Analysis of Energy Detection Spectrum Sensing

Technique in Cognitive Radio

 ABSTRACT

Cognitive radio is the emerging technique which can be used

in wireless communication systems. This technique is utilized
to expand the spectrum usage productively. In the process of
effective utilization of spectrum, the main component used by
cognitive radio is spectrum sensing technique. Due to large
number of primary users from time to time used their assigned
bands in recent years, systematic use of spectrum bands is an
essential issue. While the primary users resume using this
bandwidth, the white space in the band can be assigned for
reuse to supply broadband network services. In our paper,
energy detection concept is used to perceive the unused bands
of the spectrum and make them available for the reuse
purposes. With this concept we can determine the white
spaces in the spectrum and assign to secondary users.
 INTRODUCTION

Cognitive radio is the latest technique which can address

the spectrum scarcity problem in many efficient ways. Due to
the expansive growth in the usage of wireless communication
systems around the world, there is a great demand for
spectrum resources. So, by initiating the spectrum’s secondary
use on an opportunistic basis makes wireless communication
systems flexible, it can also provide a future support for the
growth in traffic and also can enhance the demand in the
traffic.

It is a radio that can be programmed and configured

dynamically to use the best wireless channels in its vicinity to
avoid user interference and congestion. Such a radio
automatically detects available channels in wireless spectrum,
then accordingly changes its transmission or reception
parameters to allow more concurrent wireless
communications in a given spectrum band at one location.
This process is a form of dynamic spectrum management. In
response to the operator's commands, the cognitive engine is
capable of configuring radio-system parameters. These
parameters include "waveform, protocol, operating frequency,
and networking". This functions as an autonomous unit in the
communications environment, exchanging information about
the environment with the networks it accesses and other
cognitive radios (CRs). A CR "monitors its own performance
continuously", in addition to "reading the radio's outputs"; it
then uses this information to "determine the RF environment,
channel conditions, link performance, etc.", and adjusts the
"radio's settings to deliver the required quality of service
subject to an appropriate combination of user requirements,
operational limitations, and regulatory constraints".

Some "smart radio" proposals combine wireless mesh

network—dynamically changing the path messages take
between two given nodes using cooperative diversity;
cognitive radio—dynamically changing the frequency band
used by messages between two consecutive nodes on the path;
and software-defined radio—dynamically changing the
protocol used by message between two consecutive nodes.

Cognitive radio is considered as a goal towards which a

software-defined radio platform should evolve: a fully
reconfigurable wireless transceiver which automatically
adapts its communication parameters to network and user
demands. Cellular network bands are overloaded in most parts
of the world, but other frequency bands (such as military,
amateur radio and paging frequencies) are insufficiently
utilized. Independent studies performed in some countries
confirmed that observation, and concluded that spectrum
utilization depends on time and place. Moreover, fixed
spectrum allocation prevents rarely used frequencies (those
assigned to specific services) from being used, even when any
unlicensed users would not cause noticeable interference to
the assigned service. Regulatory bodies in the world have
been considering whether to allow unlicensed users in
licensed bands if they would not cause any interference to
licensed users. These initiatives have focused cognitive-radio
research on dynamic spectrum access.

Spectrum management is the process of regulating the

use of radio frequencies to promote efficient use and gain a
net social benefit. The term radio spectrum typically refers to
the full frequency range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz that may be
used for wireless communication. Increasing demand for
services such as mobile telephones and many others has
required changes in the philosophy of spectrum management.
Demand for wireless broadband has soared due to
technological innovation, such as 3G and 4G mobile services,
and the rapid expansion of wireless internet services.

Spectrum sensing enables the user to continuously sense

the channel prior to its access to the channel. Goals of
spectrum management include: rationalize and optimize the
use of the RF spectrum; avoid and solve interference; design
short- and long-range frequency allocations; advance the
introduction of new wireless technologies; coordinate wireless
communications with neighbours and other administrations.
Radio spectrum items which need to be nationally regulated:
frequency allocation for various radio services, assignment of
license and RF to transmitting stations, type approval of
equipment etc.

Spectrum management is a growing problem due to the

growing number of spectrums uses. Uses include: over-the-air
broadcasting, government and research uses (which include
defence, public safety—maritime, air, police—resource
management, transport, and radio astronomy); commercial
services to the public (including voice, data, home
networking); and industrial, scientific and medical services
(which include Telemedicine, and remote control).
 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a measure used in science
and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to
the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of
signal power to the noise power, often expressed in decibels.
A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more
signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for
electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal, for
example isotope levels in an ice core, biochemical signalling
between cells, or financial trading signals. Signal-to-noise
ratio is sometimes used metaphorically to refer to the ratio of
useful information to false or irrelevant data in a conversation
or exchange. For example, in online discussion forums and
other online communities, off-topic posts and spam are
regarded as "noise" that interferes with the "signal" of
appropriate discussion.

The signal-to-noise ratio, the bandwidth, and the channel

capacity of a communication channel are connected by the
Shannon–Hartley theorem. Signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
the ratio of the power of a signal to the power of background
noise:

S N R = P signal / P noise
 where P is average power. Both signal and noise power
must be measured at the same or equivalent points in a
system, and within the same system bandwidth.

All real measurements are disturbed by noise. This

includes electronic noise, but can also include external events
that affect the measured phenomenon — wind, vibrations,
gravitational attraction of the moon, variations of temperature,
variations of humidity, etc., depending on what is measured
and of the sensitivity of the device. It is often possible to
reduce the noise by controlling the environment. Otherwise,
when the characteristics of the noise are known and are
different from the signals, it is possible to filter it or to process
the signal.

For example, it is sometimes possible to use a lock-in

amplifier to modulate and confine the signal within a very
narrow bandwidth and then filter the detected signal to the
narrow band where it resides, thereby eliminating most of the
broadband noise. When the signal is constant or periodic and
the noise is random, it is possible to enhance the SNR by
averaging the measurements. In this case the noise goes down
as the square root of the number of averaged samples.
Additionally, internal noise of electronic systems can be
reduced by low-noise amplifiers.

Spectrum sensing helps in detecting the band containing

the primary user information, so that we can assign the idle
bands of the spectrum for secondary user’s information
without interference or data loss. There are various spectrum
sensing techniques. In this paper among those several
spectrum sensing techniques, Energy detection technique is
explained in detail.

The new concept, cognitive radio is put forth recently in

a thought of improving the effective utilization the spectrum
through a better sharing of the spectrum among several users.
The terminals of cognitive continuously sense the availability
of the spectrum and help its users without creating any
harmful interference for the primary users effectively.

The accessibility of the bands in the spectrum can be

controlled by the location of the frail signal from the essential
transmitter dependent on the neighbourhood perceptions in
intellectual radio. There are numerous normal ways for
transmitter recognition, they are: Energy location, Matched
channel identification and cyclo-stationary highlighted
discovery [1].
 But, in order to detect the primary user’s presence in the
spectrum using the matched filter detection technique, the
secondary user must have prior information about the
presence of primary user signal. Therefore, these kinds of
techniques will need the receivers for every type of signals. In
addition to this the power consumption and the
implementation state of quality is too high and is very
complicated [2]. Whereas the energy detection technique is
most commonly used for spectrum sensing due to its
simplicity in the implementation and computation. Above all
these it does not need any previous information about the
presence of the primary terminal’s signal [3-5], also energy
detection is most efficient technique among all the available
spectrum sensing techniques.

Regardless of how the performance of the energy

detection technique is becoming progressively worse due to
the effect of uncertainty in noise, more specifically in low
signal to noise ratio (SNR) conditions. At the same time the
unseemly setting of the threshold detection can lead to a very
significant rejection in the process of performing detection.
Hence the finest threshold level which is based on the
substitution between the probability of misdetection and
probability of false alarm is derived [3-5].

Usually the aspiration of energy detection scheme mainly

depends on the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the received
signal. Practically in many applications the signal that is
received at each cognitive radio user might suffer from
uncertainty because of fading and hidden primary terminal
problem and also from shadowing. All these problems can be
solved by cooperative sensing techniques [6]. Regardless of
how, all of these proposals are based on conclusion that noise
power is known absolutely. But practically the noise varies
with the location of terminal and time. This phenomenon is
called as noise uncertainty and cannot be accurately
estimated.

To reduce the effect of the uncertainty in noise several

proposals are been put forth [7-10]. There are few SNR
thresholds under uncertainty in noise that can prevent
achieving reliable primary user detection, and also increases
the number of samples to infinity. Some of the authors
proposed a new technique that uses dynamic threshold that
can succeed in dealing with the noise uncertainty problem.
Regardless how, the threshold detection in this technique has
been conventionally determined based on the (CFAR)
constant false alarm rate that can at most provide constant
probability of false alarm rate even when SNR region is high
where the strength of the signal is much stronger than the
noise power, furthermore the minimization of errors in the
spectrum cannot be guaranteed.

Fundamentally, the outcome of the energy detection

technique depends highly on the threshold detection and it’s
setting also on received signal’s level of SNR. Therefore,
another plan called optimal threshold-based energy detection
scheme was put forward [11-12]. However, the threshold level
optimization which is based on minimizing the errors in
spectrum sensing did not look attentively at the issue of noise
uncertainty on detection performance.

In this paper we have studied and put forth a new

proposal to improve the performance of spectrum sensing by
mainly paying attention on some of the drawbacks of energy
detection, which includes poor performance because of noise
uncertainty and threshold value selection. An optimized
adaptive threshold level which is based on error function in
spectrum sensing to identify the available channels in
spectrum is proposed by many authors [13-14]. The
optimization in detection which is based on average noise
power without uncertainty is examined in detail first. And
then the uncertainty in noise is taken into consider and a
dynamic optimal threshold factor is developed for the
reduction in the degradation of detection performance that is
caused by noise uncertainty.

DESCRIPTION

Cognitive radio:

Cognitive Radio (CR) is an adaptive, intelligent radio and

network technology that can automatically detect available
channels in a wireless spectrum and change transmission
parameters enabling more communications to run
concurrently and also improve radio operating behaviour.

Cognitive radio uses a number of technologies including

Adaptive Radio (where the communications system monitors
and modifies its own performance) and Software Defined
Radio (SDR) where traditional hardware components
including mixers, modulators and amplifies have been
replaced with intelligent software.

Cognitive radio improves spectrum utilization and

increases communication quality and also can be programmed
and configured dynamically [15]. Cognitive radio indicates
the availability of the channels mechanically from the wireless
spectrum, and then in an appropriate way it modifies the
reception and transmission parameters so that at one location
it can authorize more coinciding wireless communications
from the given spectrum band. Cognitive radio network is
complex multiuser wireless communication system to provide
efficient use of radio spectrum [16]. The significant
usefulness of Cognitive Radio (CR) is range detecting in
which exactness and speed of estimation demonstrate to be
the key pointers to choose the suitable range detecting
procedure. Also, Overlay and underlay are the two
transmission techniques that are widely used to enable
secondary users to coexist with primary users [18].

Cognitive radio technology innovation has been

acquainted with upgrade to remote the radio range and to
tackle the spectrum range shortage issue. This cognitive radio
is put forth recently in a thought of improving the effective
utilization the spectrum through a better sharing of the
spectrum among several users. The terminals of cognitive
effectively and continuously sense the availability of the
spectrum and help its users without creating any harmful
interference for the primary users.

Cognitive radio systems can identify the unused

spectrum holes and provide these holes to the secondary user
to make use of them by avoiding the interferences that might
be caused by the primary user information [17]. To initiate the
dynamic spectrum, access these cognitive radio systems
performs spectrum sensing to decide the presence and absence
of the primary user information.

There are two types of cognitive radio systems

1. Full cognitive radio

Full cognitive radio considers all parameters that a

remote hub or system can know about.

2. Spectrum-sensing cognitive radio.

Spectrum sensing cognitive radio is utilized to identify

directs in the radio recurrence range.
Working of Cognitive radio:

Cognitive radio once on the off chance that it can bolster the
capacity of choosing the best accessible direct in the range,
the next task is to make the network protocols adaptive to the
available spectrum. Therefore, new techniques, functionalities
are required in the cognitive radio network to support the
bands efficiently.

Some of the specific functions or tasks of cognitive radio

networks can be classified by following:

Spectrum sensing: This refers to the process of recognizing

the unused range openings and sharing the range without
interference with the primary client's data available in the
range. It is an important necessity of the Cognitive Radio
network to be able to sense the holes in spectrum, recognizing
essential clients is the most proficient approach to identify
range gaps.

These unused range gaps recognized by the range detecting

procedure display various qualities not just incorporate range
band data like the working recurrence and the transfer speed
yet in addition time changing radio condition. But It is very
complex for the cognitive radio to have a measurement of
channel that is provide between transmitter and a primary
receiver.

 The main functions of cognitive radios are:

a. Power Control
b. Spectrum sensing
i. Transmitter detection
1. Matched filter detection
2. Energy detection
3. Cyclostationary-feature detection
c. Null-space based CR
d. Wideband spectrum sensing
i. Cooperative detection
e. Spectrum management
i. Spectrum analysis
ii. Spectrum decision
 Fig. 1. Cognitive radio working cycle

Spectrum management:

Capturing the best available spectrum to meet user

communication requirements, while not creating undue
interference to other (primary) users. Cognitive radios should
decide on the best spectrum band (of all bands available) to
meet quality of service requirements; therefore, spectrum-
management functions are required for cognitive radios.

 Spectrum-management functions are classified as:

i. Spectrum analysis

ii. Spectrum decision

Spectrum analysis:

Spectrum analysis is analysis in terms of a spectrum of

frequencies or related quantities such as energies, eigenvalues,
etc.

 Spectral estimation, in statistics and signal processing, an

algorithm that estimates the strength of different
frequency components (the power spectrum) of a time-
domain signal. This may also be called frequency
domain analysis
 Spectrum analyzer, a hardware device that measures the
magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the
full frequency range of the instrument.
The target of this procedure is catching the best spectrum
range that is accessible so as to meet the prerequisites of the
clients. In cognitive radio networks, the unused spectrum
bands available in the spectrum spreads over a large
frequency range which includes both licensed and unlicensed
bands. All these unused spectrum bands which are detected
via spectrum sensing show different characteristics which not
only include the spectrum band data like the system operating
frequency and the bandwidth capacity but also time changing
radio environment.

Spectrum mobility:

This is the process of maintaining the same seamless

communication requirements mainly during the transmission
to a better spectrum. It is additionally alluded as the procedure
where the intellectual client trades its recurrence of activity.
Intellectual radio system's optional client, to utilize the range
in a powerful way by allowing the radio terminals, to work in
the best accessible recurrence band. This approves idea of
“Get the Best Available Channel” for the interactive
communication purposes.

Spectrum sharing:

Spectrum sharing matters because communications spectrum

is a scarce asset, and demand is growing very fast, both
because billions of new Internet access users will come
online, and because new Internet apps and devices consume
vastly more bandwidth.

Spectrum sharing now is practical because we are able to

apply cheap and sophisticated signal processing to
communications tasks. As a result, virtually all
communications spectrum can be used more efficiently and
effectively.

Cheap and sophisticated signal processing allows commercial

use of millimeter wave spectrum (3 GHz to 300 GHz) for the
first time. The same advances allow us to use existing
spectrum more efficiently, moving beyond simple frequency
or spatial separation.

Those methods work, but also create fallow resources. Since

nobody but the licensee can use the capacity, when the
licensee is not using spectrum, nobody else can use it, either.
In some cases, as in the United Kingdom and United States, as
little as 10 percent of spectrum gets used. In other cases, none
of the capacity is used.

Two fundamental approaches now are feasible to allow many

users to share capacity without causing interference to
existing licensed users, but also vastly expanding the amount
of capacity available to support communications and apps.

Devices themselves, or databases, are able to sense or predict

where interference would occur, and then shift access
operations to non-interfering frequencies or channels.
Cognitive radio is an example of the former approach;
databases an example of the latter approach.

In other words, where we traditionally have used “command

and control” methods–giving certain entities exclusive rights
to use certain channels or blocks of spectrum–it is
commercially feasible to use other methods that efficiently
reclaim unused spectrum.

 This alludes to giving a reasonable range planning

strategy among the clients. In the open range use,
Sharing is the significant test. This likewise gives the fair
scheduling strategy among coexistent psychological
cognitive radio clients. Therefore, to provide a catalogue
for different challenges in the process of spectrum
sharing, we initially build up the quantity of steps in
range partaking in psychological radio systems. There
are 5 major steps in spectrum sharing process, they are:
• Spectrum sensing

• Spectrum allocation

• Spectrum access

• Transmitter-receiver handshake

• Spectrum mobility

Spectrum sensing:

In this model, the secondary client first detects the

recurrence band allotted to the primary client to distinguish
the condition of the PU and afterward adjusts its transmitted
control as per the recognition result. If the PU is inactive, the
SU allocates the transmit power based on its own benefit to
achieve a higher transmission rate. If the PU is active, the SU
transmits with a lower power to avoid causing harmful
interference to the PU. There are three different techniques for
spectrum sensing, they are:

1. Non-cooperative spectrum sensing technique

• Matched filter detection

• Energy detection

• Cyclostationary feature detection

2. Cooperative spectrum sensing technique

3.Interference based detection spectrum sensing

technique.

Fig 2: Classification of spectrum sensing techniques

Non-cooperative spectrum sensing technique:

This strategy is also called as primary transmitter recognition

technique. Since it is complex to sense the primary receiver’s
position, therefore to detect the primary client data it is
important to detect and recognize the sign sent by the essential
transmitter [21]. There are 3 sorts of Non-cooperative
spectrum detecting strategies they are:

1. Energy detection

2. Matched filter detection

3. Cyclostationary feature detection

• Energy detection:

This method figures the energy of the received signal for N

specific samples as a square of magnitude of the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) which is averaged over these N samples and
then compares it to a predefined threshold value to obtain the
decision of sensing technique. If the energy recognised is
higher than the predefined threshold value, then the primary
user is considered as present and if the energy recognised is
lower than the predefined threshold value, then the primary
user is considered to be absent. This technique is very simple
as to implement this technique we do not require any prior
information about the whereabouts of the primary signal,
therefore making it even more straightforward and reliable
than the matched filter and cyclostationary feature detection
technique [19]. Regardless of how, the performance of this
technique is highly dependent on noise uncertainty. Thus,
using of dynamic threshold degrades the noise power and the
performance of the energy detection [20].

• Matched filter detection:

Matched filter detection is a sort of range detecting

strategy that matches and got signal examples with few pre
collected pilots of same primary client signal stream. These
saved pilots are convoluted with the received samples and
then average over N samples is taken to compute the decision,
which is then further compared with the threshold to obtain
the sensing decision. if the threshold value which is
predefined is lower than the result of the convolution, then it
is considered as the presence of primary user signal [22-24],
and if the threshold value is higher than the result of the
convolution it considered as the absence of the primary user
signal. This technique provides highest detection performance
at lower levels of SNR, but the increase in the number of
samples will decrease the detection performance. Regardless
of how, the matched filter detection needs the prior
knowledge about the primary user whereabouts, but in reality,
always this prior information about the primary user may not
be available therefore making this technique unreliable and
unpractical because there may be chances for interference and
information loss.

• Cyclostationary feature detection:

This is also called as the auto-correlation based sensing

technique. It computes the correlated function with the time
shifted version the N samples at lag zero of received signal to
the received N samples signal. If the output of this correlated
function is higher than the predefined threshold then that
represents as the presence of the primary signal in the
spectrum, otherwise if the threshold value is higher than the
correlated function then it represents as the absence of the
primary signal in the spectrum. Since the noise in the signal is
uncorrelated and as this technique is auto-correlated the signal
and noise can be distinguished. But this technique is highly
complex and unreliable as it need the prior information about
the presence and whereabouts of the primary signal.
Cyclostationary detection is the most composite technique in
spectrum sensing when compared to the above three spectrum
sensing techniques mentioned above.

Co-operative spectrum sensing technique:

 This refers to the technique where the cognitive
radio network’s (CNR) share their individual sensing
information in order to improve the overall sensing
information about their primary user [25-27]. This is also a
solution to improve the detection performance, making it
easier for the secondary users collaborate with primary user
and the facility to collectively detect the spectrum holes. But,
in this technique the cognitive radio network users have to
perform the sensing technique only at particular periodic time
intervals as the detected data will be quick because of various
factors like mobility, channel weakness etc.

Interference based spectrum sensing detection technique:

Cognitive radio will measure the interference environment

and adjust their transmission such that the interference to PU
is not above the regulatory limits. The major drawback of the
interference model is to measure the interference temperature
at the primary receiver which is unfeasible.

This interference-based technique is a totally new concept for

the dynamic spectrum access. The cognitive radio hubs treat
the authorized (licensed) clients and unauthorized clients
within the similar network without interference. Higher
interference prompts lower Signal-to-interference proportion
(SIR), which implies that the lower limit is reachable for a
specific sign's transfer speed. Not at all like the essential
collector identification, the fundamental thought of impedance
temperature the executives are to set up an upper obstruction
limit for the given recurrence band in a particular geographic
area.

The performance of all above three sensing techniques mainly

depends on the total number of samples and their sensing
threshold. Taking large number of samples will improve the
detection capability to maximum up to a certain value of SNR
and the makes the cognitive radio more reliable. But the
increase in the number of samples also increases the sensing
time, for an instance the wideband sensing is impractical [27-
30].

Probability of Detection PD

The received and demodulated echo signal is processed by a

threshold logic. This threshold shall be balanced so that as of
a certain amplitude wanted signals being able to pass and
noise will be removed. Since in the mixed signal exist high
noise tops which lie in the range of small wanted signals the
optimized threshold level shall be a compromise. Wanted
signals shall, on the one hand, reach the indication as of a
minimal amplitude, on the other hand, the false alarm rate
may not increase.

Probability of Detection (PD) is the ratio of detected aims to

the number of all possible blips on the radar screen, i.e. all
possible targets in a given direction.

PD = (detected targets / sum of all possible blibs)* 100%

The radar must detect, with greater than or equal to 80%

probability at a defined range, a one square meter radar cross-
section. This relatively bad result is a compromise between
the probability of detection and the false alarm rate. This
means: One of five targets won't be detected by radar with
analog signal processing.

The older term “Blip Scan Ratio” was renamed to as

“Probability of Detection”.

METHODOLOGY

Spectrum sensing:

The one of the most important components in cognitive radio

is spectrum sensing which is used to sense the parameters that
are related to the channel. It is used to detect the presence or
absence of PU signal in cognitive radio. Where the secondary
client will have access to the unoccupied spectrum band.

The nature of spectrum sensing is a binary hypothesis-testing.

Indication of primary user:

H0: primary user is absent

H1: primary user is in operation

Inputs in spectrum sensing:

i. P d – probability of detection is used to detect SU is

present in the signal

ii. P f - probability of false alarm is used to indicate that the

SU is present when the spectrum is free.

iii. P m – probability of miss detection which is used to detect

that SU is present that the spectrum is free but the incumbent
present.

Probability of detection, Pd and probability of false alarm, P f

are important for energy detection

P d = P (decision = H1 | H1) = P (Y > λ | H1) (1)

P f = P (decision = H1 | H0) = P(Y> λ | H0)

Where λ is threshold and Y is the statistic decision.

Transmission Detection:

Based on weak signal of primary transmitter the

transmission detection is done. Basic model of transmission
detection is defined as:

X(n) =

(2)

Here x(n) is received signal, y(n) is transmitted signal and the

noise is w(n). H0 demonstrates that there is no primary client
in a specific recurrence band. While H1 shows that primary
client is exists in that recurrence band.

Here x(t) is filtered with band pass filter in order to limit the
noise and to select the bandwidth. After that the signal passes
through a squaring device which is used to measure the
received signal. And the signal passed through integrator
which determines the observation interval, T. Now the output
Y is compared with a value of threshold, λ and if the values
are above the threshold, it is considered as primary user is
present if not absent.

For the given digital input signal of additive stochastic noise

matched filter is the better way to maximize the output signal
to noise ratio. Matched filter compares with final output signal
with the threshold value and it correlates with time shifted
version. In the block diagram the primary user x(t) signal is
combined with a time shift version h(t) of the prior known
signal s(t). The last yield of the channel signal is contrasted
and the edge worth will show that the primary client is
available [31-32].

Fig 3: Block diagram for energy detection

 Fig 4: Block diagram of matched filter detection

Cyclostationary is the most compound technique in spectrum

sensing among the three techniques. This technique makes use
of no of cycles received by the primary user signal to spot the
presence of primary user’s signal. This technique can
discriminate the primary user from interference and noise.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK):

QPSK is a form of phase shift keying in which two bits are

combined and modulated at once, by selecting carrier phase
shifts and are orthogonal to each other. In QPSK sin and cos
capacities are utilized for balance. Balance is accomplished by
changing the stage capacities. It permits the sign twice data as
standard stage moves keying utilizing a similar transmission
capacity.
 Fig 5: Block diagram for QPSK Modulation

The transmitted signal for QPSK modulation is:

S(t)= Ac cos(2 + ) (3)

Where

S(t) = Ac cos

QPSK is an intelligent demodulator. In reasonable

identification the bearer recurrence and stage must be
comfortable with the collector. In the demodulator is
increased with got signal. The duplicated yield is coordinated
by utilizing an integrator. Edge indicator settles on a choice
on each incorporated piece dependent on a limit esteem. At
long last the bits are remapped to frame recognized sign.

Fig 6: Block diagram for QPSK Demodulation

Energy Detector:

To decide the signal power recurrence band in time

domain, a band pass filter is requested to aim signal and the
signal samples are measured. The below block diagram
indicates that the implementation of energy detector. To
assess the power of the received signal, the output of band
pass filter is squared and integrated over an interval T.
 Fig.7: Implementation of energy detector
N −1
1 2
T= N ∑ ( y [ n ])
n=0
(4)

Where T is the output variable, y[n] is the received signal, N

is the no of samples. Here integrator registers the vitality, Y
from a particular perception interim over the identified sign.
Finally, the output signal Y is compared with the threshold
value in order to indicate whether a signal is present or not.
The threshold value is set according to probability of the
output Y when the noise is present.

P d = P r {Y >λ | H1} = Qu(√ 2 γ , √ λi ) (5)

Where γ represent signal to noise ratio (SNR), and λ i is the

threshold value for ith sampled signal. The basic exchange
between probability of miss detection and probability of
detection is, Pm=1-Pd where Pf has different inference in
dynamic spectrum sharing.
 SIMULATION RESULTS

• Our goal is to plot receiver operating characteristic curve

for simple energy detection, where the primary signal is the
real Gaussian signal and noise is an additive white real
Gaussian.

• For several values of snr, we are observing the graph

between snr and pd.
 Fig. 8. Plot between snr and probability of detection

• From the above result we observed that with the increase

in the probability of detection value the signal to noise ratio
also increased.

• So, for accurate results in the energy detection the snr

value must be as high as possible

• For varying values of pf (probability of false alarm) i.e.;

form range of 0.001 to 0.1 we observed.

• From the above result we observed that with the increase

in the probability of false alarm the probability of detection
value decreased.

• This may lead to poor spectrum utilization.

• Hence, the probability of false alarm should be as low as

possible for the accurate results, and also to protect the
primary user data form secondary user’s data interference.

Also, since in the practical use we often receive signals from

longer distances which might get degraded with the increase
in the distance, as a result snr value will be low.

• So, to calculate the energy and find holes in the spectrum

for lower SNR values, we can set double threshold technique.
Fig. 9. Probability of detection vs snr graph for various values
of probability of false alarm
 CONCLUSION

The main motivation behind cognitive feature radio has been

to extend spectrum utilization by permitting the secondary
users to opportunistically access the band closely held by the
authorized (primary) user. Radio networks may experience
significant challenges in achieving reliable communication
due to packet losses, collisions and contention delays,
according to the authors of [17]. One of the most useful
application is homeland security, especially when there is war
situation or disaster.
 TOOLS USED

MATLAB:
MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical
computing environment and proprietary programming
language developed by MathWorks. MATLAB allows matrix
manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation
of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with
programs written in other languages.

Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical

computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic
engine allowing access to symbolic computing abilities. An
additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain
simulation and model-based design for dynamic and
embedded systems.

As of 2018, MATLAB has more than 3 million users

worldwide. MATLAB users come from various backgrounds
of engineering, science, and economics. MATLAB can call
functions and subroutines written in the programming
languages C or Fortran. A wrapper function is created
allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned.
MEX files (MATLAB executables) are the dynamically
loadable object files created by compiling such functions.
Since 2014 increasing two-way interfacing with Python was
being added.

Libraries written in Perl, Java, ActiveX or .NET can be

directly called from MATLAB, and many MATLAB libraries
(for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as
wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB
from Java is more complicated, but can be done with a
MATLAB toolbox which is sold separately by MathWorks, or
using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-
MATLAB Interface), (which should not be confused with the
unrelated Java Metadata Interface that is also called JMI).
Official MATLAB API for Java was added in 2016.

As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox

available from MathWorks, MATLAB can be connected to
Maple or Mathematica. Libraries also exist to import and
export MathML.

Most MATLAB functions accept arrays as input and operate

element-wise on each element. For example, mod(2*J,n) will
multiply every element in J by 2, and then reduce each
element modulo n. MATLAB does include standard for and
while loops, but (as in other similar applications such as R),
using the vectorized notation is encouraged and is often faster
to execute. The following code, excerpted from the function
magic.m, creates a magic square M for odd values of n
(MATLAB function meshgrid is used here to generate square
matrices I and J containing 1 : n). MATLAB supports
structure data types.[24] Since all variables in MATLAB are
arrays, a more adequate name is "structure array", where each
element of the array has the same field names. In addition,
MATLAB supports dynamic field names (field look-ups by
name, field manipulations, etc.)

When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file

should match the name of the first function in the file. Valid
function names begin with an alphabetic character, and can
contain letters, numbers, or underscores. Variables and
functions are case sensitive. MATLAB supports elements of
lambda calculus by introducing function handles, or function
references, which are implemented either in .m files or
anonymous nested functions. MATLAB supports object-
oriented programming including classes, inheritance, virtual
dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and pass-by-
reference semantics. However, the syntax and calling
conventions are significantly different from other languages.
MATLAB has value classes and reference classes, depending
on whether the class has handle as a super-class (for reference
classes) or not (for value classes).

Communications Toolbox

Communications Toolbox provides algorithms and apps for

the analysis, design, end-to-end simulation, and verification of
communications systems. Toolbox algorithms including
channel coding, modulation, MIMO, and OFDM enable you
to compose and simulate a physical layer model of your
standard-based or custom-designed wireless communications
system.

The toolbox provides a waveform generator app, constellation

and eye diagrams, bit-error-rate, and other analysis tools and
scopes for validating your designs. These tools enable you to
generate and analyze signals, visualize channel characteristics,
and obtain performance metrics such as error vector
magnitude (EVM). The toolbox includes SISO and MIMO
statistical and spatial channel models. Channel profile options
include Rayleigh, Rician, and WINNER II models. It also
includes RF impairments, including RF nonlinearity and
carrier offset and compensation algorithms, including carrier
and symbol timing synchronizers. These algorithms enable
you to realistically model link-level specifications and
compensate for the effects of channel degradations. Using
Communications Toolbox with RF instruments or hardware
support packages, you can connect your transmitter and
receiver models to radio devices and verify your designs with
over-the-air testing.

MATLAB for Wireless Communications

Wireless engineering teams use MATLAB to reduce
development time, eliminate design problems early, and
streamline testing and verification.

 Prove algorithm and system design concepts with

simulation and over-the-air signals.
 Generate customizable waveforms to verify conformance
to the latest 5G, LTE, and WLAN standards.
 Create models using digital, RF, and antenna elements to
explore and optimize system behaviour.
 Automatically generate HDL or C code for prototyping
and implementation without hand-coding.
 Create reusable golden reference models for iterative
verification of wireless designs, prototypes, and
implementations
  Automate analysis of large-scale field test data and
visualize your simulation results

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