Communication

This article is about communication between emoticons to convey emotion.

living things. For technological aspects, see Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlaw-
telecommunications. For other uses, see Communication
ick’s laws: you cannot not communicate. Once proximity
(disambiguation). has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting
“Communicate” redirects here. For other uses, see
any signals received.[5] Some of the functions of nonver-
Communicate (disambiguation). bal communication in humans are to complement and il-
lustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and sub-
Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning “to stitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the de-
share”[1] ) is the purposeful activity of information ex- notative message.
change between two or more participants in order to con-
vey or receive the intended meanings through a shared
system of signs and semiotic rules. The basic steps of
communication are the forming of communicative intent, 2 Verbal communication
message composition, message encoding, transmission of
signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally
interpretation of the message by the recipient. Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent
on a number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from
Communication in general takes place inside and between other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal
three main subject categories: human beings, living or- communication, listening skills and clarification. Human
ganisms in general and communication-enabled devices language can be defined as a system of symbols (some-
(for example sensor networks and control systems).[2] times known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by
Communication in the category of living organisms (stud- which the symbols are manipulated. The word “lan-
ied in the field of biosemiotics) usually occurs through guage” also refers to common properties of languages.
visual, auditory, or biochemical means. Human commu- Language learning normally occurs most intensively dur-
nication is unique for its extensive use of language. ing human childhood. Most of the thousands of hu-
man languages use patterns of sound or gesture for sym-
bols which enable communication with others around
them. Languages tend to share certain properties, al-
1 Nonverbal communication though there are exceptions. There is no defined line be-
tween a language and a dialect. Constructed languages
Main article: Nonverbal communication such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various
mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted to
Nonverbal communication describes the process of con- the properties shared by human languages. Communica-
veying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Ex- tion is two-way process not merely one-way.
amples of nonverbal communication include haptic com- An Effective Communication Process*:
munication, chronemic communication, gestures, body
• Use standard terminology when communicating infor-
language, facial expression, eye contact, and how one
mation. • Request and provide clarification when needed.
dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to in-
• Ensure statements are direct and unambiguous. • In-
tent of a message. Examples of intent are voluntary,
form the appropriate individuals when the mission or
intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking,
plans change. • Communicate all information needed by
as well as involuntary, such as sweating.[3] Speech also
those individuals or teams external to the team. • Use
contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g.
nonverbal communication appropriately. • Use proper
rhythm, intonation, tempo, and stress. There may even
order when communicating information.[6] ″* for formal
be a pheromone component. Research has shown that
English-speaking groups
up to 55% of human communication may occur through
non-verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through
paralanguage.[4] It affects communication most at the
subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, writ-
ten texts include nonverbal elements such as handwrit- 3 Elements of Communication Skills
ing style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of

1
2 4 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

3.1 Communication decoder understands the message is dependent upon var-

ious factors such as knowledge of recipient, their respon-
Communication is a continuous or two-way process of siveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on
reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not decoder.
only exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas
5. Feedback:-
and feelings but also create and share meaning.
Feedback is the main component of communication pro-
“Communication is simply the act of transferring in-
cess as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the
formation from one place to another.” In general, com-
message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct in-
munication is a means of connecting people or places. In
terpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may
business, it is a key function of management an organiza-
be verbal or non-verbal. It may take written form also in
tion cannot operate without communication between lev-
form of memos, reports, etc.
els, departments and employees.
For Example:-
Components of Communication Process
· You may realize you’re hungry and encode the following
The main components of communication process are as
message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you
follows:
want to get pizza tonight?” You are sender as you share
your message (“I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza
1. Context: -
tonight?”) to another. · Your roommate is a receiver as
Communication is affected by the context in which it
takes place. This context may be physical, social, chrono-
logical or cultural. Every communication proceeds with
context. The sender chooses the message to communi-
cate within a context.
2. Sender / Encoder: -
Sender / Encoder are a person who sends the message. A
sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual
aids) to convey the message and produce the required re-
sponse. Sender may be an individual or a group or an
organization.
he receives the message; he decodes your communication
3. Message:-
and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning
Message is a key idea that the sender wants to commu- out of it.
nicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient.
· Then your roommate response or reply your message.
Communication process begins with deciding about the
So its feedback. It may be positive or negative that he
message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main
will give you pizza or not. Feedback is essential element
objective of the message is clear.
of communication.
4. Medium:-
· Air is used as medium as by air your message transmits
Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the mes-
· Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we
sage. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for
have various options, or channels for communication.
transmitting the message else the message might not be
Encoded messages are sent through a channelThe sensory
conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appro-
route on which a message travels., or a sensory route on
priate medium of communication is essential for making
which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding.
the message effective and correctly.
· If your roommate has headphones on and is engaged in a
This choice of communication medium varies depending
video game, you may need to get his attention by waving
upon the features of communication.
your hands before you can ask him about dinner.
For instance:
· Written medium is chosen when a message has to
be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral 4 Business communication
medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required
from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then Main article: Business communication
and there.
Recipient / Decoder:- Business communications is used for a wide variety of
Recipient / Decoder are a person for whom the message activities including, but not limited to: strategic com-
is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the munications planning, media relations, public relations
 3

(which can include social media, broadcast and written located in different buildings or on different sites.
communications, and more), brand management, reputa- Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly
tion management, speech-writing, customer-client rela- the failure of management to introduce new tech-
tions, and internal/employee communications. nology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages
Companies with limited resources may choose to engage are another factor which frequently causes commu-
in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations nication difficulties for an organization.
may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it • System design. System design faults refer to prob-
is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, com- lems with the structures or systems in place in an
munications professionals often specialize in one or two organization. Examples might include an organiza-
of these areas but usually have at least a working knowl- tional structure which is unclear and therefore makes
edge of most of them. By far, the most important qual- it confusing to know whom to communicate with.
ifications communications professionals can possess are Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate
excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the ca- information systems, a lack of supervision or train-
pacity to think critically and strategically. ing, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities
which can lead to staff being uncertain about what
is expected of them.
5 Family communication • Attitudinal barriers. Attitudinal barriers come
about as a result of problems with staff in an organi-
Family communication is the study and practice of the zation. These may be brought about, for example, by
communication perspective in a broadly defined family, such factors as poor management, lack of consulta-
with intimacy and trusting relationship.[7] The main goal tion with employees, personality conflicts which can
of family communication is to understand the interactions result in people delaying or refusing to communi-
of family and the pattern of behaviors of family members cate, the personal attitudes of individual employees
in different circumstances. which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatis-
Family communication study looks at topics such as fam- faction at work, brought about by insufficient train-
ily rules, family roles or family dialectics and how those ing to enable them to carry out particular tasks, or
factors could affect the communication between family simply resistance to change due to entrenched atti-
members. Researchers develop theories to understand tudes and ideas.
communication behaviors. Family communication study • Ambiguity of words/phrases. Words sounding the
also digs deep into certain time periods of family life such same but having different meaning can convey a dif-
as marriage, parenthood or divorce and how communica- ferent meaning altogether. Hence the communica-
tion stands in those situations. It is important for family tor must ensure that the receiver receives the same
members to understand communication as a trusted way meaning. It is better if such words are avoided by
which leads to a well constructed family. using alternatives whenever possible.
• Individual linguistic ability. The use of jargon,
difficult or inappropriate words in communication
6 Barriers to effective human com- can prevent the recipients from understanding the
munication message. Poorly explained or misunderstood mes-
sages can also result in confusion. However, re-
Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort search in communication has shown that confusion
the message and intention of the message being conveyed can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion
which may result in failure of the communication pro- fails.[9][10]
cess or an effect that is undesirable. These include fil- • Physiological barriers. These may result from
tering, selective perception, information overload, emo- individuals’ personal discomfort, caused—for
tions, language, silence, communication apprehension, example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing
gender differences and political correctness[8] difficulties.
This also includes a lack of expressing “knowledge- • Cultural differences. These may result from
appropriate” communication, which occurs when a per- the cultural differences of communities around the
son uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jar- world, within an individual country (tribal/regional
gon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is differences, dialects etc.), between religious groups
not understood by the recipient. and in organisations or at an organisational level -
where companies, teams and units may have differ-
• Physical barriers. Physical barriers are often due ent expectations, norms and idiolects. Families and
to the nature of the environment. An example of family groups may also experience the effect of cul-
this is the natural barrier which exists if staff are tural barriers to communication within and between
4 7 NONHUMAN COMMUNICATION

different family members or groups. For example: can be defined as any behavior of one animal that af-
words, colours and symbols have different meanings fects the current or future behavior of another animal.
in different cultures. In most parts of the world, The study of animal communication, called zoo semiotics
nodding your head means agreement, shaking your (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of hu-
head means no, except in some parts of the world.[11] man communication) has played an important part in the
development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of
• Bypassing. These happens when the communica-
animal cognition. Animal communication, and indeed
tors (sender and the receiver) do not attach the same
the understanding of the animal world in general, is a
symbolic meanings to their words. It is when the
rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so
sender is expressing a thought or a word but the re-
far, a great share of prior understanding related to di-
ceiver take it in a different meaning. For example-
verse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal
ASAP, Rest room
emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual
• Technological multi-tasking and absorbency. conduct, long thought to be well understood, has been
With a rapid increase in technologically-driven com- revolutionized. A special field of animal communication
munication in the past several decades, individuals has been investigated in more detail such as vibrational
are increasingly faced with condensed communica- communication.[13]
tion in the form of e-mail, text, and social updates.
This has, in turn, led to a notable change in the
way younger generations communicate and perceive 7.2 Plants and fungi
their own self-efficacy to communicate and connect
with others. With the ever-constant presence of an- Communication is observed within the plant organism,
other “world” in one’s pocket, individuals are multi- i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between
tasking both physically and cognitively as constant plants of the same or related species, and between plants
reminders of something else happening somewhere and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone.
else bombard them. Though perhaps too new of an Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi,
advancement to yet see long-term effects, this is a and insects within the soil. These interactions are gov-
notion currently explored by such figures as Sherry erned by syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules, and
Turkle.[12] are possible because of the decentralized “nervous sys-
tem” of plants. The original meaning of the word “neu-
Fear of being criticized is a major factor that prevents ron” in Greek is “vegetable fiber” and recent research has
good communication. If we exercise simple practices to shown that most of the microorganism plant communica-
improve our communication skill, we can become effec- tion processes are neuron-like.[14] Plants also communi-
tive communicators. For example, read an article from cate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behav-
the newspaper or collect some news from the television ior, thus warning neighboring plants.[15] In parallel they
and present it in front of the mirror. This will not only produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack
boost your confidence, but also improve your language these herbivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite
and vocabulary. the genomes they inherited from their parents and revert
to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their
7 Nonhuman communication growth and development such as the formation of
Marcelia and fruiting bodies. Fungi communicate with
See also: Biocommunication (science), Interspecies their own and related species as well as with non fungal
communication and Biosemiotics organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, es-
pecially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryote, plants and
Every information exchange between living organisms — insects through biochemicals of biotic origin. The bio-
i.e. transmission of signals that involve a living sender chemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a spe-
and receiver can be considered a form of communi- cific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are
cation; and even primitive creatures such as corals are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal
competent to communicate. Nonhuman communication organism to react. This implies that fungal organisms can
also include cell signaling, cellular communication, and differentiate between molecules taking part in biotic mes-
chemical transmissions between primitive organisms like sages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situa-
bacteria and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. tion. So far five different primary signalling molecules are
known to coordinate different behavioral patterns such as
filamentation, mating, growth, and pathogenicity. Behav-
7.1 Animals ioral coordination and production of signaling substances
is achieved through interpretation processes that enables
The broad field of animal communication encompasses the organism to differ between self or non-self, a biotic
most of the issues in ethology. Animal communication indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-
 5

related species, and even filter out “noise”, i.e. similar

molecules without biotic content.[16]

7.3 Bacteria quorum sensing

Communication is not a tool used only by humans, plants
and animals, but it is also used by microorganisms like
bacteria. The process is called quorum sensing. Through
quorum sensing, bacteria are able to sense the density of
cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly. This can
be seen in both gram positive and gram negative bacte-
ria. This was first observed by Fuqua et al. in marine
microorganisms like V. harveyi and V. fischeri.[17]

Interactional Model of Communication

8 Models of communication
Main article: Models of communication
The first major model for communication was intro-

Berlo’s Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communi-

cation

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Transactional model of communication

the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the
phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon
and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that
interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation,
which they deemed noise.
Communication major dimensions scheme
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission
duced by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell model or standard view of communication, information
Laboratories in 1949[18] The original model was designed or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in
to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone tech- some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/
nologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This com-
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the mon conception of communication simply views com-
part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was munication as a means of sending and receiving infor-
6 8 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

It assumes communicators are isolated individ-

uals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s

(1949) linear model of communication and created
the SMCR Model of Communication.[20] The Sender-
Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication
separated the model into clear parts and has been ex-
panded upon by other scholars.
Communication code scheme Communication is usually described along a few major
dimensions: Message (what type of things are commu-
nicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom),
form (in which form), channel (through which medium),
destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and
Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we
Linear Communication Model should also examine the impact that a message has (both
desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[21]
Between parties, communication includes acts that confer
mation. The strengths of this model are simplicity, gen- knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands,
erality, and quantifiability. Claude Shannon and Warren and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in
Weaver structured this model based on the following el- one of the various manners of communication. The form
ements: depends on the abilities of the group communicating. To-
gether, communication content and form make messages
1. An information source, which produces a message. that are sent towards a destination. The target can be one-
self, another person or being, another entity (such as a
2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into sig- corporation or group of beings).
nals
Communication can be seen as processes of information
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for trans- transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
mission
1. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between
4. A noise source, which distorts the signal while it
signs/expressions and their users)
propagates through the channel

5. A receiver, which 'decodes’ (reconstructs) the mes- 2. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and
sage from the signal. symbols and what they represent) and

6. A destination, where the message arrives. 3. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels Therefore, communication is social interaction where at
of problems for communication within this theory. least two interacting agents share a common set of signs
and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held
The technical problem: how accurately can the rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including
message be transmitted? intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both
secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisi-
The semantic problem: how precisely is the tion of communicative competences within social inter-
meaning 'conveyed'? actions.
The effectiveness problem: how effectively In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed
does the received meaning affect behavior? a transactional model of communication.[22] The basic
premise of the transactional model of communication is
Daniel Chandler[19] critiques the transmission model by that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the send-
stating: ing and receiving of messages.
 7

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver adies that prevent effective communication, such
are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of commu- as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages
nication, referred to as the constitutive model or construc- from being received as they were intended.
tionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates
as the determining factor of the way the message will be • Semantic noise. Different interpretations of the
interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a meanings of certain words. For example, the word
passage in which information travels from one individual “weed” can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in
to another and this information becomes separate from a yard, or as a euphemism for marijuana.
the communication itself. A particular instance of com- • Syntactical noise. Mistakes in grammar can dis-
munication is called a speech act. The sender’s personal rupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb
filters and the receiver’s personal filters may vary depend- tense during a sentence.
ing upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gen-
der; which may alter the intended meaning of message • Organizational noise. Poorly structured commu-
contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on nication can prevent the receiver from accurate in-
the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and terpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated
decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech directions can make the receiver even more lost.
act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem • Cultural noise. Stereotypical assumptions can
with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally of-
the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the fending a non-Christian person by wishing them a
sender and receiver each possess something that functions “Merry Christmas”.
as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the
very least, similar if not identical. Although something • Psychological noise. Certain attitudes can also
like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere make communication difficult. For instance, great
represented in the model, which creates many conceptual anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on
difficulties. the present moment. Disorders such as autism may
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a also severely hamper effective communication.[23]
creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than
a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media
scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use dif- 10 Communication as academic
ferent types of media to communicate and which one discipline
they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the
shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
Main article: Communication studies
His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and
looking at the ways they built themselves out of media
with very different properties stone and papyrus. Pa-
pyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible
the transmission of written orders across space, empires 11 See also
and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and
colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time • Advice
Binding', through the construction of temples and the
• Augmentative and alternative communication
pyramids can sustain their authority generation to gen-
eration, through this media they can change and shape • Communication rights
communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
• Data communication
• Human communication´
9 Noise
• Inter Mirifica
In any communication model, noise is interference with • Ishin-denshin
the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an en-
coder. There are many examples of noise: • Sign system
• Small talk
• Environmental noise. Noise that physically dis-
rupts communication, such as standing next to loud • SPEAKING
speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction • Telecommunication
site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear
the professor. • Telepathy
• Physiological-impairment noise. Physical mal- • Understanding
8 13 FURTHER READING

12 References [20] Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New

York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
[1] Harper, Douglas. “communication”. Online Etymology [21] Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W.
Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-23. Schramm (Ed.), The process and effects of communication
[2] http://www.gwu.edu/~{}asc/cyber_definition.html (pp. 3–26). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

[3] “Types of Body Language”. www.simplybodylanguage. [22] Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of com-
com. Retrieved 2016-02-08. munication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication
theory (2nd ed., pp47-57). New Brunswick, New Jersey:
[4] Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Transaction.
Transaction Publishers.
[23] Roy M. Berko, et al., Communicating. 11th ed. (Boston,
[5] Wazlawick, Paul (1970’s) opus MA: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010) 9-12

[6] “Effective Communication.” Be Influenced, Figure 7-1

Presents a Communication Model. SHANNON’S COMMU-
Template:Rahi Notes: Communication Skills, Shujaat
NICATIONS MODEL(n.d.): n. pag. Web. Ali Rahi, Facebook

[7] Turner, L. H., & West, R. L. (2013). Perspectives on fam-

ily communication. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
13 Further reading
[8] Robbins, S., Judge, T., Millett, B., & Boyle, M. (2011).
Organisational Behaviour. 6th ed. Pearson, French’s For- • Innis, Harold. Empire and Communications. Rev.
est, NSW p315-317. by Mary Q. Innis; foreword by Marshall McLuhan.
Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press, 1972.
[9] What Should Be Included in a Project Plan - Retrieved
December 18th, 2009 xii, 184 p. N.B.: “Here he [i.e. Innis] develops his
theory that the history of empires is determined to
[10] J. Scott Armstrong (1980). “Bafflegab Pays” (PDF). Psy- a large extent by their means of communication.”—
chology Today: 12. From the back cover of the book’s pbk. ed. ISBN
0-8020-6119-2 pbk
[11] Nageshwar Rao, Rajendra P.Das, Communication skills,
Himalaya Publishing House, 9789350516669, p.48
Template:Rahi Notes: Communication Skills, Shujaat
[12] “Technology can sometimes hinder communication, TR Ali Rahi, Faocebook
staffers observe - The Collegian”. The Collegian. Re-
trieved 2016-01-11.

[13] Randall J.A. (2014). Vibrational Communication: Spi-

ders to Kangaroo Rats. In: Witzany, G. (ed). Biocommu-
nication of Animals, Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 103-133.
ISBN 978-94-007-7413-1.

[14] Baluska, F.; Marcuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter (2006).

Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of plant life.
Taylor & Francis US. p. 19. ISBN 3-540-28475-3. ...the
emergence of plant neurobiology as the most recent area
of plant sciences.

[15] Ian T. Baldwin, Jack C. Schultz (1983). “Rapid Changes

in Tree Leaf Chemistry Induced by Damage: Evidence
for Communication Between Plants”. Science 221 (4607):
277–279. doi:10.1126/science.221.4607.277.

[16] Witzany, G (ed) (2012). Biocommunication of Fungi.

Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-4263-5

[17] Anand, Sandhya. Quorum Sensing- Communication Plan

For Microbes. Article dated 2010-12-28, retrieved on
2012-04-03.

[18] Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical

theory of communication. Urbana, Illinois: University of
Illinois Press

[19] Daniel Chandler, “The Transmission Model of Commu-

nication”, Aber.ac.uk
 9

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
• Communication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication?oldid=705056725 Contributors: Stephen Gilbert, Ap, Ed Poor,
Andre Engels, Little guru, William Avery, SimonP, DavidLevinson, AdamRetchless, Mjb, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Alodyne, Lexor,
Gdarin, Vera Cruz, Kku, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Lquilter, Alfio, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, J-Wiki, CatherineMunro, BigFatBuddha, Salsa Shark,
T3knomanser, Glenn, Marteau, Andres, Qwert, Ghewgill, Smack, RickK, Ww, Randyc~enwiki, WhisperToMe, Samsara, Vinay Varma,
Leonariso, Alexina, Jeffq, Carlossuarez46, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, R3m0t, Altenmann, Richardpitt, Securiger, Rholton, Meelar, An-
drew Levine, Doidimais Brasil, Hadal, Wereon, Michael Snow, Dhodges, Ruakh, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Do-
minick, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Mintleaf~enwiki, Adasi~enwiki, Kenny sh, Zigger, Adamk, Emuzesto~enwiki, NeoJustin, Ben-
saccount, Borisgloger, Malyctenar, Piman, Steve-o~enwiki, SWAdair, Edcolins, Christopherlin, ALargeElk, Peter Ellis, Chowbok, Gad-
fium, Utcursch, Andycjp, Antandrus, Beland, Piotrus, Kusunose, Khaosworks, Ot, MacGyverMagic, Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Karl Dickman,
Bluemask, Zro, Mike Rosoft, Brianjd, Jwdietrich2, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Vsmith, Westendgirl, Lind-
sayH, Mjpieters, Mani1, SpookyMulder, Edgarde, Bender235, ESkog, ZeroOne, Fronz, S.K., Slokunshialgo, Violetriga, CanisRufus, El
C, Rgdboer, Shanes, Bookofjude, Adambro, Bobo192, Chapium, DJ Ecto, Smalljim, Shenme, Maurreen, Nk, Thewayforward, Sam Korn,
Haham hanuka, Nsaa, Mdd, Orangemarlin, Ranveig, Zachlipton, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, Jhertel, Arthena, Keenan Pepper, Riana,
Steele~enwiki, Hu, Velella, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Shoefly, Bsadowski1, Freyr, Versageek, KTC, Phi beta, Jorray, RHaworth, Camw,
LOL, Ikescs, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Chochopk, Tabletop, Firien, Wikiklrsc, Peacefulvalley, Burkhard~enwiki, Macaddct1984,
Waldir, DeweyQ, Dysepsion, Mandarax, RichardWeiss, Matilda, Graham87, BD2412, Zoz, Mendaliv, Phillipedison1891, Josh Parris,
Sjö, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Angusmclellan, Erebus555, Chsf, Vegaswikian, Lendorien, Tintazul, The wub, Kyle.Mullaney, Old
Moonraker, Musical Linguist, Rgathercoal, Doc glasgow, Margosbot~enwiki, HurriSbezu, Nivix, AJR, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch,
Otets, Jrtayloriv, AndriuZ, Quuxplusone, Swtpc6800, Srleffler, Chobot, DVdm, Guliolopez, John Dalton, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, EWignall,
Gwernol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Mukkakukaku, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Petiatil, Splash, Epolk, RadioFan2 (usurped), Stephenb, Shell
Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, NawlinWiki, Lemon-s, Bachrach44, Janke, Grafen, Cquan, TheSwami,
Anetode, Moe Epsilon, Stevenwmccrary58, Misza13, PM Poon, Chichui, Zagalejo, Tkinkhorst, DeadEyeArrow, Everyguy, Botteville,
Wknight94, Pooryorick~enwiki, Pap3rinik, Boivie, Tigershrike, Theodolite, Cbogart2, Closedmouth, E Wing, KGasso, Pietdesomere,
Josh3580, SMcCandlish, Pablo2garcia~enwiki, JoanneB, Fram, Anclation~enwiki, Willtron, Allens, Kungfuadam, Carlosguitar, Smack-
Bot, MattieTK, Aneeshnj, YellowMonkey, Erictj, Reedy, Prodego, Hydrogen Iodide, Mscuthbert, Rojomoke, Hardyplants, Cessator, Took,
Fentonrobb, HalfShadow, Gilliam, Skizzik, Carl.bunderson, Frédérick Lacasse, Cowman109, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Oli Filth, Tree
Biting Conspiracy, Roscelese, SchfiftyThree, Akanemoto, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Imacdo, Nbarth, KingAlanI, Hallenrm, Gracenotes, De-
thme0w, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Klacquement, Tracy2642000, Death2, Rrburke, Addshore, Midnightcomm, Mr.Z-man, Sundar-
Bot, Mayooresan, Jaimie Henry, Nakon, Jiddisch~enwiki, Hoof Hearted, Perry8331, RandomP, Geoffr, Samafito, MartinRe, Luigi III,
Lcarscad, Wisco, KeithB, Sigma 7, Mschevrolet, Byelf2007, Runa27, Tydus Arandor, Hanasato, Srikeit, Kuru, KarmGrigoryan, Scientiz-
zle, Mc nikki b, Rtybgh, Gobonobo, JohnI, Robofish, JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Feraudyh, IronGargoyle, Voceditenore, 16@r, JHunterJ, Slakr,
Rafaleaz, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Skishoo2, Dicklyon, Achilleshart, Jon186, Optakeover, SandyGeorgia, Spiel496, Dhp1080, Ryulong,
Citicat, EEPROM Eagle, Nvpatentlawyer, Jose77, Varuag doos, Xionbox, Autonova, Quaeler, Levineps, BranStark, Iridescent, Shoe-
ofdeath, Turbokoala, Gorillazfeelgoodinc, Igoldste, CapitalR, Guest0495, Courcelles, Bottesini, Tawkerbot2, George100, RockinRob,
SkyWalker, JForget, CmdrObot, Escaper7, Porterjoh, Martins.Dzelde, Zarex, Unionhawk, Tensionjt, GHe, Kaune, Noel.Dietrich, AshLin,
ShelfSkewed, Iokseng, Kemrin, Bobnorwal, Gregbard, Funnyfarmofdoom, Warp9wb, Slazenger, Mike2000~enwiki, Meno25, Gogo Dodo,
Flowerpotman, ST47, Chasingsol, Julian Mendez, Skittleys, Cbaxter1, SymlynX, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, AndersFeder, DumbBOT,
Bookgrrl, NaLalina, Lee, Kozuch, Xantharius, Omicronpersei8, Lo2u, Nfslpu, Satori Son, FrancoGG, Letranova, Epbr123, Doct.proloy,
Qwyrxian, TonyTheTiger, Greg hill, HappyInGeneral, Andyjsmith, Marek69, John254, Bobblehead, Maximilian Schönherr, Tellyaddict,
BauerPower, Pkapitola, Siggis, Escarbot, Mentifisto, Porqin, AntiVandalBot, BokicaK, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, CZmarlin, Goodmansasha,
Antique Rose, Expligatory, DeepJR, Smartse, Jacqke, Alexthurleyratcliff, Dylan Lake, PseudoChron, Jenny Wong, Jaredroberts, Mike-
Lynch, JAnDbot, DuncanHill, MER-C, The Transhumanist, JonBernstein, Charanhere, Acroterion, Rose455, Pablothegreat85, Freedom-
linux, .snoopy., Hayduke lives, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Usereed, JamesBWatson, D1doherty, Autie 808, Swpb, Ling.Nut, Bwhack, I
JethroBT, Champvirgomartin, Animum, Cgingold, Ciaccona, Hazukisan, Cpl Syx, Spellmaster, Vssun, DerHexer, JaGa, Edward321,
Khalid Mahmood, Oicumayberight, 0612, MartinBot, Yrrah, Management Culture, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Jarhed,
EdBever, Mausy5043, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Petreg, Adavidb, Hanteng, Silverxxx, Wtimrock, Misty-
Morn, Maurice Carbonaro, Extransit, Amanda Renee, Cdamama, Athalia~enwiki, Joe fob, Aqwis, Elkost, Katalaveno, Allanhgilbertson,
McSly, Bryantnorland, Lovely seungmi, Brolsma, Babochka18, Gemena, The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, Arun0070,
Johnabolarin, Jorfer, EyeRmonkey, Cometstyles, Warlordwolf, Treisijs, Sjwk, Kvdveer, Pdcook, Ja 62, Inwind, S (usurped also), DASon-
nenfeld, KGV, Funandtrvl, Black Kite, Deor, VolkovBot, Jeff G., MaxwellBliss, Nburden, Tomer T, Aesopos, Philip Trueman, Tcaruso2,
TXiKiBoT, AllanManangan, Yupi666, Anne1024, NPrice, Anonymous Dissident, Nl74, GcSwRhIc, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Brainresearch,
Corvus cornix, Don4of4, C7796E2C, Butterscotch, Andy Dingley, Lova Falk, Chuthuy20262, Enviroboy, Xsamanthaxwoodsx, Cnilep,
Brianga, Rlanigan, DennisRivers, Raenico, Kalivd, Irishdunn, NHRHS2010, Anon The Nitpicker, EJF, SieBot, John.n-irl, Danielden,
Jauerback, Fantastic fred, Dawn Bard, Viskonsas, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Lucasbfrbot, Yintan, Keilana, Hebisddave, Bentogoa, Breawycker,
Flyer22 Reborn, MaynardClark, Oda Mari, JetLover, SPACKlick, Yerpo, Wombatcat, Tmorin, Sbowers3, Ayudante, Doctorfluffy, Oxy-
moron83, OKBot, Nancy, Svick, Reneeholle, Capitalismojo, WikiLaurent, Aalucas, Asikhi, Denisarona, Sasha Callahan, Linforest, Atif.t2,
Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Thedosmann, Avenged Eightfold, GorillaWarfare, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy,
Shujaat Ali Rahi, Jacob F. Roecker, Lawrence Cohen, PrometheusArisen, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Tanglewood4, Frogys4me, Bradka, Un-
cle Milty, Ictlecturer, Arunsingh16, Auntof6, Excirial, Alexbot, Mynameisnotpj, Jusdafax, Pablo.paz, Designanddraft, Ameher, Vanishe-
duser12345, Children.of.the.Kron, Vivio Testarossa, Henninb, Lartoven, ParisianBlade, Arjayay, Hans Adler, Санта Клаус, S19991002,
Aleksd, Humdhan, Unmerklich, Andrewlau1022, Aitias, 7, Ranjithsutari, JDPhD, Versus22, Lambtron, Doriftu, MelonBot, Meske, SoxBot
III, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Tanya.Christine, XLinkBot, Pichpich, Gnowor, Jebylicious, Samira19, Oldekop, Bmbenson2, Jewer-
lyGirl18, Stickee, Kebell2, Samwise1, Valeva, Jovianeye, Rror, Dthomsen8, Feinoha, Svgalbertian, XDouglas, Dr sign, WikHead, Mis-
chievousmaddy, PL290, Frood, Alexius08, Noctibus, Vianello, Chinese language is the bubonic plague, Addbot, Jomackiewicz, Manuel
Trujillo Berges, Liefjes, Some jerk on the Internet, Imark 02, Fgnievinski, Blethering Scot, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Moosehadley,
Ynaztiw, Fluffernutter, Ccnc, MrOllie, Download, CarsracBot, Facilitation Author, 5 albert square, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls,
OlEnglish, Krano, Luckas Blade, Gail, MuZemike, Jarble, ‫זרם‬-‫טבעת‬, Albeiror24, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Postalprimesmock, Yobot, Senator
Palpatine, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Thescimitar, AmaraBot, Timir Saxa, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, SD93981, Rpf 81, AnomieBOT,
Quangbao, Hairhorn, Rubinbot, ThaddeusB, Sonia, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Drdac, Kingpin13, Justme89,
10 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

NickK, Flewis, Materialscientist, ArdWar, Citation bot, Nifky?, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Brown tabel, Sketchmoose, Sionus, Khodeir-
mas229, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Mankapr, Wingroad2, Meewam, Millahnna, Nasnema, Batesmas214, Venkaat, Ched, GrandKokla, Mini-
Bill, Anna Frodesiak, Wazofski, Dr Oldekop, Cat1project, Tdjewell, Frosted14, Omnipaedista, Charismatic Verma, Frankie0607, Bran-
don5485, Simon321, Saalstin, JasonSWrench, Spiderwriter, Shadowjams, Amitkhullar, Griffinofwales, Altraul, Nywici, Fingerz, Fres-
coBot, Mshuda, Voxii, Fortdj33, Rmcnabb91, Sky Attacker, Wgpers, Webknguyen, Hiapale21, Comm&emotion, Rnagar4, Jamesooders,
Cinomancaca, DivineAlpha, Intelligentsium, MacMed, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rokaszil, Abductive, Invision2020, D(r)ead End,
MJ94, Hellknowz, JuliaBaxter51, AnandaDaldal, Calint, RedBot, Ania Lian, Ezhuttukari, Madameoctopus, Boolsyet, Jandalhandler, Fu-
mitol, Crimanats3, Dude1818, PSY7, Ceecee1212, FoxBot, Thrissel, TobeBot, Schmiggidy, Train2104, Antara singhania, Exagon, Fox
Wilson, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, UNIT A4B1, LilyKitty, Joey1978, Vancouver Outlaw, ArielForeman, Amirsmile, Arsmanimegalai, Par-
alympiakos, Sivakumar.sachin, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, Dmkolobov, Suffusion of Yellow, Jd Tendril, Tbhotch, Csmithslca, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, Obankston, Chy1991, Im-tha-one, Onel5969, Mean as custard, Stj6, RjwilmsiBot, Coast123, Ripchip Bot, Slice637636, Re-
gancy42, Noommos, Rlholden, Yash k bhatt, Knoweco, Skamecrazy123, Idea101, DASHBot, Gloomofdom, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of
Reading, Yuhter, WikitanvirBot, Jnsdfbjisdfbjsfdjnsfd, Spamerman, Racerx11, Faolin42, GoingBatty, ShilpaSV, ShakeeraDMyers, My-
laramkrishna, Teerickson, Forestn101, Solarra, Encilee, Tommy2010, Sillybillypiggy, Wikipelli, K6ka, Sanghera2685281, AsceticRose,
Erpert, Savh, Evanh2008, Prayerfortheworld, Daonguyen95, Fæ, Josve05a, Traxs7, Érico, Lateg, Jeyda007, The Nut, Matthewcgirling,
Alpha Quadrant (alt), Cobaltcigs, Pingu.dbl96, Monterey Bay, Gz33, Ocaasi, Tolly4bolly, RaptureBot, Tridibbhowmik, Thine Antique
Pen, L Kensington, Donner60, Funnymind, Puffin, Rathen69185, Orange Suede Sofa, Wakebrdkid, Musicguy24, Krbibin, Ortmana, Sven
Manguard, DASHBotAV, Ltaylor20, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Cgt, Xanchester, Gjholt, ClueBot NG, Gowtamrajk, Gareth Griffith-Jones,
Jack Greenmaven, Change67, MelbourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Jenova20, CloveWiki, Jasperspeicher, Rainstarlight, Snotbot,
Theboymusic, Cntras, BabyGirlCourtney, Braincricket, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Widr, Antiqueight, C63205, Stomasz71, Vibhijain,
Ashokrajaballa, North Atlanticist Usonian, Iopsycho, Magallon17, Helpful Pixie Bot, Irrc irri, Ratman2000, Rablanken, Bachelorcourse,
Calabe1992, Bobbyshabangu, Tylerbesh, WNYY98, Anu.gnath, Lowercase sigmabot, Kmalekian, BG19bot, Vectevs, Hz.tiang, Wiki13,
MusikAnimal, JasonPLK, Ronkays, Zachzab, Mark Arsten, AdventurousSquirrel, Anittisathiaraj, Pravincumar pek, Jgatti09, Altaïr, Ma-
hen1201, Kammit102, N.manoraj, Balivernes, Dhamal07, Gobler18, Mohamedadeed, Tanuruya Roy, Sonal6578, Iksar babes, Snow Bliz-
zard, MrBill3, Ahmek001, Marjoleinkl, Awanishbvi, P diggle, Ammarkhan05693, Klilidiplomus, Rapaddhu, Angelakanksha, Bells2012,
Ace001TheBoss999, KGun10, Fylbecatulous, Several Pending, Liam987, Pratyya Ghosh, Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, Gdfusion, EuroCarGT,
Devenpro, RogerBryenton, Sarasapo, EagerToddler39, Webclient101, Mogism, Sundeep k lal, Saehry, Wallybblue, Frosty, Graphium,
Syum90, Ferniewernie, Corn cheese, Telfordbuck, TANWIR HASSAN, Jituparida, AVlonely, Tami Allen, Faizan, Avwezel, Epicgenius,
OverMyJob, Dddege, LogertGilby, Zalunardo8, BreakfastJr, Tentinator, Kogmaw, GingerGeek, Avatto123, Yankeesfan1234, Cherubinir-
ules, Penperson, Lilythamzil, Basilu, Taniquab2014, Babitaarora, Haminoon, Arpitmaurya, JoshuaChen, Ugog Nizdast, JustBerry, Giematt,
Ginsuloft, Civiello m, Someone not using his real name, Sam Sailor, Jianhui67, Werddemer, Javiergustav, Chrissuba2013, Sereiakata, Dan-
nyFangles, Mallywazhere, Dude200116, Vhiggs1, JaconaFrere, Epic Failure, Csutric, TuxLibNit, Bobvancleef38, AKS.9955, Proudcom-
munist111111, Fauziya Muhammad, Mk bataiya, Znorth0818, Jim Carter, IvanZhilin, Berlinlasers, Morrisonann, Molhv, William Tölöberg,
Raymondlay, KBH96, Radueno, KH-1, KatBerg52, Dwikicowan, Crystallizedcarbon, Ryanhw, WikiTechPresentation, Termaric, Tymon.r,
Explicit fire, Ismailzabee92, Ss9704895, Lalith269, Syam prathipati, Gibralter123, Venkatesh doli, Rageetha, Fuebaey, Nicolecheek17,
Gragarian, Mediavalia, Bottlesd, Shakfastlink, NewAtSchool, PAULFERNZ, Jnm230, Silvermoney1963, KasparBot, Steve12040234,
Donnerclan, Sweepy, Srednuas Lenoroc, Lathay, Anindyaneog, Vadivelu.vadi, Vidyabaskar, Joeljoseph77, Sarithashankar, ParamedicDave,
Mkamitkm, Adharris09, Iblue143, Tablelooksgood, Zeeshan 93, Lgracedwiki, Timothy.kuhn, Rylee Wznick, Jessa.lusby, Garylee0210 and
Anonymous: 1771

14.2 Images
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Communication_emisor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Communication_emisor.jpg License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original
artist: Original uploader was Yupi666 at en.wikipedia
• File:Communication_shannon-weaver2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Communication_
shannon-weaver2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Einar Faanes
• File:Communication_types.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Communication_types.png License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zeeshan 93
• File:Encoding_communication.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist:
Yupi666 at English Wikipedia
• File:Icon_Camera.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Icon_Camera.svg License: Attribution Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: me
• File:Interaction_comm_model.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Interaction_comm_model.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors:
• Interaction_comm_model.jpg Original artist: Interaction_comm_model.jpg: JasonSWrench
• File:Linear_comm_model.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Linear_comm_model.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Linear comm model.jpg Original artist: Linear comm model.jpg: JasonSWrench
• File:Logo_sociology.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Logo_sociology.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomeq183
• File:Smcr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Smcr.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: JasonSWrench
• File:Telecom-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
14.3 Content license 11

• File:Transactional_comm_model.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Transactional_comm_model.

jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JasonSWrench
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

14.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0