9 Main Ingredients used in Making Bread

The ingredients are:

1. Flour
2. Water
3. Yeast
4. Salt
5. Sugar
6. Milk
7. Egg
8. Oil/Fat
9. Bread Improvers.

Ingredient # 1. Flour:

It is the main ingredient used in making breads. Usually strong flours

are used in bread making. Wholewheat flours have lesser concentration of
gluten as the bran content is increased. This causes a weaker structure in the
bread. Since the bran particles are slightly abrasive, they cut the gluten fibres
resulting in a loaf with a smaller crumb.

The presence of the bran particles also allows a higher moisture

absorption, resulting in a fermentation time. When the germ is present in the
flour there is a higher enzyme activity, as a result of which the gluten develops
faster and the breads are made with a shorter fermentation time.

Wheat flour – Most common flour used in bread making.

- It contains high amounts of proteins that when mixed with
liquids, form gluten.

Gluten - a necessary component in yeast- leavened breads, is a rubbery

substance that gives structure and elasticity to dough.
- The amount of gluten in the flour will affect the volume and
tenderness of your breads.
- When your yeast dough is kneaded, the gluten forms a
structured network that is responsible for capturing the gases
produced by the yeast, allowing the dough and expand during
rising.
 Choosing the correct flour is important for making a good bread. Flour
rising isn’t just flour. There are two basic wheat grown in North America, hard
and soft.

Hard wheat - Has higher level of protein, making it the wheat of choice
for most yeast dough.

Soft wheat - Has lower level of protein and is best suited for making
pastries and cakes.

TYPES of FLOUR

There are 2 types of flour:

1. White flours are milled from the endosperm or inner part of the wheat
kernel.
 Bread Flour - (a.k.a. 1st Class) is the preferred flour for
yeast-leavened products. It is made from hard wheat and
contains high amounts of the gluten-forming proteins.
 All-purpose Flour – is a blended hard and soft wheat and
contains lower amounts of the proteins that form gluten. It is
the most versatile of all the wheat flours and can be used for
cookies, cakes and pies. Yeast-leavened breads made with
all-purpose flour tend to be smaller and compact.

Some brands of all-purpose flour contain higher

amount of protein that would make them comparable to
bread flour quality. Protein levels of around 12- 14% are
sufficient for yeast-leavened breads.

Note: APF can also modified as Cake Flour – in 1 cup of

Apf remove 2 tablespoon of Apf and replace it with 2
tablespoon of Cornstarch.

2. Whole grain flours are milled from the entire wheat kernel, which
includes the bran and germ.
  Yeast breads bake with the whole grain flours (like whole wheat)
are more compact and lower in volume than those made from
white flour.
 The whole grain wheat flours form less gluten and are usually
combined with bread flour to insure good volume and
appearance in breads. You can substitute up to 50% of bread
flour with the whole grain flour. Start substituting in whole
grain flours with a lower percentage, working your way up as
you make more breads. You will need to adjust your recipe, so
take notes along the way.
 Whole grain wheat flours can be used alone, however, the
loaves are heavier and denser but have an excellent flavor.
 To compensate for the low bread volumes, other ingredients like
eggs and cottage cheese can be added to help make the dough
lighter, rise higher and have a better texture and taste.

Other flours used in bread making

3. Rye flours are also used frequently in breads. Rye flours form less gluten
than wheat flours, and are usually combined with a substantially larger
amount of bread flour on order for the bread to rise . Rye flours are natural
flours with no additives.

4. Self- rising flour is an All purpose flour that has baking soda and salt
added. It is used for dumplings, biscuits and pancakes. Self-rising flour is
never used in yeast breads.

5. Nonwheat flour also known as composite flours, are made from grains,
beans or seeds, corn, soybeans, rice, oats, buckwheat, potatoes and other
items. These composite flours are ideal for those with a sensitivity to gluten or
celiacs who are unable to eat flour.

 These flours add unique flavor, color and texture to breads generally
associated with old fashioned baking.
Flour consist of the following elements on average:
 Starch 64 – 71%
 Protein 9 – 14%
 Sugar 2 – 4 %
 Moisture 11 – 15%
 Fat 1 – 2%
 Enzymes naturally occurring in wheat flour
Starch 64% - 71% provides main body structure throughgelatinisation – bursts
(through heat) and swell.

Starch is broken down by enzymes into simple sugars, which are to be used by
yeast as food.

Proteins soluble: 9 – 14%

Gluten is formed when insoluble proteins (Glutenin and Gliadin) are hydrated
with moisture, normally water.

The combination of these 2 proteins allows the flour to take up water andhold
the moisture within the gluten structure.

 When this gluten is developed it becomes tough and elastic allowing bread
dough to expand and hold gas produced during fermentation.

Glutenin – gives strength

Gliadin – provides elasticity

Soluble proteins: 1% - 2% Albumin, globulin and Protease

Ingredient # 2. Water:

Water is the most commonly used liquid in bread making. It moistens

the flour and helps in forming the dough. It also aids in the baking process.
Water performs the following three main functions in the bread dough.

1. Helps hydrate and moisten the insoluble proteins.

2. Disperses the yeast amongst the entire dough.
3. Binds the flour and other ingredients into a dough.

It is observed that the water content in the dough greatly affects the rate
of fermentation. The speed of fermentation is greater in ferment and dough
process as compared to sponge and dough process, which have an increasing
level of hydration.

As the fermentation time increases it becomes essential to reduce the

water content to effect a higher ripening of the dough. The amount of water
present will also greatly affect the texture of the final dough obtained. Table
19.1 shows the uses of different types of dough.

Uses of Different Types of Dough

Hard water has a higher alkalinity. As yeast works best in an acidic

medium, fermentation can be slower in the initial stages if hard water is used.
However as the fermentation proceeds the acids produced will neutralize this
alkalinity and then the fermentation will continue at a brisk pace. Also, the
alkalinity and the mineral salts will tighten the gluten and thus the dough will
be firmer.

Very hard water also has magnesium sulphate which has a retarding
action on the yeast. Breads can be made with both hard and soft water,
provided the physical adjustments are made. When the dough is needed for
longer duration of time, the temperature in the dough increases due to friction.

This has to be watched carefully as the temperature of the dough should

not go beyond 25°C for the yeast to start working. In such cases a baker often
uses ice to make the dough. Ice keeps the fermentation activity of yeast at an
ideal rate for gluten ripening.

The quantity used will vary depending upon the time of kneading of the
dough or the friction factor, and the dough temperature required. Ice used
must be in the form of flaked ice so that it is evenly distributed in the bread
dough and causes an even cooling of the dough. It can be safely said that 5 kg
of ice will be equivalent to 4 litres of water.

Ingredient # 3. Yeast:
 Yeast is a single cell microorganism which causes the leavening in the
dough. It converts the natural sugar in the flour into tiny bubbles of carbon
dioxide that are trapped in the dough. During baking these bubbles expand to
give the texture and lightness to the dough.

Yeast is available in two forms—dry and compressed. The ideal

temperature for yeast to act is 25°C. The primary function of yeast is to change
sugar into carbon dioxide so that the dough is aerated.

When dispersed in water with yeast food, the yeast exudes an enzyme
that changes sucrose into dextrose, which is then absorbed by the yeast cell.
Inside the cell, this is broken down into carbon dioxide and other by-products.
Yeast also has enzymes which change protein into simpler compounds which
can pass through the yeast cell membrane.

Yeast works best within a temperature range of 25 to 40°C. Above this,

fermentation becomes rapid but the yeast gets weaker successively and is
finally killed at 70°C. At this temperature, yeast is completely retarded though
it is not damaged. Yeast can never dissolve completely in water, though it is
just dispersed well into it. One could use a whisk to effectively distribute.

Compressed yeast must be cold to touch and must possess a creamy

colour breaking with a clean fracture. If it is light in colour, and is dry, warm,
with a pungent odour, it is in poor condition and the quality of bread might not
be good. If it is dark brown in colour with a soft sticky consistency and an
unpleasant odour, it is unsuitable for use.

YEAST FUNCTION

1. Rising the dough – yeast fermentation makes carbon dioxide a gas

responsible for stretching and expanding the dough like a balloon.
2. Dough development – other compounds formed during yeast
fermentation make the flour stronger so it can capture and hold the
carbon dioxide gas that the yeast produces.
3. Flavor, aroma texture – yeast fermentation also these wonderful
sensory and physical attributes that you expect from yeast – raised
products.

INGREDIENTS SUBSTITUTIONS FOR BREAD MAKING

Ingredients Amount Substitution
Active dry yeast 2 ¼ teaspoons 1 package active dry yeast
2 ¼ teaspoons instant yeast
2/3 ounce (0.6oz) cake yeast
Bread flour 1 cup 1 cup + 1 teaspoon all – purpose
flour
1 cup whole wheat flour
1 cup stone ground flour
1 cup graham flour
1 ¼ cups spelt flour
Salt 1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon sea salt, finely ground
1 teaspoon potassium chloride
Sugar 1 tablespoon 2 teaspoons corn syrup
2 teaspoons honey
2 teaspoons maple syrup
2 teaspoons molasses
1 tablespoon packed dark brown
sugar
1 tablespoon packed light brown
sugar
2 tablespoons sifted powdered sugar
Vegetable oil 1 tablespoon 1 tablespoon butter
1 tablespoon canola oil
1 tablespoon corn oil
1 tablespoon cottonseed oil
1 tablespoon margarine, no water
variety
1 tablespoon olive oil
1 tablespoon peanut oil
1 ½ teaspoon prune puree
1 tablespoon safflower oil
1 tablespoon sunflower oil
Water 1 cup 1 cup buttermilk
¼ cup dry buttermilk + 1 cup water
2 large eggs + water to measure
1 cup ½ cup evaporated milk + ½
cup water
¼ cup fruit juice + ¼ cup water
1 cup milk
1/3 cup powdered milk + 1 cup
water
1 cup potato water
¼ cup vegetable juice + ¼ cup water
1 cup yogurt
Buttermilk 1 cup` 1 cup milk + 1 tbsp lemon juice or
 vinegar
¼ cup milk + ¾ cup plain yogurt
1 cup milk + 1 ¾ teaspoon cream of
tartar
*If using bread machine, reduce instant yeast to 1 ½ teaspoons

Ingredient # 4. Salt:

The main function of salt is to control the action of yeast as it slows down the
fermentation process. It should be mixed with flour for best results. It also
provides flavour to the bread. It also affects the quality of the crumb, crust,
and colour of the baked product.

So salt mainly performs the following functions:

1. Imparts flavour;
2. Gives stability to gluten;
3. Controls the rate of fermentation;
4. Retains and of moisture; and
5. Affects the crust colour and crumb, due to control on the rate of
fermentation.

More salt or less salt will adversely affect the final product as shown in Table
19.2.

Ingredient # 5. Sugar:

The main function of sugar is to act as food for yeast. It helps in

developing flavour and colour. Sugar is the primary food that the yeast feeds on
to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. With the exception of lactose, yeast can
break down all the other sugars present in the dough, either naturally in the
flour or as an addition of sugar, mainly sucrose or sometimes, maltose.

Flour naturally contains about two and a half to three per cent of sugar
in the form of sucrose and maltose. This is enough for the yeast in the initial
parts of the fermentation. However in the final proof when maximum of the
sugar is required to be broken down for an optimum rise, the natural sugars
are exhausted and the addition of sucrose or maltose is required. Like salt, too
much sugar or less sugar will impact the dough texture (refer to Table 19.3).

Impact of Sugar:

Sugar has a solvent effect on gluten and this greatly affects the quality of
the crumb in bread loaves. To counteract this, a mineral improver is used and
excess salt is used as salt has a stabilizing effect on the gluten.

Sugar has many roles to play in dough.

Few of these are as follows:

1. Sugar is the primary food for the yeast.

2. It helps improve the crust colour.
3. Sugar also acts as preservative and this behaves as an anti-staling
agent.
4. Some sugars act as bread improvers.
5. Sugar helps the bread to retain moisture, thereby keeping the bread
moist.
6. Some sugars impart flavours, for example, treacle, honey, and
demerara sugar.
Ingredient # 6. Milk:

It makes the bread whiter and softer, and provides moisture and a
distinct flavour. Milk also has a physical effect on bread in the form of the
tightening effect of gluten by the action of ‘casein’ or the milk protein. However
boiling or pasteurization neutralizes the effect to a great extent.

Lactose or milk sugar is the only sugar which cannot be fermented by

yeast and hence it remains in the dough right till the end, resulting in a good
crust colour. Milk is generally used in powdered and skimmed form and hence
the amount of water taken up in the dough is slightly more, though not
considerably.

Ingredient # 7. Egg:

Eggs are used for richness and to give lightness and colour. Eggs are
again rich in protein and hence will tighten the gluten strands, but this effect
gets balanced, as the fat in a yolk helps to soften the gluten as well. The use of
eggs will yield softer bread. In many types of bread where a hard structure is
required like hard rolls, one does not use eggs in the recipe.

Ingredient # 8. Oil/Fat:

It is used to provide flavour and softness to the texture. Different kinds of

fats are used for different breads such as olive oil for focacia (Italian bread).
Fats have a physical effect on breads rather than any chemical reaction. Fat
being a shortening agent reduces the toughness of the gluten and mellows the
final product. Fat also has lubricating effect on the fine gluten strands giving
extra volume to the final product.

These strands begin to slip over each other and thus affect the final quality. As
the amount of fat increases, the fermentation rate decreases. This is because
the fat will form a thin layer on the yeast cell membrane hindering the release
and the absorption of the materials. Thus yeast quantity is slightly increased.

Effects of Fat:

The effects of using fat are as follows:

1. It increases the nutritious value of the bread.

 2. It reduces elasticity, softens the crust and the crumb.
3. It helps retain moisture in the baked product, thereby keeping it
moist.
4. It increases volume if used extensively.
5. Fats such as butter and lard give flavour to the product.
6. If used in large amounts, it retards fermentation.

Ingredient # 9. Bread Improvers:

Flour is of variable quality and hence it becomes necessary at times to

add bread improvers to the dough to bring the final product to a set standard.
Bread improvers may be divided into three main categories.

These include:

1. Those of mineral nature, used by the miller.

2. Those of organic nature, mainly enriching agents.
3. Those of the mineral and organic categories which are also foods for
yeast. Mineral improvers are popular because they increase the yield of the
bread by necessitating the use of extra water. Some of the mineral improvers
have a slight drying effect on the crumb.

10 Main Steps Involved in Bread Making

1. Collecting the Mise en Place

2. Mixing of the Ingredients
3. Proving
4. Knock Back
5. Dividing and Scaling
6. Shaping/Panning
7. Final Proving
8. Scoring
9. Baking
10. Cooling the Baked Bread

Step # 1. Collecting the Mise en Place:

The most important thing required in any pastry operations is to collect
your mise en place. This will allow you to do things in a planned manner and
the product also will come out of the desired quality. Weigh all the ingredients
as per the recipe and make sure the ingredients are at the required
temperature. If the recipe calls for ice water, then use ice water.

Substituting cold water from tap will not give the desired results. Weigh
using a digital scale, as accuracy of ingredients is very important in pastry. Sift
the flour to remove any impurities.

Test the freshness of yeast by checking the following:

1. It should have a fresh smell.

2. It should be firm and should crumble easily.
3. The yeast shown be of ‘fawn’ colour.
4. It should become liquid if creamed with little sugar.
5. The temperature of the yeast should be in the range of 5°C.

Select and prepare the bread tins. Always use thick and heavy pans for
baking bread as they can withstand the high temperatures of the oven, without
getting deformed with the heat. Shapes of bread rely on the mould used.
Grease the mould with oil properly, to avoid the baked bread sticking to the
mould.

Make sure that the temperature of the oven is at required degree as the
temperature of the baking is very crucial and would change with different types
of breads.

Step # 2. Mixing of the Ingredients:

Mixing of the ingredients involves much more than just mixing
everything together to form a dough. There are many methods in which bread
can be mixed or kneaded and we shall discuss them individually as they form
the basis of bread making.

Broadly these mixing methods are classified under three headings such as:

1. Straight dough method

2. Ferment/sponge method
3. Salt delayed method
1. Straight Dough Method:
This is one of the most popular methods used in bread production and
as the name suggests, is simple and straight forward. The fermentation time
can vary between 30 minutes to 14 hours. The time of fermentation can be
controlled by the moisture content, yeast content, and the salt content.
Wholewheat breads are made with one hour of fermentation as the doughs
absorb more water, than in white flour.

The time of the fermentation can also vary with the type of ingredients.
Very strong gluten flour will require a long fermentation time to help in the
softening and mellowing of the gluten. However, a wholewheat bread or germ
bread will require a shorter fermentation time due to the high enzyme activity
in the germ of the wheat grain, and the higher water content in the dough.

The shortest method is the ‘no time dough method’ which call for a high
percentage of yeast (two and a half per cent) and the dough is directly made,
scaled, and moulded. This is not a very good method of bread making and
must be resorted only in dire circumstances.

This method is not very efficient as it has certain limitations such as:

1. There is not enough time for the gluten to ripen or mellow down and
the bread contains only carbon dioxide gas and in reality there has not been
enough fermentation in the dough, so the bread lacks the flavour.
2. The finished product is generally of poor quality and the bread
becomes stale quickly because of insufficient gluten ripening.
3. The bread structure also will show uneven expansion as the gas is not
evenly distributed in the gluten network.
4. The bread will lack the characteristic aroma of well-fermented bread
as there is not enough time for the various chemical changes to take place.

Germ breads are made with this method, due the high enzyme activity
that causes the dough to ripen quickly. The dough is made warm preferably to
help develop the flavour of the dough quickly. The most commonly used
straight dough processes are of one to five hours of bulk fermentation. This is
the time from the dough making to the scaling of the dough.
 The temperature of the dough increases with time as the fermentation is
an exothermic reaction—involving release of some heat energy. Thus one must
be careful in mixing the ingredients because if the temperature goes beyond
50°C, the yeast will die. It becomes difficult to control the fermentation process
in the long processes. The longer processes are used only when the dough or
the gluten is too harsh to be made into bread and the entire gluten can stand
long fermentation strains.

As the fermentation time increases, the gluten softens to a larger extent.

Thus the water content is also reduced. Along with this, the salt content is
increased and the yeast content is lowered. This will lower the fermentation
rate and help conserve maximum gassing power in the final stages. The very
long process is not widely practiced and is replaced by a shorter sponge or a
ferment and dough process as described here.

2. Ferment/Sponge and Dough Process:

Breads and buns can be made in two stages to help the fermentation and yet
achieve better dough ripening.

These are:

1. Ferment and dough process.

2. Sponge and dough process.

1. Ferment:

‘Ferment’ is a proportion of water, yeast, yeast food such as

sugar, and just enough flour to make a thin batter. The yeast readily disperses
in the water and begins assimilating the food dissolved in the water. It begins
fermenting immediately and multiples and is soon active and vigorous. This
makes it ready to undertake the harder work of fermenting the dough.

Ferment is made and kept until it shows a sign of collapse.

This is when it is considered to be at its optimum for the bread fermentation.
Usually, 30 minutes to one hour for fermentation is sufficient for achieving
good results.
 Ferment is usually used for doughs when they contain rich
ingredients and are high in sugar concentration. Usually the ideal
concentration for yeast to work is 10 per cent sugar. Thus, ferment made with
this concentration will give the bread a boost.

A flying ferment is haphazard guess of water, yeast, sugar

and flour which is allowed to stand only till the rest of the ingredients are
weighed and the dough is prepared—approximately 10 to 20 minutes. This is
done to activate the yeast and many of the books mention it as creating a well
in the centre of flour and breaking up yeast with water and sugar and
sprinkling little flour on top. When the bubbles start to appear on top, it is an
indication that the yeast is active.

2. Sponge:

‘Sponge’ can be said to be a stiffer version of the ferment.

The rate of fermentation is hence lesser and the sponge is kept for a longer
time. It is made by mixing a part of the flour, yeast, sugar, and salt (sometimes
not), and some or all the water. The speed of the fermentation is controlled by
the amount of yeast added, addition of salt, water content and the temperature
of both the sponge as well as the holding temperature. When the sponge rises
and collapses, the remaining materials are added to make dough which is then
given bulk fermentation.

The size of the sponge in relation to the dough will give the
name to the process. For example, one fourth sponge, one third sponge, half
sponge. The sponge quantity will go only up to 75 per cent of the dough
content.

The main purpose of the sponge is to help develop a mellow

flavour which is the result of the long fermentation. This is done without
subjecting all the gluten to the harsh fermentation process and thus staggering
the quantity of gluten present in the final product. This prevents a weak
structure or a collapse of the bread.

In most bakeries a portion of the previous day’s dough is

added to achieve this effect. The dough thus ripens well at walk in
temperatures 5 to 7°C for a long period of time (16 to 18 hours minimum) and
gives excellent flavour to the bread. This is also known as sour dough or
ferment. In Italian this ferment is known as biga and in French it is called
levain. In India it is known as khameer.

One must be careful while kneading the dough. Many dough

mixers have two speeds such as slow and high speed to knead the dough.
Many bread recipes call for kneading the dough at slow speed for couple of
minutes and then increasing the speed to high speed. Usually bread is kneaded
until a film is formed when the dough is stretched. This is also known as
windscreen test.

3. Salt Delayed Bread Making Process:

It is an excellent process used initially for harsh gluten
flours, but now widely used for all bread making process as it drastically
reduces the fermentation time without giving any change in quality. This
process calls for the omission of salt in the first stages of dough making. As
was discussed earlier, salt is helpful in controlling the pace of fermentation by
the yeast and hence when the salt is omitted in the first stages, the action of
the yeast will increase.

The gluten will ripen or soften well due to the rapid action of
the gases released. The chemical changes that take place in the dough will also
become fast and the effect of the acids produced will be visible in a shorter
time.

The salt is added later on in the following three ways:

1. By sprinkling the salt over the dough

2. By using some water reserved from the original quantity
3. By using some fat to incorporate the salt

This process is the best method of conditioning dough without using higher
yeast contents or an increase in fermentation temperature or time.

Step # 3. Proving:
The next step is to let the dough to ferment. ‘Proving’ means to let the
dough rise to at least double in size. This is done to let the yeast break down
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The gases thus released help to ferment
the dough and distribute uniformly. The ideal temperature for proving is 32°C.
 Proving is done in three stages. One is done after kneading, called first
proving; the second is done after ‘knock back’ (refer to the next step given
below), called intermediate proving; and the final proving is done after shaping
the bread.

So we can say that fermentation is done for the following reasons:

1. It helps in production of carbon dioxide gas which aerates the dough.

2. It helps to condition the dough. This is through the enzymatic action
due to reduction of natural sugars for assimilation by yeast.
3. It helps to reduce the proteins to simpler nitrogenous compounds for
growth and development of the yeast.
4. The enzymes are active during the fermentation period. The sugars are
broken down to release heat which causes the temperature of the dough to
rise. This rise can be controlled by the speed of fermentation and the storage
temperature.

Step # 4. Knock Back:

The fermented dough is punched down to knock off the air bubbles that
had developed during the intermediate proving. This is so done to redistribute
the yeast and the other ingredients evenly all through the dough. After
knocking back the dough is allowed to rest for a while as the gluten tends to
stretch and it will be difficult to mould the bread.

This stage is called intermediate proving. It is important not to over

knead the dough in the machines as the gluten will loose its resilience. The
knock back is also done to equalize the temperature in the dough.

Step # 5. Dividing and Scaling:

This is used to portion dough into pieces of the required weight. As
discussed in the above paragraph, it is important to rest the dough before
dividing and shaping is done. The scaling of the bread that needs to be baked
in a mould will depend upon the size of the mould.

Though there is no particular formula to calculate the weight, normally a

loaf is calculated by pounds, so one pound loaf of bread will be baked in a one
pound mould (the moulds are sold by volume they can hold). The scanning of
rolls will depend upon the final usage of the product. Table 19.4 shows the
weights of certain breads. This should be used only as reference and the
weights could change with regards to the usage.

Sizes of Breads

Step # 6. Shaping/Panning:
Divided pieces of dough are shaped in the form of loaves or rolls. It
should be done in a sparingly floured surface, handling the dough gently and
placing it for final proving. After a few minutes of resting, the dough reaches its
optimum ripening. Thus the dough is scaled and then shaped. As the dough is
deflated during knock back, it has to be carefully manipulated again as it
becomes more resilient.

Machine dividing can destroy the structure of the dough. The dough is
rested slightly before shaping, to allow for shaping without pressure. This final
moulding is essential as the shape of the product and the crumb structure is
affected. This step is also known as panning, which means to shape the bread
and put in a pan.

Step # 7. Final Proving:

As the dough is being shaped it is temporarily ‘degassed’ and the gluten
tightens. If the dough is mature and the moulding done correctly, the skin
surface will be smooth. The objective of the final proof is to allow the loaf to
expand completely before baking. The production of the gas and the breakdown
of the sugars must be vigorous and the gluten should be in such a condition,
that it is strong enough to hold the gases and expand.

The condition under which the final proof is carried out is important. If
there is a lack of humidity, the dough surface will dry and there will be a lack
of bloom on the crust of the bread. Skinning is the result of draughts of air,
and will show as grey patches. Excessive humidity will result in a tough
leathery crust, a wrinkled surface, and holes under the top crust of the loaf.

The final proving is usually done in equipment known as proving cabinet

or proving chamber. Proving chambers have a temperature of 30°C and are
maintained at humidity levels of 90 per cent which is the ideal condition for the
yeast to work and ferment the dough. In case one does not have a proving
cabinet, it is advisable to place the bread in a warm place sprinkled with water
or covered with plastic to avoid the formation of scales on the dough which will
then cause a fault in the bread.

Step # 8. Scoring:
It is the process of giving marks on top of the dough with a sharp blade
or a knife. It helps the bread to expand during baking without cracking. This
step is not mandatory and chefs can choose to do scoring to give a rustic look
to the breads. However certain breads, such as classical French baguette, have
scoring marks on them.

Some chefs score the breads after shaping and some choose to do it just before
baking. The look of the bread is different in both the cases.

Step # 9. Baking:
The bread is ready to be baked once it has proved to optimum. Under
proving of the dough will yield in cracked loaf and over proving will make the
bread collapse in the final baking process. The bread is said to have proved
well, if it springs back when depressed slightly.

During baking, dough goes through the following three stages:

First Stage:
The oven spring occurs and the gas bubbles in the dough expand
and it rises rapidly. The yeast activity increases rapidly in the oven and the
activity of the yeast stops as it kills the yeasts at 60°C. The gas in the dough
expands and so do the steam and the alcohol vapour pressure. This causes a
sudden burst in the volume of the bread and is called the ‘oven spring’. Some
of the starch is gelatinized to make it more susceptible to the enzyme activity.

Second Stage:
 The dough solidifies because of the coagulation of proteins and
transform into bread. Here the gases escape out of the dough leaving a
dispersion of holes, which are responsible for the sponginess of the bread.

Third Stage:
The dough gets its colour and crust. Enzymes are active till about
80 to 90°C producing sugars even beyond the yeast activity. This helps in the
colouring of the crust. The enzyme activity helps in the crumb, crust colour,
and bloom of the bread.

As the baking proceeds, weight is lost by the evaporation of the moisture

from the crust. As the moisture is driven off, the crust takes on a higher
temperature, reaching the temperature of the oven. The sugars caramelize and
the breakdown of the soluble protein blends to form the attractive colour of the
crust. The sugars caramelize at 140°C.

The texture of the bread can be altered by regulating the heat at this
stage. Crusty bread would require lowering the temperature after the bread is
baked to 80 per cent. This would help the top crust to get dry thereby giving a
crisp crust to the loaf. The crust of the bread can also be altered by giving
various types of glazes, which is mostly done in case of bread rolls.

Table 19.5 shows various glazes and toppings for bread:

Step # 10. Cooling the Baked Bread:
When the bread has been taken out from the oven, it is essential that it
should be demolded and cooled reasonably quickly, as insufficiently cooled
bread when sliced will be subject to mold formation and spoilage.

The bread must be cooled on a wire rack because if the bread is placed
on a flat surface, the heat from the base will condense and the humidity will let
the molds grow into the bread. Also, proper cooling allows for evaporation from
the surface of the loaf which would otherwise condense on the crust, known as
‘sweating’. This will show as moist patches on the crust.
Here we also came to know a little history regarding some bread and what are
the various uses that these breads can be put to.

The following points summarize production of bread:

1. Keep everything warm during fermentation. Yeast requires warmth so

that fermentation may take place.
2. Mix to a soft dough. Some flours are more absorbent than others and
require more liquid. The dough must be elastic. If it is too dry it becomes hard
and not elastic in texture.
3. Knead the dough thoroughly to distribute the yeast throughout the
dough.
4. Place the dough in a warm position to rise until twice its original size.
In the presence of moisture, sugar and warmth, fermentation takes place; the
gas produced expands causing the bread to rise.
5. Knead lightly the second time to expel the gas which escapes as the
dough collapses and to reduce the volume of this dough and yield a dough of a
closer texture.
6. Allow to rise or prove a second time to continue the action of
fermentation, which has been retarded by the kneading.
7. Do not over prove. The bulbs of gas may expand until they break
through the dough, which will collapse and cause a heavy loaf that is sour in
flavour.
8. Place in a very hot oven (235°C). This will kill the yeast and stop the
bread from continuing to rise. It will enable this starch to gelatinize and
proteins to coagulate giving a stable structure to the loaf/rolls.
9. Reduce the heat after the roll or load is set so that the loaf cooks
through to the centre without burning.
10. Cooked bread should sound hollow when tapped at the bottom.