ARC 310

Building Structures
and Form IV
2 CREDIT UNITS
TERMINOLOGY OF STEEL AND ITS DIMESIONAL DESCRIPTIONS
STEEL STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOUR
STEEL APPLICATION IN ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES
DESIGN OF SIMPLE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN STEEL

L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING STEEL

STEEL IS COMPOSED OF IRON AND CARBON.

THE IRON IS EXTRACTED FROM IRON ORES, MINED AND
THEN REFINED TO REMOVE THE OXYGEN CONTENT.

PART OF THE REFINING PROCESS IS TO REMOVE

OXYGEN FROM THESE ORES BY HEATING THEM WITH
COKE AND LIMESTONE TO A TEMPERATURE OF ABOUT
1600° C IN A BLAST FURNACE

AFTER REDUCING THE IRON OXIDE THE RESULTANT MATERIAL IS PIG OR CAST IRON, WHICH IS BRITTLE.
SOME CARBON REMAINS IN ADDITION TO OTHER UNWANTED ELEMENTS AND THESE MUST BE REDUCED BY
FURTHER REFINEMENT BEFORE THE MATERIAL BECOMES STEEL.

THE CARBON CONTENT OF STEEL IS CRUCIAL TO ITS STRENGTH AND IS USUALLY LOWER THAN 2.11%. A
CONTROLLED SYSTEM OF OXIDIZATION IS USED TO MANIPULATE THE CARBON CONTENT.

OTHER IMPURITIES MUST BE REMOVED FROM THE MELT IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE THE CORRECT COMPOSITION.
PLAIN CARBON STEELS ARE THOSE IN WHICH THE ONLY OTHER ELEMENT REMAINING IS MANGANESE.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING STEEL

AFTER THIS PROCESS THERE IS ALWAYS SOME CARBON LEFT IN

THE SOLID IRON FORMED AMOUNTING TO ABOUT 4% BY
WEIGHT. THE HIGH CARBON CONTENT OF CAST IRON RESULTS
IN A MATERIAL WHICH IS BRITTLE AND CANNOT TAKE LARGE
TENSILE STRESSES.

IN ADDITION THERE IS A TOTAL OF ABOUT 6% OF OTHER

UNWANTED ELEMENTS, INCLUDING SILICON, MANGANESE,
SULPHUR AND PHOSPHOROUS IN UNMEASURED
QUANTITIES.

IN STEELMAKING THE IMPURITIES IN THE MELT HAVE TO BE

REMOVED BEFORE THE CORRECT COMPOSITION CAN BE
ACHIEVED. THESE INCLUDE PHOSPHOROUS AND SILICON
(WHICH MAKE STEEL HARD AND INDUCE BRITTLENESS), AND
SULPHUR (WHICH CAN CAUSE CRACKING IN POURED
CASTINGS AND WELDS).

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 A FUNDAMENTAL DISTINGUISHING PROPERTY OF STEEL IS ITS GREAT
STRENGTH WHICH DEPENDS PARTLY UPON THE CARBON CONTENT.
MOST STEELS HAVE CARBON CONTENTS FAR LOWER THAN 2.11%. THIS
FIGURE MARKS THE CRITICAL MAXIMUM WHERE IN THE PROCESSING OF THE
MATERIAL, AT 900° C, A COMPLETE PHASE CHANGE CAN OCCUR. ABOVE THIS
LEVEL OF CARBON CONTENT, AN IRON-CARBON ALLOY BECOMES MORE
BRITTLE TAKING ON THE TYPE OF PERFORMANCE ASSOCIATED WITH CAST
IRONS. THE MANIPULATION OF THE CARBON CONTENT IS CARRIED OUT
BY CONTROLLED REMOVAL BY OXIDATION.

THIS RANGE OF IRON-CARBON STEELS ARE REFERRED TO AS PLAIN CARBON

STEELS AS THE ONLY OTHER ELEMENT PRESENT IS MANGANESE, PRESENT IN
UP TO 1.6% BY WEIGHT AND LEFT IN THE METAL FROM DE-OXIDATION AND
DE-SULPHURISATION PROCESSES. THE ADDITION OF ANY OTHER ELEMENTS
WILL BRING THE METAL INTO THE METALLURGICAL CATEGORY OF ALLOY
STEELS. (THE GENERAL TERM ALLOY STEELS IN THE INDUSTRY REFERS TO
THOSE STEELS WHICH HAVE CONTRIBUTIONS FROM OTHER ELEMENTS
AMOUNTING TO 5% BY WEIGHT AND OVER.)

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 From 1909 THE MANUFACTURING METHODS
until the 1960s,
the open-
MOST process
hearth STEEL IS PRODUCED USING ONE OF FOUR METHODS: BESSEMER
was the most OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES, BASIC OXYGEN FURNACES, AND
CONVERTERS,
popular
ELECTRIC
method of FURNACES. THE BASIC OXYGEN PROCESS IS THE MOST EFFICIENT,
WHILEsteel
THE BESSEMER AND OPEN-HEARTH METHODS HAVE BECOME OBSOLETE.
production.
ELECTRIC FURNACES ARE USED TO PRODUCE HIGH QUALITY STEELS FROM
Open-hearth
SELECTED
furnaces gotSTEEL SCRAP, LIME, AND MILL SCALE (AN IRON OXIDE THAT FORMS
their
ON THEname
SURFACE OF HOT STEEL AND FALLS OFF AS BLACK SCALE).
from a shallow
area called a
UNTIL 1909,
hearth MOST STEEL MADE IN THE UNITED STATES CAME FROM BESSEMER
that is
exposed to a A BESSEMER CONVERTER LOOKS LIKE A HUGE PEAR-SHAPED POT
CONVERTERS.
blast of flames
AND that
CAN HOLD ANYWHERE FROM 5-25 TONS. IT IS BALANCED ON AXLES SO
alternately
THAT ITS OPEN TOP CAN BE TILTED ONE WAY TO TAKE A CHARGE AND THE
sweeps across
OTHER WAY TO POUR OUT STEEL.
the hearth
from one side
for a period
FROM of THE 1960S, THE OPEN-HEARTH PROCESS WAS THE MOST
1909 UNTIL
time and then
POPULAR
to the sideMETHOD
of OF STEEL PRODUCTION. OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES GOT
the furnace.
THEIR NAME FROM A SHALLOW AREA CALLED A HEARTH.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 From 1909 SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
until the 1960s,
the open-
BEAMS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE SHAPE OF THEIR CROSS-SECTION, THEIR
hearth process
LENGTH
was AND MATERIAL. IN CONTEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION, BEAMS ARE
the most
popular MADE OF STEEL, REINFORCED CONCRETE, WOOD OR COMPOSITES.
TYPICALLY
method of
ONE OF THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF STEEL BEAM IS I-BEAM.
steel
production.
Open-hearth I-BEAM IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE H- BEAM, UNIVERSAL
furnaces got BEAM AND COLUMN. IT IS A BEAM WITH I OR H SHAPED
their name
CROSS SECTION. THE HORIZONTAL ELEMENTS OF THE
from a shallow
area called a “I” ARE FLANGES, WHICH RESIST MOST OF BENDING
hearth that is MOMENT, AND THE VERTICAL ELEMENT IS CALLED THE
exposed to a
blast of flames “WEB”, WHICH RESISTS SHEAR FORCES. I BEAM IS
that VERY GOOD FOR CARRYING BOTH BENDING AND SHEAR
alternately
LOADS; HOWEVER, ITS CROSS-SECTION HAS A
sweeps across
the hearth REDUCED CAPACITY IN THE TRANSVERSE DIRECTION. IT
from one side IS INEFFICIENT IN CARRYING TORSION, SO THAT THE
for a period of
time and then HOLLOW STRUCTURAL SECTIONS ARE PREFERRED
to the side of INSTEAD.
the furnace.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
From 1909
HOLLOW STRUCTURAL SECTION (HSS-SHAPE)
until the 1960s,
the open-
A HOLLOW STRUCTURAL SECTION IS A TYPE OF METAL BLOCK WITH A HOLLOW
hearth method
TUBULAR
of steelCROSS SECTION INCLUDING SQUARE, RECTANGULAR, CIRCULAR AND
production.
ELLIPTICAL CROSS SECTIONS. IT IS COMMONLY AVAILABLE IN MILD STEEL.
Open-hearth
furnaces got
their name RECTANGULAR SECTIONS ARE COMMONLY USED IN
from a shallow WELDED STEEL FRAMES FOR EXPERIENCING LOADS IN
area called a
hearth that is MULTIPLE DIRECTIONS. SQUARE AND CIRCULAR
exposed to a SECTIONS ARE USED FOR COLUMNS BECAUSE THEY
blast of flames
that HAVE VERY EFFICIENT SHAPES FOR THE MULTIPLE-AXIS
alternately LOADING, AS THEY HAVE UNIFORM GEOMETRY ALONG
sweeps across
TWO OR MORE CROSS-SECTIONAL AXES. THE SQUARE
the hearth
from one side AND CIRCULAR SECTIONS ARE ALSO GOOD IN
for a period of RESISTING TORSION. HSS CAN ALSO BE USED AS
time and then
to the side of BEAMS AS IT HAS SUPERIOR RESISTANCE TO LATERAL
the furnace. TORSIONAL BUCKLING.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

until the 1960s,
the open-
SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
hearth method
T-BEAM
of steel
production.
A T-BEAM IS A LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURE OF METAL WITH A T-SHAPED CROSS
Open-hearth
furnaces
SECTION.got THE TOP OF THE CROSS SECTION ACTS AS A FLANGE IN RESISTING
their name
COMPRESSIVE
from a shallow STRESS. THE WEB OF THE BEAM BELOW THE COMPRESSION
area
FLANGEcalled a
RESISTS SHEAR STRESS AND PROVIDES GREATER SEPARATION FOR THE
hearth that is
COUPLED FORCES OF BENDING. T BEAM IS MAINLY USED IN CONSTRUCTION.
exposed to a
blast of flames
that
alternately COMPARE TO I-BEAM, T-BEAM HAS A
sweeps across
DISADVANTAGE TO DEAL WITH
the hearth
from one side TENSILE FORCES BECAUSE IT DOES
for a period of
NOT HAVE A BOTTOM FLANGE. TO
top of the
beams, the MAKE IT MORE EFFICIENT, AN INVERTED
slab can act as T-BEAM CAN BE JOINED WITH A FLOOR
the
compression SLAB OR BRIDGE DECK. BY JOINING THE
flange. TOP OF THE BEAMS, THE SLAB CAN ACT
then to the
AS THE COMPRESSION FLANGE.
side of the
furnace.
BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA
until the 1960s,
the open-
SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
hearth method
Z-BEAM
of steel
production.
Open-hearth
furnaces got
their name
from a shallow
area called a Z-BEAM IS A BEAM WITH HALF A FLANGE
hearth that is
IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS. IT IS
exposed to a
blast of flames COMMONLY MADE OF STEEL STRIPS AND
that IS CHARACTERISED BY ITS HIGH
alternately
sweeps across RESISTANCE TO CORROSION. Z TYPE
the hearth BEAM LOAD CELLS COMBINE BOTH A
from one side
COMPACT FORM AND HIGH PRECISION
for a period of
top of the TO PRODUCE A SUPERIOR TENSION
beams, the FORCE TRANSDUCER.
slab can act as
the
compression
flange.
then to the
side of the
furnace.
BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA
 SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
ANGLE (L SHAPED CROSS SECTION)

oss the hearth

from one side
L BEAMS ARE COMMONLY USED AS
for a period of
top of the FLOOR BEAMS BECAUSE OF THE
beams, the REDUCED OVERALL STRUCTUAL DEPTH.
slab can act as
the
compression L BEAMS ONLY RECEIVE THE LOADS
flange.
then to the FROM ONE SIDE, SO THEY HOLD
side of the CONSIDERABLE AMOUNT OF TORSIONAL
furnace.
MOMENTS.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
CHANNEL, OR C SECTION, (C-SHAPED CROSS-SECTION)

PARALLEL FLANGE CHANNEL (PFC): THEY HAVE C SHAPED

CROSS SECTION AND PARALLEL INNER FLANGE SURFACES.

oss the hearth

from one side TAPER FLANGE CHANNEL (CH): THEY ARE VERY SIMILAR TO
for a period of PFCS BUT HAVE A SLOPE ON THE INNER FLANGE SURFACES.
top of the
beams, the
slab can act as C SHAPE CHANNEL ARE USEFUL IN PLACES WHERE A SINGLE FLAT
the
compression FACE WITHOUT OUTSTANDING FLANGES ON ONE SIDE IS
flange. REQUIRED. HOWEVER, IT IS INEFFICIENT TO USE IT AS A
then to the
BEAM/COLUMN ON ITS OWN. TO IMPROVE ITS EFFICIENCY, C
side of the
furnace. SHAPED BEAMS CAN BE SUPPORTED USING OTHER STRUCTURAL
SHAPES.

C STEEL BEAMS ARE COMMONLY USED FOR ROOF PURLING.

THEY ARE EASY TO INSTALL AND THEY HAVE GOOD ANTI-
BENDING PERFORMANCE AND GOOD STRAIGHTNESS.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
ASYMMETRIC BEAMS

ASYMMETRIC BEAMS ARE PRODUCED BY HOT ROLLING IN WHICH

THE DEGREE OF ASYMMETRY BETWEEN THE WIDTHS OF THE TOP
oss the hearth
from one side AND BOTTOM FLANGES IS APPROXIMATELY 60%, NORMALLY
for a period of BETWEEN 280 AND 300MM DEEP.
top of the
beams, the
slab can act as THE PATTERN ON THE TOP FLANGE BINDS WITH THE
the
SURROUNDING CONCRETE WHICH SAVES THE TIME OF WELDING
compression
flange. SHEAR STUD CONNECTORS ON THE TOP OF A BEAM.
then to the
side of the
furnace. ASYMMETRIC I-BEAMS
THE RAIL PROFILE IS THE CROSS SECTIONAL SHAPE OF A RAILWAY
RAIL WHICH HAS A SPECIFIC CROSS SECTIONAL PROFILE – AN
ASYMMETRICAL I-BEAM DESIGN FOR USE AS THE MAIN
COMPONENT OF RAILWAY TRACK.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
SITE VISITATION 1

othe hearth
from one side
for a period of BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY PAVILION: DETAILED
top of the
beams, the ANALYSIS OF THE STEEL MEMBERS OF THE PAVILION. THE
slab can act as COMPONENTS, CONNECTIONS, DIMENSIONS…AS WELL AS THE
the
DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SUCH.
compression
flange.
then to the
side of the
furnace.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The primary types of structural steel are usually classified

according to the following chemical composition categories:
o hearth from CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS
one side for a
HIGH-STRENGTH, LOW-ALLOY (HSLA) STEELS
period of top
of the beams, HIGH-STRENGTH QUENCHED AND TEMPERED ALLOY STEELS
the slab can
act as the
compression
flange. THE CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS, WHOSE PRIMARY CHEMICAL
then to the
COMPONENTS ARE CARBON AND MANGANESE IN ADDITION TO
side of the
furnace. IRON, ARE REFERRED TO AS CARBON STEELS OR MILD
STRUCTURAL STEELS. THE MATERIALS OF THIS TYPE ARE
GENERALLY LEAST EXPENSIVE; THEY HAVE QUITE ADEQUATE
STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY CHARACTERISTICS, AND ARE
THEREFORE BY FAR THE MOST WIDELY USED GRADES.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS:

CARBON (C) NEXT TO IRON, CARBON IS BY FAR THE MOST IMPORTANT

CHEMICAL ELEMENT IN STEEL. INCREASING THE CARBON CONTENT
PRODUCES A MATERIAL WITH HIGHER STRENGTH AND LOWER DUCTILITY.
o hearth from
STRUCTURAL STEELS, THEREFORE, HAVE CARBON CONTENTS BETWEEN
one side for a
period of top0.15 TO 0.30 PERCENT; IF THE CARBON CONTENT GOES MUCH HIGHER,
of the beams,THE DUCTILITY WILL BE TOO LOW, AND FOR MAGNITUDES LESS THAN 0.15
the slab can
act as the PERCENT THE STRENGTH WILL NOT BE SATISFACTORY.
compression
flange.
then to theMANGANESE (MN) MANGANESE APPEARS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES IN
side of theAMOUNTS RANGING FROM ABOUT 0.50 TO 1.70 PERCENT. IT HAS EFFECTS
furnace.
SIMILAR TO THOSE OF CARBON, AND THE STEEL PRODUCER USES THESE
TWO ELEMENTS IN COMBINATION TO OBTAIN A MATERIAL WITH THE
DESIRED PROPERTIES. MANGANESE IS A NECESSITY FOR THE PROCESS OF
HOT ROLLING OF STEEL BY ITS COMBINATION WITH OXYGEN AND SULFUR.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS:

ALUMINUM (AL) ALUMINUM IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT DEOXIDIZERS

IN THE MATERIAL, AND ALSO HELPS FORM A MORE fiNE-GRAINED
o hearth fromCRYSTALLINE MICROSTRUCTURE. IT IS USUALLY USED IN COMBINATION
one side for a
WITH SILICON.
period of top
of the beams,
the slab can
act as the
compression
flange.
then to theCHROMIUM (CR) CHROMIUM IS PRESENT IN CERTAIN STRUCTURAL STEELS IN
side of theSMALL AMOUNTS. IT IS PRIMARILY USED TO INCREASE THE CORROSION
furnace.
RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL, AND FOR THAT REASON OFTEN OCCURS IN
COMBINATION WITH NICKEL AND COPPER. STAINLESS STEEL WILL TYPICALLY
HAVE SIGNIfiCANT AMOUNTS OF CHROMIUM.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS:

COLUMBIUM (CB) COLUMBIUM IS A STRENGTH-ENHANCING ELEMENTS,

AND IS ONE OF THE IMPORTANT COMPONENTS IN SOME OF THE HSLA
o hearth fromSTEELS. ITS EFFECTS ARE SIMILAR TO THOSE OF MANGANESE AND
one side for a
VANADIUM; IT ALSO HAS SOME CORROSION RESISTANCE INflUENCE.
period of top
of the beams,
the slab can
act as the
compression
flange.
then to theCOPPER (CU) COPPER IS ANOTHER PRIMARY CORROSION RESISTANCE
side of theELEMENTS. IT IS TYPICALLY FOUND IN AMOUNTS NOT LESS THAN 0.20
furnace.
PERCENT, AND IS THE PRIMARY ANTI-CORROSION COMPONENT IN STEEL
GRADES.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS:

MOLYBDENUM (MO) MOLYBDENUM HAS EFFECTS SIMILAR TO MANGANESE

AND VANADIUM, AND IS OFTEN USED IN COMBINATION WITH ONE OR THE
OTHER. IT PARTICULARLY INCREASES THE STRENGTH OF THE STEEL AT
o hearth from
one side forHIGHER
a TEMPERATURES AND ALSO IMPROVES CORROSION RESISTANCE.
period of topTYPICAL AMOUNTS OF MOLYBDENUM ARE 0.08 TO 0.25 PERCENT FOR
of the beams,
the slab canCERTAIN GRADES OF A588 STEEL, AND 0.15 TO 0.65 PERCENT FOR
act as the VARIOUS TYPES OF A514.
compression
flange.
then to theNICKEL (NI) IN ADDITION TO ITS FAVORABLE EFFECT ON THE CORROSION
side of theRESISTANCE OF STEEL, NICKEL ENHANCES THE LOW-TEMPERATURE
furnace.
BEHAVIOR OF THE MATERIAL BY IMPROVING THE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS. IT
IS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS IN VARYING AMOUNT.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS:

PHOSPHORUS (P) AND SULFUR (S) BOTH OF THESE ELEMENTS ARE

GENERALLY UNDESIRABLE IN STRUCTURAL STEEL. SULFUR, IN
PARTICULAR, PROMOTES INTERNAL SEGREGATION IN THE STEEL MATRIX.
o hearth from
one side forBOTH
a ACT TO REDUCE THE DUCTILITY OF THE MATERIAL. ALL STEEL
period of topGRADE SPECIfiCATIONS, THEREFORE, PLACE SEVERE RESTRICTIONS ON
of the beams,
the slab canTHE AMOUNT OF P AND S THAT ARE ALLOWED, BASICALLY HOLDING THEM
act as the TO LESS THAN ABOUT 0.04 TO 0.05 PERCENT. THEIR DETRIMENTAL EFFECT
compression
flange. ON WELDABILITY IS SIGNIfiCANT.
then to the
side of the
furnace. SILICON (SI) ALONG WITH ALUMINUM, SILICON IS ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL
DEOXIDIZERS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL. IT IS THE ELEMENT THAT IS MOST
COMMONLY USED TO PRODUCE SEMI- AND FULLY KILLED STEELS, AND
NORMALLY APPEARS IN AMOUNTS LESS THAN 0.40 PERCENT.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS USED IN STRUCTURAL STEELS:

VANADIUM (V) THE EFFECTS OF THIS CHEMICAL ELEMENT ARE SIMILAR TO

THOSE OF MN, MO, AND CB. IT HELPS THE MATERIAL DEVELOP A fiNER
o hearth from
one side forCRYSTALLINE
a MICROSTRUCTURE AND GIVES INCREASED FRACTURE
period of topTOUGHNESS. VANADIUM CONTENTS OF 0.02 TO 0.15 PERCENT ARE USED
of the beams,
the slab canIN ASTM GRADES A572 AND A588, AND IN AMOUNTS OF 0.03 TO 0.08
act as the PERCENT IN A514
compression
flange.
then to the
side of the
furnace. OTHER CHEMICAL ELEMENTS CERTAIN STEEL GRADES UTILIZE SMALL
AMOUNTS OF OTHER ALLOYING ELEMENTS, SUCH AS BORON, NITROGEN,
AND TITANIUM. THESE ELEMENTS NORMALLY WORK IN CONJUNCTION WITH
SOME OF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS TO ENHANCE CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE
MATERIAL PERFORMANCE.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

SOME IMPORTANT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES INCLUDE: DENSITY, MELTING

POINT, SPECIFIC HEAT, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, COEFFICIENT OF
THERMAL EXPANSION, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, MAGNETIC
o hearth from
one side forPROPERTIES,
a AND CORROSION RESISTANCE. IT IS EXTREMELY
period of top
IMPORTANT TO BE FAMILIAR WITH THESE DURING PRODUCT DESIGN,
of the beams,
the slab canSINCE CHOICE OF MATERIAL AFFECTS ALL ASPECTS OF A PRODUCT
act as the
FROM COST, FUNCTION DURING ITS EXPECTED LIFE, AESTHETICS,
compression
flange. SIZE, SHAPE, MANUFACTURABILITY ETC. FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
then to the
THIS COURSE, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL AFFECT THE
side of the
furnace. CHOICE OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS WE CAN USE ECONOMICALLY

HERE, WE SHALL JUST DEFINE EACH PROPERTY, AND GIVE SOME

EXAMPLES OF THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

DENSITY
DENSITY = Ρ = MASS/VOLUME
o hearth from
one side forAPPLICATIONS:
a
period of top - WHY IS STEEL A GOOD MATERIAL FOR THE WRECKING BALL USED
of the beams,
the slab canTO DEMOLISH OLD BUILDINGS?
act as the
compression
flange. - MANY MACHINES USED IN AUTOMATIC MANUFACTURING HAVE FAST-
then to theMOVING COMPONENTS, E.G. ASSEMBLY HEAD FOR SURFACE-MOUNTED
side of the
furnace. ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS, OR PRINTING HEADS FOR TEXTILES.
WOULD YOU SELECT STEEL, ALUMINUM-ALLOY, OR TITANIUM TO
CONSTRUCT THE HEAD? WHY ?

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

MELTING POINT
THIS IS THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH THE MATERIAL CHANGES PHASE FROM
o hearthSOLID
from TO LIQUID.
one side for a
APPLICATIONS:
period of top
- HOT FORGING REQUIRES HEATING THE METAL TO JUST BELOW ITS
of the beams,
the slab can
MELTING POINT BEFORE BEATING IT INTO THE REQUIRED SHAPE (MANY
act as the
MOVIES SHOW SCENES OF BLACKSMITHS MAKING SWORDS FROM STEEL)
compression
flange.
- IN INJECTION MOLDING, PLASTIC IS MELTED AND INJECTED INTO THE
then to the
side ofMOULD
the CAVITY. HOW MUCH HIGHER THAN THE MELTING POINT SHOULD IT
furnace.
BE MELTED?
- COMPONENTS MADE OF STEEL CAN BE JOINED BY A PROCESS CALLED
BRAZING, WHICH USES A COPPER ALLOY TO WELD THE COMPONENTS
TOGETHER. THIS OPERATION WILL NOT DAMAGE THE STEEL PARTS SINCE
THE COPPER ALLOY MELTS AT MUCH LOWER TEMPERATURE THAN STEEL.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

SPECIFIC HEAT
THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY THAT WILL RAISE THE TEMPERATURE OF A
o hearthUNIT
fromMASS OF THE MATERIAL BY 1°C
one side for a
period of top
APPLICATION:
of the beams,
the slab can
- IN MACHINING AND FORMING PROCESSES, A LOT OF HEAT IS GENERATED
act as the
DUE TO DEFORMATION AND FRICTION BETWEEN THE TOOL AND
compression
flange.
WORKPIECE. IF THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE WORK PIECE IS LOW, THEN ITS
then to the
side ofTEMPERATURE
the WILL RISE VERY RAPIDLY, RESULTING IN POOR SURFACE
furnace.
FINISH. SO EXTRA OR MORE EFFICIENT COOLANTS MAY BE REQUIRED.
LIKEWISE, IF THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE TOOL MATERIAL IS LOW, THE TOOL
WILL HEAT UP RAPIDLY, LEADING TO LOWER TOOL LIFE.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A MATERIAL IS THE QUANTITY OF HEAT
THAT PASSES IN UNIT TIME THROUGH UNIT AREA OF A PLATE, WHEN ITS
o hearth from
one sideOPPOSITE
for a FACES ARE SUBJECT TO UNIT TEMPERATURE GRADIENT (E.G. ONE
period of top TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS A THICKNESS OF ONE UNIT).
DEGREE
of the beams,
the slabTHERMAL
can CONDUCTIVITY = HEAT FLOW RATE / (AREA × TEMPERATURE
act as GRADIENT)
the
compression
APPLICATIONS:
flange.
then to- the
TITANIUM IS USED IN MANY DESIGNS WHERE LIGHT, HARD AND STRONG
side of the
METAL COMPONENTS ARE REQUIRED, E.G. IN AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS.
furnace.
HOWEVER, IT IS NOT EASY TO MACHINE (E.G. USING MILLING MACHINES) IN
PART DUE TO ITS POOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – THE HIGH TEMPERATURE
GRADIENTS CAUSES VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE NEAR THE POINT OF
CUTTING, WHICH RAPIDLY HEATS THE TOOL CUTTING EDGE AND DESTROYS
THE TOOL.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

THERMAL EXPANSION
THE LINEAR COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION IS DEFINED AS THE
o hearthPROPORTIONAL
from CHANGE IN A MATERIAL’S LENGTH WHEN ITS TEMPERATURE
one side for a
period ofCHANGES
top BY 1°C:
of the beams,
COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION = Α = ΔL/(L ΔT)
the slab can
act as APPLICATIONS:
the
compression
flange.
then to- the
IN MACHINE TOOLS WHERE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS ARE MADE OF
side ofDIFFERENT
the COMPONENTS, THE ASSEMBLY MAY JAM, OR BECOME TOO LOOSE
furnace.
AND VIBRATE, WHEN THE TEMPERATURE CHANGES. THEIR DESIGN MUST
ACCOUNT AND COMPENSATE FOR THE DIFFERENT RATES OF THERMAL
EXPANSION FOR THE MATERIALS.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IS THE RECIPROCAL OF THE SPECIFIC
o hearth from
one sideRESISTANCE.
for a MOST METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS, WHILE MANY
period of top
PLASTICS, CERAMICS, RUBBERS ETC. ARE VERY POOR CONDUCTORS.
of the beams,
the slab can
act as the
APPLICATIONS:
compression
flange.
- SOME PROCESSES, SUCH AS EDM, ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING,
then to the
ELECTROPLATING ETC REQUIRE THAT THE WORKPIECE IS AN ELECTRICAL
side of the
furnace.
CONDUCTOR. THEY CANNOT BE USED ON NON-CONDUCTORS.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
FERRO-MAGNETIC MATERIALS HAVE HIGH MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY, AND
THEREFORE CAN BE MAGNETIZED BY INDUCTION.
o hearth from
one side for a
period ofAPPLICATION:
top
of the beams,
- SEVERAL GRINDING MACHINES USE MAGNETIC CHUCKS SINCE THE
the slab can
act as theMACHINING FORCE IN GRINDING IS QUITE LOW. THE MACHINE TOOL BED
compression
CONTAINS AN ELECTROMAGNET, AND THE STEEL WORKPIECE IS HELD IN
flange.
POSITION BY MAGNETIC FORCE DURING THE GRINDING OPERATION.
then to the
side of the
furnace.
- AUTOMOBILE WRECKING WORKSHOPS USE LIFTS THAT HAVE A LARGE
ELECTRO-MAGNET ON A CRANE. THE MAGNET IS USED TO GRAB THE CAR
MAGNETICALLY, AND THE CRANE PICKS IT UP AND LOCATES IT ON THE
CRUSHING MACHINE (YOU MAY HAVE SEEN A SIMILAR OPERATION IN SOME
MOVIES).

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 STRUCTURAL STEEL STRUCTURES

TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES

FRAMED STRUCTURES
THESE ARE THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES. THIS
o hearthCOURSE
from CONCENTRATES ON THE DESIGN OF FRAMED STRUCTURES.
one side for a
FRAMED STRUCTURES IN GENERAL CONSIST OF TENSION MEMBERS, BEAMS,
period of top
COLUMNS, BEAM-COLUMNS, AND MEMBERS ACTED UPON BY COMBINED
of the beams,
the slab can
BENDING AND TORSION. FRAMED STRUCTURES MAY BE DIVIDED INTO SIX
act as the
CATEGORIES: BEAMS, PLANE TRUSSES, SPACE TRUSSES, PLANE FRAMES,
compression
flange.
SPACE FRAMES, AND GRIDS. MANY THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURES SUCH
then to the
ASthe
side of BUILDINGS MAY BE CONSIDERED AS CONSISTING OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL
furnace.
OR PLANAR STRUCTURES IN TWO PERPENDICULAR DIRECTIONS.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 STRUCTURAL STEEL STRUCTURES

TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES

o hearth from
one side for a
period of top
of the beams,
the slab can
act as the
compression
flange.
then to the
side of the
furnace.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA

 STRUCTURAL STEEL STRUCTURES

TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES

o hearth from
one side for a
period of top
of the beams,
the slab can
act as the
compression
flange.
then to the
side of the
furnace.

BUILDING STRUCTURES AND FORM IV (ARC 310) L.I.C: AKANDE IFEOLUWA