DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed the simple harmonic motion for which the
total energy of the oscillating system remained constant and the displacement
exhibited harmonic behavior described by either sine or cosine curve, virtually for an
infinite time. For practical systems, a resistive force is always present in one form or
the other which results in energy loss and hence amplitude decays. Such oscillations
are known as damped harmonic oscillations. In the current chapter, various aspects of
damped harmonic oscillations will be covered.

EQUATION OF MOTION OF DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

The equation of motion for a simple harmonic oscillator was given by Eq.
(1.4). Now we have to include the effect of resistive force present in the oscillating
system. The resistive force is usually found to be proportional to velocity and hence
can be expressed as
Fresist  rx (2.1)
Where, r is the coefficient of proportionality and has the dimensions of force per unit
velocity. The presence of such a term always results in energy loss. The equation of
motion for a damped oscillatory system can be obtained from the dynamic balance
between the forces acting on the system. Therefore, considering the accelerating
force, the restoring force and the resistive force acting on the oscillating system, we
can write
mx  sx  rx
mx  rx  sx  0 (2.2)
Where, ‘m’ and ‘s’ have same meaning as explained in section (1.2). The problem
now is to find the behavior of the displacement ‘x’ by solving Eq. (2.2). Let the
solution of this equation be of the form
x  Ce t (2.3a)
Since an exponential term is always non-dimensional, therefore, C should have the
dimensions same as that of x (length) and α that of time inverse, T-1. Now, let us treat
C as a constant length. Further,
x  Ce t , and x   2 Ce t (2.3b)
Substituting Eq. (2.3a) and (2.3b) in Eq. (2.2), we get
Ce t (m 2  r  s)  0
Now, either
Ce t  0 , which will make x=0 and does not lead to any meaningful solution.
m 2  r  s  0
Solving this quadratic equation in α, we get
r r2 s
  2

2m 4m m
Note that r/2m and (s/m)1/2, and therefore, α, all have the dimensions of time inverse,
T-1. Accordingly, the displacement can now be expressed as
x1  C1e  rt / 2 m( r / 4 m s / m) t , x 2  C2 e  rt / 2 m( r / 4 m s / m ) t
2 2 1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2

The most general solution is formed by the linear combination of both these terms
x  x1  x 2  C1e  rt / 2 m( r / 4 m s / m) t  C2 e  rt / 2 m( r / 4 m s / m) t
2 2 1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2
(2.3c)
2 2
The term in the bracket (r /4m – s/m) can be positive, zero or negative depending on
the relative magnitudes of the two terms in the parenthesis. Each of these conditions
gives one of the three possible solutions and each solution describes a particular kind
of behavior. These conditions are:
(1) When (r2/4m2 > s/m), i.e., the resistive force term dominates the stiffness term
and hence the parenthesis term will be positive. Large resistive force leads to
heavy damping which results in a dead beat system.
(2) When (r2/4m2 = s/m) i.e., the resistive force term balances the stiffness term.
The balance between the two terms results in a critically damped system.
(3) When (r2/4m2 < s/m), i.e., the resistive term is smaller as compared to stiffness
term. In this case the system is lightly damped and gives oscillatory damped
harmonic motion.
Let us now discuss each case in detail.

Case 1: Heavy Damping

Consider the case in which resistive term dominates as compared to restoring
force, i.e., (r2/4m2 > s/m). Rewriting, r/2m = p and (r2/4m2 – s/m)-1/2 = q, Eq. (2.3c)
can be put to the form
x  e  pt C1eqt  C2e  qt  (2.3d)
where the C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants but have the same dimensions as C (note
that two separate values of C are allowed because the differential equation (2.2) is
second order). Now, introducing new constants F and G such that F = C1 + C2 and G
= C1 - C2, the Eq. (2.3d) can be expressed as
F
 G
 
x  e pt  eqt  e qt  eqt  e qt   
2 2 
x = e-pt(F cosh qt + G sinh qt) (2.3e)
This represents non-oscillatory behavior, but the actual displacement will depend
upon the initial (or boundary) conditions, i.e. the value of x at time t = 0.
Assuming, x = 0 at t = 0, Eq. (2.3e) yields F = 0, therefore,
1/ 2
 r2 s
x  Ge rt / 2 m
sinh 2
  t (2.4)
 4 m m 

x(t)

Time (t)
Figure 2.1: Variation of displacement as a function of time for a
heavily damped system.
The variation of displacement with time for a heavily damped system is shown above in
Figure (2.1). It will return to zero displacement quite slowly without oscillating about its
equilibrium position. The dead beat galvanometer is an example of this type of heavily
damped system.

NOTE: When current is passed through a dead beat galvanometer, the coil oscillates
about its mean position before it comes to rest. To bring the coil immediately to rest,
it is wound on a metallic frame. When the coil oscillates, eddy currents are set up in
frame and oppose further oscillations of the coil thereby bringing the coil to attain its
equilibrium position almost instantly. Since oscillations die out instantaneously, the
galvanometer is named as dead beat galvanometer.

Case 2: Critical Damping

Consider the case when (r2/4m2 = s/m). This represents the limiting case of the
behavior of Case 1 as ‘q’ changes from positive to negative through zero.
In this case the quadratic equation in α has equal roots (= -r/2m), which, in a
differential equation solution, demands that C must be written C = A + Bt, where A
should have the dimensions of length and B that of velocity such that the
displacement can be written as
x = (A + Bt) e-rt/2m = (A + Bt) e-pt (2.5a)
It can be easily verified that Eq. (2.5) satisfies Eq. (2.2), when r 2/4m2 = s/m.

Let us consider the case of a mechanical oscillator which experience sudden impulse
and is required to return back to equilibrium position in minimum time. Such a system
has zero displacement at t = 0 and start moving with some initial velocity, say V,
when it receives the impulse. In other words, the initial conditions are: x = 0 and
x  V at t = 0. The constants A and B appearing in Eq. (2.5a) will be determined from
these initial conditions.
Using first conditions, i.e., x=0 at t=0, the Eq. (2.5a) gives A=0. The velocity as
obtained from Eq. (2.5a) will become
x  B pt e  pt  e  pt 
At, t=0, x =B = V. Therefore, the Eq. (2.5a) becomes
x = V t e-pt (2.5b)
The maximum displacement x occurs, when the system comes to rest before returning
to zero displacement. Therefore, Eq. (2.5b) at maximum displacement gives
x  Ve  pt (1  pt )  0 (apply maxima condition)
Therefore, (1 – pt) = 0, i.e. t = 1/p. At time, t = 1/p the displacement is given as
V V 2mV
x  Vte pt  e 1 = 0.368  0.368
p p r
x(t)

t=2m/r Time
Figure 2: Variation of displacement as a function of
time for a critically damped system.
The variation of displacement with time for a critically damped system is shown in Fig. 2.

Case 3: Damped Harmonic Oscillations

When r2/4m2 < s/m there is diminutive damping and this corresponds to the
case of damped harmonic oscillatory motion as explained below. In this case the
expression (r2/4m2 - s/m)1/2 can be written as
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
 r2 s s r2  s r2 
       1    =  i 
 m 4m 2 

 4m
2
m   m 4m 2 
   
Such that the Eq. (2.3c) for displacement can be written as
x  C1e  rt / 2 mi (s / mr / 4 m ) t  C2e  rt / 2 mi (s / mr / 4 m ) t
2 2 1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2

The term in parenthesis has the dimensions of time inverse, i.e., frequency, and can be
written as (s/m – r2/4m2)1/2 = ωʹ. The above Eq. then becomes
x  e  rt / 2 m C1eit  C 2 e it  (2.6)
This corresponds to the oscillatory behavior of the displacement ‘x’ with a new
frequency, (   (s / m)1/ 2 ) , where =(s/m)1/2 is the frequency of ideal SHO. If we
now choose the two constants C1 and C2, which otherwise can be obtained from given
initial conditions, as
A A
C1  e i , and C 2   e i
2i 2i
Where, A and Φ are some constants such that eiΦ is also a constant and all these depends on
the conditions at t = 0. This procedure is equivalent to imposing the initial condition, x = A
sin Φ at t = 0, to the solution for ‘x’. Substituting for C1 and C2, we get

x  Ae rt / 2 m

e i t    e  i t  
= Ae  rt / 2 m sint   (2.7a)
2i
The displacement, therefore, varies sinusiodally with time as in the case of simple
harmonic motion, but with a reduced frequency
1/ 2
s r2 
    
2 
(2.7b)
 m 4m 
e  rt / 2 m

x(t)

Figure 2.3: Damped harmonic oscillations with exponentially

decaying amplitude and reduced angular frequency (   ).
And its amplitude (A) decays exponentially as e-rt/2m with time. The behavior of
displacement x with time is shown in Figure (2.3). It can be easily seen from this
figure that the oscillations are gradually decaying with the envelope of maximum
amplitudes following the dotted curve e-rt/2m. The constant value of A is obviously the
value of amplitude in the absence of any damping. The presence of the resistive force
term ( rx ) in the equation of motion, therefore, introduces a loss of energy which
causes the amplitude of oscillation to decay with time as e -rt/2m. The ballistic
galvanometer is an example of a lightly damped harmonic oscillator.

METHODS FOR DESCRIBING THE DAMPING OF AN OSCILLATOR

We have already learnt in section 1.3 that the energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator is proportional to the square of its amplitude. Further, in section (2.2.1), we
have seen that in presence of a resistive/damping force the amplitude is no longer
constant but decays exponentially as e -rt/2m. Accordingly, the energy decay shall be
proportional to (e-rt/2m)2, i.e., e-rt/m. The larger the value of the damping force ‘r’, more
rapid the decay of the amplitude and hence energy. Thus, the exponential factor can
be used to express the rates at which the amplitude and energy are reduced.

(a) Logarithmic Decrement

The term logarithmic decrement represents the rate of decay of amplitude as
described below. The displacement for a damped harmonic oscillator is given as
x  Ae  rt / 2 m sin(t  )
With, x = A0 at t = 0. If the period of oscillation is  where   2 /  , then one
period later the amplitude is given by
A1  A0er / 2m 
Ao
Such that  e r / 2 m   e  (2.8)
A1
r A
Where,     loge 0 is termed as the logarithmic decrement. The δ is the
2m A1
logarithm of ratio of two amplitudes separated by one time period. The larger
amplitude is in the numerator, thus eδ > 1.
A0
Similarly,  e r 2  / 2 m  e 2
A2
A0
Generalizing,  e n , n the number of time periods.
An

(b) Relaxation Time or Modulus of Decay

Another way of expressing the damping effect is by means of the time taken
for the amplitude to decay to e-1 (= 0.368) of its initial value A0. This time is called
the relaxation time or modulus of decay. If we choose t = 2m/r, then in this time the
amplitude becomes
At = A0 e-rt/2m = A0 e-1
Therefore, the relaxation time is given as,
t = 2m/r (2.9)
Theoretically, the time for a natural decay process to reach zero is infinite.

(c) The Quality Factor or Q-value

This measures the rate at which the energy of an oscillator decays. Since the
decay of the amplitude is represented by
A = A0 e-rt/2m (2.10a)
Therefore, the decay of energy shall be proportional to square of amplitude and hence
can be represented as
E  E 0 e   r / m t (2.10b)
Where, E0 is the energy value at t = 0. The time during which the energy ‘E’ decays to
(E0e-1) is given by (t = m/r). During this time the oscillator will have vibrated through
( m / r ) rad.
The quality factor (Q) is defined as the number of radians through which the
damped system oscillates as its energy decays to (E0 e-1). Therefore,
m
Q (2.11a)
r
1/ 2
s r2 s
If ‘r’ is small, then Q is very large, but then  such that      
m
2
m 4m
Therefore, to a very close approximation the quality factor can be written as
m
Q (2.11b)
r
This is a constant for the damped system. Using this relation, we can express the
energy decay in terms of the quality factor as
E  E0er / m t  E0e0t / Q (2.12)
Alternatively, the quality factor can be described as under.
Considering that the energy decay for oscillator expressed by Eq. (2.10b), the energy
lost per cycle is given as
dE r 1
 E  t  E (2.13a)
dt m 
Where, t  1 /    , the period of oscillation.
Therefore, using Eq. (2.13a) and (2.11b), we can write the ratio
energy stored in the system E m m m Q
     (2.13b)
energy lost per cycle  E r r 2r 2
In other words, the quality factor can also be defined as
energy stored in the system
Q=2 x (2.14)
energy lost per cycle
DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

L R

Figure 2.4: LCR circuit capable of damped harmonic oscillations.

We have already seen in previous chapter that when the capacitor is allowed to
discharge through an inductor the charge oscillates simple harmonically. Now we let
us consider the case when resistance is also present in the circuit as shown in Figure
(2.4). Proceeding as in section (1.1.4), the voltage equation can be written by using
Kirchhoff’s law as
dI q
L  RI   0 (2.15a)
dt C
q
Lq  Rq   0 (2.15b)
C
This differential equation can be solved as was done above for the case of mechanical
oscillator or simply by comparison with the solutions for displacement ‘x’ in the
mechanical case we can write the similar solution for charge as
q  q 0e Rt / 2 Lt R / 4 L 1/ LC 
2 2 1/ 2

(2.16)
2 2
For 1/LC > R / 4L , Eq. (2.16) gives oscillatory behavior at a frequency
1 R2
2   2 (2.17)
LC 4L
Using Eq. (2.17) the Eq. (2.16) can be written as
q  q 0e Rt / 2Leit 2.18)
Therefore, we can say that the charge undergoing damped harmonic oscillations with
a frequency given by Eq. (2.17). Further, it is clear from the exponential decay term
that (R/L) has the dimensions of inverse time T-1.