents did not have access to primary education. Because of this reason,
in Tildangatoo illiteracy is also high among respondents. In the case of Bajua,
although the age of the farmers is around 50 years, the illiteracy rate is lower as it
was near a large urban area and primary education started here during the British
period. The average family size of the respondent households of about 6 persons is
close to the national average of 4.4 persons. The family size has been defined as
the number of persons living together under the control of one head and taking
meals from the same kitchen. The term family includes wife, sons, unmarried
daughters, father, mother, and brothers etc. The highest family size was found in
Tildanga. Average land holdings ranged from 1.12 ha/HH in Suterkhlai to
3.50 ha/HH in Kaliganj. Land use varied from shrimp farming in the near-coast
areas of Chilna and Dacope, to field crops in Suterkhlai and Tildanga while there is
extensive use of land for both shrimp and agriculture in Bajua. All the respondents
of the study areas are doing agriculture as primary activities. In all study areas,
apart from agriculture, about one third to one half of respondents held secondary
occupations like shrimp, small business, shop keeping, transport and a variety of
services. The highest numbers of respondents involved in activities other than
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 37
Upozila

agriculture were found in Dacope and Suterkhlaihad the lowest number of

respondents in non-agricultural occupations.
4.2 Agricultural Profile of the Study Areas
Daceop: The Black Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), locally called bagda
chingri (DoF, 2005) is intensively cultivated in the tidally inundated low-lying flat
lands of Daceop. Most of the shrimp farmers include several types of fish in their
gher to reduce their risks (Field study, 2013).The cultivation methods supporting
production of bagda are mostly traditional with low inputs and low yield per
hectare (UFO, 2011). The activities of bagda shrimp cultivation start from January
and continue up to November. General characteristics of the traditional bagda
cultivation are presented in Table.

Table: 4.2 Characteristics of traditional and integrated shrimp farming in the study areas
Criteria Traditional shrimp farming Integrated prawn farming
Farming system Traditional aquaculture with Integrated aquaculture
some modified practices
Stocking density In general High (3-5 post In general Medium (2-3 post
larvae/m2) larvae/m2)
Name of the species Bagda (P. monodon) Galda (M. rosenbergii )
Feeding Mainly natural and Supplementary and natural
supplementary
Use of organic fertilizer Yes No
(cow dung)

Use of synthetic fertilize Yes No

(urea)

Use of pesticide Yes Yes

Use of antibiotic Yes Yes
Sources of post larvae Wild and hatchery Mainly hatchery, sometimes
from wild
Uses of species Native and exotic Native and exotic
Mode of water exchange Sluice gate and pump Sluice gate and pump
Source: Field study and local experts, 2013
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 38
Upozila

Ghers are enclosed by dykes that are normally low and often have holes in them
that allow easy entry of pest animals. Most ghers are connected to creeks and
waterway networks through sluice gates that allow farmers to manage the flow of
brackish tidal water. The sluice gates are reinforced concrete and often imperfectly
constructed. Normally, the water control systems are not based on local
hydrography. Usually, the ghers do not have proper inlet screens; as a result
heterogeneous species of highly predatory fish and crabs can therefore enter the
ghers. At the same time, along with tidal water entry some desirable species
including mullets, white shrimp (Penaeus indicus) and brown shrimp
(Metapenaeus monoceros), also enter the pond freely (Field study, 2011). Most
farmers use dry cow dung to grow algae in the gher while some use fish feed made
of rice bran, wheat bran and fish meal. The algae serve as a food supply for both
fish and bagda. While shrimp farming has the potential to be very lucrative, in
recent years white spot syndrome disease has been causing mass mortality of
bagda in this part of Bangladesh. White spot syndrome is a viral infection of
shrimp. The disease is highly lethal and contagious, killing shrimps quickly.
Outbreaks of this disease can wipe out the entire populations of a gher within a few
days. According to farmers and upazila fisheries officers there is no available
treatment for this disease. However, farmers occasionally use “Aqua Fresh” to
prevent the disease. According to the farmers it cleans
gher water. Upazila fisheries officers opined that, it is a natural and safe solution
for prevention and control of ammonia in aqua culture ponds. In Shyamnagar,
farmers grow rice in relatively higher areas and lands that are protected by
secondary embankments or roads. The rice-growing areas are never more than 1 m
above sea level and are therefore susceptible to flooding from river water during
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 39
Upozila

periods of heavy rain, or by sea water as a consequence of tidal surges or typhoons.

Where rice is grown, two crops are possible. Aman rice is grown in the period from
July to December while boro rice follows in the period from December to April. In
general, farmers in Daceop do not cultivate any crops in rabi season. Rabi season
starts from November and extends up to the end of March. The season is
characterized by dry sunny weather, warm at the beginning and end but cool in
throughout the year. The general seasonal characteristics, agricultural activities,
transect of agricultural system and practices of Daceop Upozila are shown in
Table.

Table: 4.3General seasonal calendar of the study areas

Table 4.4: Agricultural activities of Dacope Upazila based on general crop calendar
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 40
Upozila

Figure 4.5: Large-scale transect of agricultural system of Dacope Upazila Source: Field study,
2013
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 41
Upozila

Profile Before 1990

4.6 Occupation
Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Farmer 150
02 Businessman 50
03 Job Holder 8
04 Others 3
Total 211
Table4.6: Occupation before 1990

Above this table we see that before 1990 the quantity of farmers are high more
than others occupation. We see the table farmers quantity is 150, businessman is
50, and job holder is 8 and others occupation people is 3. Hence, we can say easily
that before 1990 agriculture is better occupation in costal regional people.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 42
Upozila

Occupation

160
140
120

100
80

60
40

20
0
Farmer Businessman Job Holder Others

Fig 4.6: Occupation before 1990

Above this fig we see the before 1990 the costal regional people specially in
Daceop most of them are involved in agriculture. Hence, at that movement most of
them were engaged in agriculture. So, above this fig farmers quantity is more than
others occupation.
4.7 Position of Farmer

Sl. No Name Quantity

01 Owner of the land 100
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 43
Upozila

02 Landless 100
03 Others 11
Total 211
Table4.7: Position of Farmer

Position of Farmer

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Owner of the land Landless Others

Fig4.7: Position of Farmer

Above this table and fig shows owner of land quantity. We can easily identify
before 1990 in Dacope Upazila people about 50% are owner their land. About
another 50% people are not owner the land. They work another land or produce
crops a contractual with the owner.
4.8 Using Farmland
Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Agriculture 160
02 Fishes 30
03 Vegetable/Robi crops 10
04 Others 11
Total 211
Table4.8: Using Farmland
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 44
Upozila

Using Farmland

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Agriculture Fishes Vegetable/Robi crops Others

Fig 4.8: Using Farmland

Above these fig and table we see the using the farmland. Which types is more use
that’s represent in these fig and table. In this table and fig we see that most of the
farmer uses their farmland as cultivate agriculture. Before 1990 most of the
farmers of Daceop Upozila are use their land to cultivate agriculture. But at that
time also use their land to cultivate fishers, vegetable/robi crops and others.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 45
Upozila

4.9 Economic condition

Sl. No Income (yearly) Tk. Quantity

01 5000-10,000 3
02 11,000-20,000 150
03 21,000-30,000 30
04 31,000-40,000 20
05 41,000(+) 8
Table4.9: Economic condition

Above this table and below the fig shows the economic condition in Daceop
Upozila before the 1990. Above this table and below the fig we see that the total
survived people 150 person yearly income more than 11,000-20,000. Some are
more than 41,000+ money income per year. It is flow that before 1990 low income
people are so little. Hence we can say that, before 1990 every family became lead
their life solvency.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 46
Upozila

Economic condition

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
5000-10,000 11,000-20,000 21,000-30,000 31,000-40,000 41,000(+)
F
ig4.9: Economic condition

4.10 Depending position

Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Self-depend 200
02 Depends on others 11
Total 211
Table4.10: Depending position

In this table shows that before 1990 most of the people in Daceop Upozila became
self-depended. A little quantity of people is depended on others. So, we can say
that before 1990 the economic condition became good.

4.11 Producing crops

 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 47
Upozila

Sl. No Name Every year (By Kg.)

01 Rice 4000
02 Vegetable 150
03 Robi crpos 100
04 Others 50
Total 4300
Table4.11: Producing crops

Producing crops

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Rice Vegetable Robi crpos Others

Fig 4.11: Producing crops

Above this table and fig shows which types of things produce in Dacope Upazila
people. In these table and fig shows that before 1990 most of the famer used their
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 48
Upozila

land to produce rice. Beside rice they also produce vegetable, robi crops and
others.
4.12 Domestic animals (Every Family)
Sl. No Name Quantity (pic)
01 Cow 5
02 Goat 8
03 Hen+ Duck 15
04 Others 5
Table 4.12: Domestic animals (Every Family)

Domestic animals (Every Family)

16

14

12

10

0
Cow Goat Hen+ Duck Others

Fig 4.12: Domestic animals (Every Family)

Above these fig and table shows the domestic animals condition before 1990. In
these fig and table prove that in the previous time in Daceop Upozila s every
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 49
Upozila

family have domestic animals. All domestic animals’ hen and duck are more than
other animals. In this study area cow and goat also available.

Profile 1990-2006

4.13 Occupation
Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Farmer 110
02 Businessman 70
03 Job Holder 15
04 Others 16
Total 211
Table 4.13: Occupation
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 50
Upozila

Occupation
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Farmer Businessman Job Holder Others

Fig 4.13: Occupation

During 1990-2006, above these table and fig shows that the occupation becomes
change in Dacope Upazila. During 1990, most of members of this zone depended
on agriculture. But 1990-2006 theses are diverted on business and other work.
Specially shrimp cultivation.

4.14 Position of Farmer

Sl. No Name Quantity

01 Owner of the land 50
02 Landless 150
03 Others 11
Total 211
Table 4.14: Position of Farmer
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 51
Upozila

Position of Farmer

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Owner of the land Landless Others

Fig 4.14: Position of Farmer

Above this table and fig shows owner of land quantity. We can easily identify
before 1990-2006 in Dacope Upazilas people about 20% are owner their land.
About another 80% people are not owner the land. They work another land or
produce crops a contractual with the owner.

4.15 Using Farmland

Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Agriculture 60
02 Fishes 130
03 Vegetable/Robi crops 10
04 Others 11
Total 211
Table 4.15: Using Farmland
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 52
Upozila

Using Farmland
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Agriculture Fishes Vegetable/Robi crops Others

Fig 4.15: Using Farmland

Above these fig and table we see the using the farmland. Which types is more use
that’s represent in these fig and table. In this table and fig we see that most of the
farmer uses their farmland cultivate as fisheries. Before 1990-2006 most of the
farmers of Dacope Upazila are use their land to cultivate agriculture. But at that
time also use their land to cultivate fishers, vegetable/robi crops and others.

4.16 Economic condition

 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 53
Upozila

Sl. No Income (yearly) Tk. Quantity

01 5000-10,000 100
02 11,000-20,000 50
03 21,000-30,000 30
04 31,000-40,000 20
05 41,000(+) 11
Table 4.16: Economic condition

Economic condition
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
5000-10,000 11,000-20,000 21,000-30,000 31,000-40,000 41,000(+)

Fig 4.16: Economic condition

Above this table and below the fig shows the economic condition in Dacope
Upazila 1990-2006. Above this table and below the fig we see that the total
survived people 30 person yearly income more than 11,000-20,000. Some are more
than 41,000+ money income per year. It is flow that 1990-2006 low income people
are so high. Hence we can say that, 1990-2006 every family became lead their life
poverty.
4.17 Depending position

Sl. No Name Quantity

 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 54
Upozila

01 Self-depend 120
02 Depends on others 91
Total 211
Table 4.17: Depending position

Cass study

I am Bimol chandro .My father name is Minal chandro. I live here on my childhood.
In the 1990 I saw the condition in our cultivate land. During that time most of the
land used shrimp cultivation. During this time saline water enter into the cultivate
land. In this reason, its effects on other plants. Hence, this movement we stop the
shrimp cultivation and started crops cultivation.

4.18 Producing crops

Sl. No Name Every year (By Kg.)

01 Rice 2500
02 Shrimp 2000
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 55
Upozila

03 Robi crpos 100

04 Others 50
Total 4650
Table 4.18: Producing crops

Producing crops
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Rice Shrimp Robi crpos Others

Fig 4.18: Producing crops

Above this table and fig shows which types of things produce in Dacope Upazila
people. In these table and fig shows that 1990-2006 most of the famer used their
land to produce rice. But at a time they also produce shrimp more than previous
time.
4.19 Domestic animals (Every Family)
Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Cow 2
02 Goat 3
03 Hen+ Duck 10
04 Others 5
Table 4.19: Domestic animals (Every Family)
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 56
Upozila

Domestic animals (Every Family)

12

10

0
Cow Goat Hen+ Duck Others

Fig 4.19: Domestic animals (Every Family)

Above these fig and table shows the domestic animals condition 1990-2006. In
these fig and table prove that in the 1990-2006 in Dacope Upazila s every family
have domestic animals. But during this time domestic animals become decries
before the previous time. All domestic animals’ hen and duck are more than other
animals. In this study area cow and goat also available.
Profile At present
4.20 Occupation

Sl. No Name Quantity

01 Farmer 130
02 Businessman 50
03 Job Holder 20
04 Others 11
Total 211
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 57
Upozila

Table 4.20: Occupation

Occupation
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Farmer Businessman Job Holder Others

Fig 4.20: Occupation

Above this table and table we see that at present quantity of farmers are high more
than others occupation. We see the table farmers quantity is 130, businessman is
50, and job holder is 20 and others occupation people is 11. Hence, we can say
easily that at present agriculture is better occupation in costal regional people.

4.21 Position of Farmer

Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Owner of the land 80
02 Landless 120
03 Others 11
Total 211
Table 4.21: Position of Farmer
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 58
Upozila

Position of Farmer
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Owner of the land Landless Others

Fig 4.21: Position of Farmer

Above this table and fig shows owner of land quantity. We can easily identify at
present in Dacope Upazila people about 60% are owner their land. About another
40% people are not owner the land. They work another land or produce crops a
contractual with the owner.

4.22 Using Farmland

Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Agriculture 60
02 Fishes 130
03 Vegetable/Robi crops 10
04 Others 11
Total 211
Table 4.22: Using Farmland
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 59
Upozila

Using Farmland
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Agriculture Fishes Vegetable/Robi crops Others

Fig 4.22: Using Farmland

Above these fig and table we see the using the farmland. Which types is more use
that’s represent in these fig and table. In this table and fig we see that most of the
farmer uses their farmland cultivate as fisheries. But at present farmers of Dacope
Upazila are use their land to cultivate agriculture. But at present time also use their
land to cultivate fishers, vegetable/robi crops and others.

4.23 Economic condition

Sl. No Income (yearly) Tk. Quantity
01 5000-10,000 15
02 11,000-20,000 130
03 21,000-30,000 30
04 31,000-40,000 21
05 41,000(+) 15
Table 4.23: Economic condition
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 60
Upozila

Economic condition
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
5000-10,000 11,000-20,000 21,000-30,000 31,000-40,000 41,000(+)

Fig 4.23: Economic condition

Above this table and below the fig shows the economic condition at present in
Dacope Upazila. Above this table and below the fig we see that the total survived
people 30 person yearly income more than 11,000-20,000. Some are more than
41,000+ money income per year. It is flow that at present low income people are
increase. Hence we can say that, at present every family became lead their life
batter than previous time.
4.25 Depending position
Sl. No Name Quantity
01 Self-depend 150
02 Depends on others 61
Total 211
Table 4.25: Depending position

Cass Study
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 61
Upozila

4.26 Producing crops

Sl. No Name Every year (By Kg.)

01 Rice 2500
02 Shrimp 1500
03 Robi crpos 100
04 Others 50
Total 4150
Table 4.26: Producing crops
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 62
Upozila

Producing crops
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Rice Shrimp Robi crpos Others
Fi
g 4.26: Producing crops
Above this table and fig shows which types of things produce in Dacope Upazila
people. In these table and fig shows that at present most of the famer used their
land to produce rice. But at a time they also produce shrimp more and other crops.

4.27 Domestic animals (Every Family)

Sl. No Name Quantity

01 Cow 4
02 Goat 6
03 Hen+ Duck 12
04 Others 7
Table 4.27: Domestic animals (Every Family)
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 63
Upozila

Domestic animals (Every Family)

14

12

10

0
Cow Goat Hen+ Duck Others

Fig 4.27: Domestic animals (Every Family)

Above these fig and table shows at present domestic animals condition. In these fig
and table prove that in Dacope Upazila s every family have domestic animals. But
during the cultivation shrimp period using saline water domestic animals become
decries before the previous time. All domestic animals’ hen and duck are more
than other animals. In this study area cow and goat also available.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 64
Upozila

CHAPTER-5:
Conclusion &
Recommendations

“What are the revisiting agricultural systems that are practiced for pursuing
livelihoods, especially in comparison with different farming systems that are
followed in different parts of the coastal areas? This can be answered by
measuring the revisiting agricultural practices”.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 65
Upozila

This was the research question I set out to answer and the thesis has described what
has been learned in working to this end.
Agricultural revisiting was assessed and compared by measuring indicators of
productivity, stability, efficiency, durability, compatibility and equity and
aggregating them using Multi Component Decision Analysis (MCDA)
methodology in Daceop Upozila within the Bangladesh coastal region. Measuring
agricultural revisiting in this way produces a useful summary of sustainability
issues and also provides some vital learning experiences. Choosing indicators to
satisfy assessment within the six categories is an iterative process where it is
necessary to make use of past experience, expert opinion and advice from local
farmers and their families, all things being considered within the requirement of
having indicators that can be readily measured in the field or determined from
secondary information. Combining multiple pieces of diverse types of data
expressed in the indicators was another challenge and it was found that MCDA
could be a useful tool for this purpose.
In the end, a holistic and interdisciplinary approach was developed for assessing
and comparing the revisiting level of agricultural systems and it has the potential to
become useful as a framework for future analyses of sustainability.
There were challenges in doing this work and, in some cases; these challenges
meant that there are limitations in what could be done. To investigate
sustainability, a large amount of primary and secondary data was collected from
the study areas. The coastal region of Bangladesh covers a vast area and the
agricultural practices of the region vary from site to site. Due to time constraints
and lack of appropriate transportation and logistics support we could not spend as
much time as we wished in order to observe all the agricultural systems within the
five sites.
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 66
Upozila

Furthermore, during the field survey, we found that some respondents appeared to
be afraid and reluctant to interact freely with the investigators. In focus group
discussions, all participants were not active in participation. This made it difficult
to collect all the information we required. Also, due to unfriendly weather, the law
and order and political situations, a more detailed investigation could not be done
in study areas. Secondary data collection was very time consuming and it was
frequently difficult to obtain data from government agencies due to complex rules
and regulations.
Finally, only a few studies have touched on issues of assessment of sustainability
in the coastal agriculture of Bangladesh. As a result, there is limited literature to
enrich the analysis in this study by reviewing other findings.
Within these limitations, the information obtained from the random samples
chosen, from focus groups, from discussions with experts and from government
documents taken together provides a realistic picture of many of the commonly
used practices at each location.
Agricultural development in the saline coastal belt of Bangladesh is constrained by
various physical, chemical and social factors. Water and soil salinity are among the
most dominant limiting factors in the region, especially during the dry season. Soil
salinity affects many crops including rice, the most important, at different levels
and at critical stages of growth. As a consequence, yields can be reduced and in
severe cases total yield is lost. The presence of salinity in surface and ground water
in different areas near the coast is another factor affecting crop production. In spite
of these difficulties, in some places this research has shown that an integrated
agricultural management system involving multiple crops as well as aquaculture is
doing well in the coastal areas. This study shows that the integrated systems are
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productive and efficient and, in general, the level of sustainability in these areas is
the highest of all systems that were studied.
The findings of this research will be transmitted to local authorities in Bangladesh
with the hope that they will enable agricultural policy making departments to plan
management actions for revisiting agricultural development in the coastal regions.
Some of the recommendations that arise from this study are:
1. Based on the present study, it is recommended that an indicator-based analysis
be one method by which the sustainability level of different agricultural systems be
assessed. The information thus gained can be used as one factor for determining
coastal agricultural policy of Bangladesh.
2. The coastal population of Bangladesh is dependent on agriculture for income
and employment. Therefore, government should emphasize introducing
agricultural practices that ensure productivity and employment.
3. Comprehensive investigation is needed to understand the present agricultural
practices and to bring diversification in the agricultural system for reducing yield
gaps.
4. There is a need to design and enforce a policy and institutional framework for
natural resources management and conservation to support agricultural growth in
the coastal areas of Bangladesh.
5. Improving physical and social infrastructure - roads, electricity, communication,
water and sanitation, health and education – in rural areas is fundamental for
sustainable development in agriculture.
6. Proper operation of embankments should be ensured for protecting agriculture
from saline water and storm surges.
7. Rain water should be stored in the saline-affected water areas to minimize the
salinity effect of the surface water during the dry season.
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8. Introduction of integrated agricultural system by storing rain water in saline

affected areas may be a news strategy to cope with emerging adverse situations.
9. Government should formulate a project to promote the feasibility of integrated
agricultural system in the salinity affected areas of Bangladesh to ensure the
sustainability of coastal agriculture.

References

Ahmad, M. (2003). Coastal livelihood: situation and context. Working paper

WP015. Program Development Office for Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Plan Project, Water Resources Planning Organization. Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp.1-30
 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 69
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Alam, M.S., Shamsuddin, S.D. and Sikder, S. (1990) Application of remote

sensing for monitoring shrimp culture development in a coastal mangrove
ecosystem in Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the Twentythird International
Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 18–25 April 1990, Bangkok,
Thailand, pp. 109–119.

Alam, S.M.N. and Phillips M.J. (2004). Coastal shrimp aquaculture systems in
southwestern Bangladesh. Asian Fisheries Science, 17, pp.175–189.

Ali, A.M.S. (2004). Technological change in agriculture and land degradation in

Bangladesh: a case study. Land Degradation & Development, 15(3), pp. 283-298.

Ali, M.L. (2002). An integrated approach for the improvement of flood control and
drainage schemes in the coastal belt of Bangladesh. Delft, Wageningen University
and International nstitute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental
Engineering. (Ph.D. thesis). pp.1-10
Available at: http://www.icimod.org/?opg=949&q=drr_document&document=480.
[Accessed 26 February 1012]
Ali, S.M.A. (2006). Rice to shrimp: Land use/land cover changes and soil
degradation in southwestern Bangladesh. Land Use Policy. Elsevier, 23(4), pp.
421-435.
Barnett, V., Payne, R. and Steiner, R. (eds). (1995). Agricultural sustainability:
economic, environmental, and statistical considerations. London: John Wiley and
Sons Ltd.
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BBSa (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). (2001). Population census -

2001.Community series, Zila: Shatkhria. Planning Davison, Ministry of Planning.
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
BBSb (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). (2001). Population census-
2001.Community series, Zila: Khulna. Planning Davison, Ministry of Planning.
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
DoF (Department of Fisheries). (2005). Aquaculture and management technology
innovation and development. National Fish Fortnight Souvenir, 2052. Department
of fisheries. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2007). Water profile of Bangladesh".
In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.:
Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the
Environment).
Available http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_Bangladesh [Accessed
25 February 2012]

GoB(Government of Bangladesh) and UNDP Bangladesh. (2009). Policy study on

the probable impacts of climate change on poverty and economic growth and the
options of coping with adverse effect of climate change in Bangladesh. General
Economic Division, Planning Commission, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
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WARPO (Water Resources Planning Organization). (2006). Coastal Development

Strategy.Ministry of Water Resources. Government of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh.

Appendix-Tables
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Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 73
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 Agriculture revisiting in Daceop 74
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Questionnaire

Questionnaire on
Revisiting agricultural in Daceop Upozila.

Part-1: General information

1.1 Code:
1.2 Age:
1.3 Address:
Village: Union: Upazila: District:
1.4 Sex: Female Male
1.5 Marital status: Unmarried Married Widow Widower
1.6 Educational level of the respondent:
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1.7 Number of family member:

1.8 Structure of the family: Joint Family Single family

1.9 Age of the children:

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1.12 Sources of drinking, household use and irrigation water:

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1.13 Land area of homestead (in local unit1):

1.14 Area of agriculture land (in local unit):

1.15 Number of Ghare:

1.16 Area of Ghare:

1.17 Total family income (in a year):

1.18 What is the sharing mechanism of agriculture productions?

Part-2: Information of crop production

Crops Shrimp Others
Before 1990
1990-2006
At present
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Pic: Entering saline water

Pic: Effects on soil & trees.

Pic: At present condition.