Particle technology
is the "science and technology related to the handling and processing of
particles and powders."[1] This applies to the production, handling, modification, and use of a wide
variety of particulate materials, both wet or dry, in sizes ranging from nanometers to centimeters; its
scope spans a range of industries to include chemical, petrochemical, agricultural, food,
pharmaceuticals, mineral processing, civil engineering, advanced materials, energy, and the
environment.
Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the behavior
of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a
heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand,
and gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter.[1][2][3][4] Along with rock
mechanics, soil mechanics provides the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical engineering,[5] a
subdiscipline of civil engineering, and engineering geology, a subdiscipline of geology. Soil
mechanics is used to analyze the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made
structures that are supported on or made of soil, or structures that are buried in soils.[6] Example
applications are building and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and buried pipeline systems.
Principles of soil mechanics are also used in related disciplines such as geophysical
engineering, coastal engineering, agricultural engineering, hydrology and soil physics.
This article describes the genesis and composition of soil, the distinction between pore water
pressure and inter-granular effective stress, capillary action of fluids in the soil pore spaces, soil
classification, seepage and permeability, time dependent change of volume due to squeezing water
out of tiny pore spaces, also known as consolidation, shear strength and stiffness of soils. The shear
strength of soils is primarily derived from friction between the particles and interlocking, which are
very sensitive to the effective stress.[6] The article concludes with some examples of applications of
the principles of soil mechanics such as slope stability, lateral earth pressure on retaining walls, and
bearing capacity of foundations.
Genesis[edit]
The primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous
rock, metamorphic rock and sedimentary rock) may be broken down into small particles to create
soil. Weathering mechanisms are physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological
weathering [1][2][3] Human activities such as excavation, blasting, and waste disposal, may also create
soil. Over geologic time, deeply buried soils may be altered by pressure and temperature to become
metamorphic or sedimentary rock, and if melted and solidified again, they would complete the
geologic cycle by becoming igneous rock.[3]
Physical weathering includes temperature effects, freeze and thaw of water in cracks, rain, wind,
impact and other mechanisms. Chemical weathering includes dissolution of matter composing a rock
and precipitation in the form of another mineral. Clay minerals, for example can be formed by
weathering of feldspar, which is the most common mineral present in igneous rock.
The most common mineral constituent of silt and sand is quartz, also called silica, which has the
chemical name silicon dioxide. The reason that feldspar is most common in rocks but silica is more
prevalent in soils is that feldspar is much more soluble than silica.
Silt, Sand, and Gravel are basically little pieces of broken rocks.
According to the Unified Soil Classification System, silt particle sizes are in the range of 0.002 mm to
0.075 mm and sand particles have sizes in the range of 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm.
Gravel particles are broken pieces of rock in the size range 4.75 mm to 100 mm. Particles larger
than gravel are called cobbles and boulders.[1][2]
Transport[edit]
Example soil horizons. a) top soil and colluvium b) mature residual soil c) young residual soil d) weathered
rock.
Soil deposits are affected by the mechanism of transport and deposition to their location. Soils that
are not transported are called residual soils—they exist at the same location as the rock from which
they were generated. Decomposed granite is a common example of a residual soil. The common
mechanisms of transport are the actions of gravity, ice, water, and wind. Wind blown soils include
dune sands and loess. Water carries particles of different size depending on the speed of the water,
thus soils transported by water are graded according to their size. Silt and clay may settle out in a
lake, and gravel and sand collect at the bottom of a river bed. Wind blown soil deposits
(aeolian soils) also tend to be sorted according to their grain size. Erosion at the base of glaciers is
powerful enough to pick up large rocks and boulders as well as soil; soils dropped by melting ice can
be a well graded mixture of widely varying particle sizes. Gravity on its own may also carry particles
down from the top of a mountain to make a pile of soil and boulders at the base; soil deposits
transported by gravity are called colluvium.[1][2]
The mechanism of transport also has a major effect on the particle shape. For example, low velocity
grinding in a river bed will produce rounded particles. Freshly fractured colluvium particles often
have a very angular shape.
Soil composition[edit]
Soil mineralogy[edit]
Silts, sands and gravels are classified by their size, and hence they may consist of a variety of
minerals. Owing to the stability of quartz compared to other rock minerals, quartz is the most
common constituent of sand and silt. Mica, and feldspar are other common minerals present in
sands and silts.[1] The mineral constituents of gravel may be more similar to that of the parent rock.
The common clay minerals are montmorillonite or smectite, illite, and kaolinite or kaolin. These
minerals tend to form in sheet or plate like structures, with length typically ranging between 10−7 m
and 4x10−6 m and thickness typically ranging between 10−9 m and 2x10−6 m, and they have a
relatively large specific surface area. The specific surface area (SSA) is defined as the ratio of the
surface area of particles to the mass of the particles. Clay minerals typically have specific surface
areas in the range of 10 to 1,000 square meters per gram of solid.[3] Due to the large surface area
available for chemical, electrostatic, and van der Waals interaction, the mechanical behavior of clay
minerals is very sensitive to the amount of pore fluid available and the type and amount of dissolved
ions in the pore fluid.[1]
The minerals of soils are predominantly formed by atoms of oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, and
aluminum, organized in various crystalline forms. These elements along with calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, and carbon constitute over 99 per cent of the solid mass of soils.[1]
