SDS Spectral acceleration for short period

T Fundamental translational natural period of a building

Tp Fundamental natural period of NSE
VB Design base shear
W Weight
WNSE Weight of NSE
Wp Weight of NSE
Z Seismic Zone Factor

α Integer
ɄFloor Floor response acceleration modification factor
ɋ Poisson ratio
ɋg Velocity at centre of mass
Ɍ Damping
ɐ Strength parameter
ɘ Sinusoidal excitation of frequency
δξΑ Deflection at level x
δξΑ Actual Displacement of a building that undergoes nonlinear action
δψΑ Deflection at level y
µ Coefficient of friction
θ(τ) Angle between vertical and normal to base
θ1 First degree of freedom
θ2 Second degree of freedom
θχ Block slenderness

ȟ Roof deformation
ƦaA Allowable inter storey drift
ȟNSE Displacement of an NSE
ȟp Design relative displacement to be accommodated

xii
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Non-Structural Elements

1.1 NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

A building is considered to be safe, only when both of the following can resist earthquake
ground motions occurring at its base without any loss, namely
(a) People in the building, and
(b) Contents of buildings, appendages to buildings and services & utilities in the building.
Here, safety of people means no collapse of whole or part of the building that causes danger to life,
and safety of contents of buildings, appendages to buildings and services & utilities means the contents,
appendages, and services & utilities are able to continue to offer the function the way they are
expected to even after the earthquake. Safety of people in a building depends first on whether or not
the building is capable of resisting earthquake shaking, and then on standing upright after the
earthquake. Even if the building stands upright after an earthquake, safety of persons may be
jeopardized by lack of safety in the other items of the building, namely contents, appendages and
services. Significant attention has been drawn to safety of the building during earthquakes, but the
latter is not yet in focus, in general. Thus, safety of people can be jeopardized, even if contents of
buildings, appendages to buildings and services & utilities in buildings are not protected against
earthquake shaking. In countries that managed to reduce loss of life by preventing collapse of
buildings and structures, losses in recent earthquakes indicate that damage and failure is not
eliminated yet in contents of buildings, appendages to buildings and services & utilities. Such damages
and failures have had major social or economic implications, particularly in critical buildings (e.g., a
hospital) and commercial buildings (e.g., a stock exchange).

In the construction of a building, first the reinforced concrete or structural steel members are
made (Figure 1.1a), and then the building is finished with contents of buildings, appendages to
buildings and services & utilities (Figure 1.1b). In most cases, the items in buildings related to
finishing are rested on and/or fastened to the RC or steel members. The distinction between the two is
elaborated in the paragraphs below.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1: Item employed in a Building: (a) Bare Structure only, and (b) Finished Structure
1.1.1 Distinction between Structural Elements and Non-Structural Elements
When the ground shakes, inertia forces are induced in a building at all locations where mass
is present. These inertia forces flow through the building from various mass points through
horizontally and vertically oriented structural members to the foundations, and eventually to the
soil/ground underneath. Chains of structural members form passages within a building, through
which these inertia forces flow from their origin to the soil underneath (Figure 1.2); these chains are
called Load Paths. Along this load path, members of the building that help carry inertia forces to the
ground are called Structural Elements (SEs). For instance, in a moment frame building, the slabs,
beams, columns and footings carry all earthquake-induced inertia forces generated in the building
down to base of the building, and are the structural elements of the building.

Buildings have multiple load paths, when they have many inter-connected SEs running
between mass points in the building and soil points under the foundations. SEs in buildings that
constitute the load paths, include
(a) Horizontal diaphragms, i.e., roof slabs, floor slabs and/or planar trusses in horizontal plane;
(b) Vertical elements, i.e., planar frames (consisting of beams, columns and/or inclined members
interconnected at different levels), vertical walls (RC or masonry), and vertical trusses, all
spanning along height in vertical plane;
(c) Foundation elements, i.e., footing, mat or pile foundations, and soil system; and
(d) Connection elements, i.e., joinery within (if any) and between above elements.
Buildings perform their best, when load paths in them run directly to the foundations without being
interrupted, in any of horizontal diaphragms, vertical elements, foundation elements or connections.
As a direct consequence of uninterrupted flow of inertia force to the foundation of the building,
damage occurs only at the designed locations. If lateral load paths are interrupted, damage occurs
in elements in which it is not desirable, e.g., if large cut-outs are made at edges of floor diaphragms,
damage can accrue in horizontal floor diaphragms. When load paths are interrupted, large loads
have to bend to take long detours to reach foundations. Buildings undergo damage at all bends in
plan & elevation, which may not be desirable.

Structural Wall
(Vertical Element)
Floor Slab
(Horizontal Diaphragm)

Load Path

Foundation
Soil

Figure 1.2: SEs create load path in each direction: Allow flow of inertia forces through them
2
 Even though SEs in buildings carry earthquake-induced inertia forces generated in the
building down to foundations, there are many items in buildings, such as contents of buildings,
appendages to buildings and services & utilities, which are supported by SEs, and whose inertia forces
also are carried down to foundations by SEs; such items are called Non-Structural Elements (NSEs).
NSEs are referred in different documents by different names, like “appendages,” “non-structural
components,” “building attachments,” “architectural, mechanical and electrical elements,” “secondary
systems,” “secondary structural elements,” and “secondary structures.” As the mass of the NSE increases
and as the connection between NSE and the SE become stiffer and stronger, the earthquake
response of the NSE starts affecting that of the SE to which it is connected, and hence of the whole
building.

This book discusses only NSEs that are shaken at their base by the oscillating floor of the
building on which the NSE is mounted, during earthquake shaking (see Arrow 0 in Figure 1.3). And,
it assumes that the earthquake response of the NSE in turn does not significantly influence the
earthquake response of the building (see Arrow 1 in Figure 1.3). Further, it assumes that the shaking
at the base of the NSE DOES NOT affect the items inside the NSE (see Arrow 2 in Figure 1.3) as they
are expected to be designed to resist earthquake shaking at their bases.

The physical characteristics of NSEs include [Villaverde, 2009]:

(1) Accelerations imposed on NSEs are higher than those on buildings, primarily due to the
amplification of the ground motion along the height of the building;
(2) NSEs do not possess much ductility to dissipate the energy received during strong shaking.
Ductility of NSEs depends largely on their internal design and on design of their connections
with SEs;
(3) Damping associated with NSEs is low;
(4) NSEs can undergo resonance, when their natural frequencies are close to the fundamental and
other dominant frequencies of the building;
(5) Generally, NSEs are connected at multiple points to the SEs; and
(6) Responses of NSEs under earthquake shaking are different from those of SEs.
The major differences are listed in Table 1.1 between NSEs and SEs.

Table 1.1: Distinction between Earthquake Performance of SEs and NSEs: a few distinct items

Item SEs NSEs

Shaking at (1) Predominantly cyclic, low frequency
(1) Random, high frequency
the base (2) Non-uniform in NSEs with multiple-
(2) Non-uniform in long buildings
supports
Damping (1) High, increases with damage (1) Low
(2) Classical damping gives good (2) Non-classical
approximation
Response to (1) Depends on characteristics of Depends on characteristics of both earthquake
shaking at earthquake ground motion ground motion and building
the base (2) Low response amplification High response amplification
Interaction (1) Seismic responses of SEs affect that of Seismic response of NSEs may affect that of SEs
between SEs NSEs and building, depending on mass of NSE and on
and NSEs stiffness and strength of connection between NSEs
and SEs. In such cases, responses of NSEs and
building should be estimated considering
combined building-NSE system
Seismic Depends on Depends on location of NSEs within the
Demand (1) Seismic zone (in which building is building, in addition to seismic zone (in which
located), and building is located), and building characteristics
(2) Building characteristics (e.g., mass, (e.g., mass, structural system, ductility), and
structural system, ductility) NSE characteristics and connection of NSE to
SEs in the building

3
 NSE
Shaking

2
NSE
Building
1 0 Shaking

Ground
Shaking

Figure 1.3: Various vibrations and interactions between SEs and NSE: There is no damage to NSE and
feedback to building by the shaking of the NSE by the building
4
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
NSEs can be listed under three groups based on their use and function, namely
(a) Contents of buildings: Items required for functionally enabling the use of spaces, such as (i)
furniture and minor items, e.g., storage shelves, (ii) facilities and equipment, e.g., refrigerators,
washing machines, gas cylinders, TVs, multi-level material stacks, false ceilings, generators and
motors, and (iii) door and window panels and frames, large-panel glass panes with frames (as
windows or infill walling material), and other partitions within the buildings;
(b) Appendages to buildings: Items projecting out of the buildings or attached to their exterior
surfaces, either horizontally or vertically, such as chimneys projecting out from buildings, glass
or stone cladding used as façades, parapets, small water tanks rested on top of buildings,
sunshades, advertisement hoardings affixed to the vertical face of the building or anchored on
top of building, and small communication antennas mounted atop buildings. Thus, some of
these are architectural elements, while the rest are functional; and
(c) Services and utilities: Items required for facilitating essential activities in the buildings, such as
plumbing lines (e.g., water supply mains, gas pipelines, sewage pipelines, and rainwater drain
pipes), electricity cables, and telecommunication wires from outside to inside of building and
within the building, air-conditioning ducts, elevators, fire hydrant systems (including water
pipes through the buildings).
Some of these NSEs are shown in Figure 1.4. There is significant dependence of NSEs on
SEs; well-designed NSEs transfer their earthquake-induced inertia forces to adjoining SEs
and accommodate the relative movement imposed by adjoining SEs between their ends.

Overhead Water Tank

Hoardings
Water Pipes

Glass Windows

Façade
Tiles

Electrical Power Water

Line Mains

TV

Figure 1.4: Non-structural elements use load paths available in each direction: NSEs pass on their own
inertia forces to SEs and move relative to the SEs, if freedom of movement is provided between
NSEs and adjoining SEs
5
1.2.1 Mistaken as Non-Structural Elements
In usual design practice, NSEs are not modeled, because they are assumed to not carry any
forces by being a part of the load path. However, some elements, assumed to be non-structural,
could significantly influence the seismic behaviour of the building by inadvertently participating in
the lateral force transfer. It is a practice in India to neglect a number of items in the process of
structural design of buildings, assuming that these items are “non-structural” elements. But, these
items behave unintentionally as structural elements; they participate in the load path and transfer
inertia forces to the ground. Considering the significant contribution to stiffness and strength of
such elements (that lie in the load path), it should be made a practice to include them in the
analytical model of the building. Thus, the design is made consistent with the conditions of the
actual structure. Some of these common SEs that are assumed to be NSEs are discussed in this
section.

(a) Unreinforced Masonry Infill Walls

The most common items assumed by structural designers to be NSEs are unreinforced
masonry (URM) infills provided in frame panels of three-dimensional reinforced concrete (RC)
moment resisting frame (MRF) buildings (Figure 1.5). URM infills are put in position after the frame is
built. Thus, the gravity loads of the building, namely dead load, superposed dead load and live
load, are carried by the frame and not by the URM infills. For this reason, designers declare them as
NSEs. But, when the building sways under horizontal earthquake shaking, the infills come in the
way of the free movement of the frame members, which are SEs. Under such circumstances, they (i)
resist the lateral deformation of frame members of the building, (ii) become part of the load path
along which earthquake-induced inertia forces generated in the building are transferred to
foundation, and (iii) contribute significantly to lateral stiffness and strength of the building. Thus,
URM infills may act as NSEs for resisting vertical loads on the MRF building, but are indeed SEs for
resisting lateral loads.

As a consequence, earthquake behaviour of buildings with URM infills is completely

different from that assumed by designers – it can be both detrimental and beneficial to the safety of the
building. When infills are provided uniformly in the building frame, they add to both the strength
and stiffness of the MRF building especially in low-rise buildings. But, when provided selectively in
the building, they can affect the structural configuration of the building and make it behave poorly.
For instance,

(1) When URM infill walls are provided in all storeys except the ground storey, they make the
building stiff and strong in the upper storeys and flexible and weak in the ground storey.
Over 400 RC MRF buildings collapsed during the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake due to the flexible
and weak ground storey effects (Figure 1.6). This negative effect could have been captured
during structural design of the building, if infills were considered in the analysis. Designers
should consider URM infills in RC frame buildings as SEs and not as NSEs, include them in
structural analysis model, and avoid all unexpected behaviour of buildings.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.5: Idealization of real buildings: Analysis and design must bear in mind the physical
behaviour of structures during lateral shaking – (a) Analytical Model, (b) Designed Structure,
and (c) Actual Structure Constructed
6
Figure 1.6: Collapse of one set of RC frame buildings during 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake: there is
relatively minimal damage in the stiff upper portion, while the lower storey is completely
crushed. The almost identical building in the background is completely collapsed.

(2) Column is restricted from freely shaking in the lateral direction by the URM infill walls,
when URM infill walls of partial height are provided adjacent to a column to fit a window
over the remaining height. Other columns in the same storey with no adjoining walls do not
experience such restriction. Consider earthquake ground movement to the left, when the
beam-slab floor system moves horizontally to the right. The floor moves the top ends of all
these columns (P, Q, R in Figure 1.7a) by the same horizontal displacement with respect to
the floor below. But, the stiff infill walls of partial height restrict horizontal movement of the
lower portion of column Q; this column deforms by the full displacement over only the
remaining height adjacent to the window opening. On the other hand, columns P and R
deform over the full height. Since the effective height over which column Q can freely bend
is small, it offers more resistance to horizontal motion than columns P and R, and thereby
attracts more force than them. But, the columns are not designed to be stronger or have
higher shear capacity in keeping with the increased forces that they attract, and thus fail.
Now, consider the earthquake ground movement to the right, when the beam-slab floor
system moves horizontally to the left. Here, column P is in jeopardy and columns Q and R
are not. As a net consequence of earthquake shaking, columns P and Q are damaged due to
the presence of the adjoining URM infill walls. This effect, known as short-column effect, is
severe when opening height is small. The damage is explicit in such columns (Figure 1.7b),
even though the assumption is implicit of URM infill walls being considered as non-
structural elements.

7
 Beam-Slab System
`
No connection
Opening
Column

R Q Wall P
Partial
Beam-Slab System Short Unrestricted
Height
Opening column Column
Wall

Column damage

Part of column Portion of

restricted to move column
restrained
from
moving

Column
damage

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.7: Short columns effect in RC buildings when partial height walls adjoin columns during 2001 Bhuj
(India) earthquake: (a) Effective height of column (over which it can bend) is restricted by adjacent
walls, and (b) damage to adjoining columns during earthquake shaking between floor beam and
sill of ventilator

8
(b) Rooftop Water Tanks
Two types of small capacity water tanks are normally fixed on top of RC buildings, namely
high density plastic (HDP) tanks rested directly on roof slab and RC tanks rested on plain concrete
pedestals or masonry piers. Of these two, the mass of filled RC tanks is large; they attract high
seismic inertia forces. If they are not anchored, they can run loose from top of the masonry piers
(Figure 1.8). Unanchored tanks are threat to life; many such tanks dislodged and some collapsed on
the ground and adjoining properties during 2001 Bhuj Earthquake. These tanks may be of small
capacity, but their connections with the roof slab system should be formally conceived, designed
and constructed. Also, such tanks experience far more damage as these behave as cantilevers and
cannot mobilize large energy absorption..

(c) SEs Sometimes “Considered” as NSEs

In RC buildings, when elevator core shafts are made of reinforced concrete, these RC shafts
offer lateral stiffness and strength to the overall lateral load resistance of the building. Hence, in the
design of multi-storey buildings, the contribution of these RC shafts should be considered. During
the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, RC shafts were severely damaged in some reinforced concrete multi-
storey buildings with open ground storeys. Discussion with practicing engineers after the 2001 Bhuj
(India) earthquake revealed that RC frame buildings were analysed and designed as bare frames; in
particular, the contribution of RC elevator shaft cores was neglected. These walls do not always
have adequate strength to accommodate the large lateral force attracted by the whole building, and
hence experienced severe damage. Many RC buildings with open ground storeys collapsed. But,
some of these RC buildings, which had RC elevator shaft core, did not collapse; the elevator core
shafts were severely damaged but seemed to have helped inadvertently in preventing their collapse
(Figure 1.9a). When these elements were not properly connected to the rest of the building frame,
the building collapsed but the elevator core did not (Figure 1.9b). The design practice is similar in
the rest of India. These items are undoubtedly SEs, and should be considered in the analysis and design
of buildings.

Figure 1.8: Failure of small capacity water tanks atop RC buildings during 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake:
they need to be formally anchored to rooftops, else they can dislodge from the roof
9
 (a)

(b)

Figure 1.9: RC building collapsed during 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake: RC elevator core shafts acted as
SEs, and not as NSEs
10
(d) Staircase Waist Slab and Beams
Most RC buildings built in India have RC staircases built integrally with the structural
system of the building. The staircases elements (namely base slab, spine beam and cross beams) act as
diagonal braces and attract large lateral forces during earthquake shaking (Figure 1.10). The SEs
associated with the staircase usually offer unsymmetrical lateral stiffness and strength to the
building. Hence, though the staircase is not considered in structural analysis and design of a
building system, it participates in the load path during strong shaking, attracts significant
earthquake induced forces, and gets damaged (Figure 1.11). Hence, they are SEs and not NSEs.
When SEs connected to the staircase are not designed with adequate stiffness and strength, they fail.
This results in a discontinuity of the load path along which inertia forces are transferred to the
lower level of the building.
Damage Damage

Damage

Damage

(a) (b)
Figure 1.10: Staircase Elements participate in Load Path: (a) Straight flight, and (b) Dog leg staircase

Figure 1.11: Undesirable earthquake performance of elements assumed to be non-structural elements during
1972 Nicaragua Earthquake: Damage to unreinforced masonry infill and floor tiles around
stairwell (Photo: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)
11
1.3 PERFORMANCE OF NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
DURING PAST EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake shaking poses a threat to safety of SEs as well as of NSEs. Lack of safety of SEs
compromises life of occupants of such buildings; of course, NSEs are lost in those buildings. Thus, the
effort for ensuring earthquake safety of NSEs presumes that SEs are safe under the expected level of
earthquake shaking. Only after the building is ensured to be structurally safe and earthquake-
resistant, effort should be made to ensure safety and functionality of NSEs. In normal structures,
damage to NSEs compromises (1) collateral damage to people and other objects/facilities, and (2)
damage and loss of functionality of NSE. In critical and lifelines structures, functionality of the NSEs is
compromised, in addition to the above two aspects. For instance, in a hospital, if oxygen cylinders
topple or/and their pipelines to operation theatres and wards are broken, secondary disasters can
happen. Also, if the X-ray machine topples during the earthquake, damage-sensitive components
inside are rendered useless after the earthquake, its vital function to render most required services
after the earthquake is jeopardized, not to mention the direct and indirect human and financial
losses incurred as a consequence of this. Thus, earthquake damage or loss of NSEs can lead to (a)
injury or loss of life, (b) loss of function of NSE, and (c) direct and indirect financial setback.

As of today, few countries have seismic design provisions to protect NSEs against
earthquakes. This is a reflection of the fact that lessons were not learnt necessarily by all
communities world-wide from losses incurred in NSEs during past earthquakes. In many countries
the losses of life are so overwhelming even today owing to collapses of buildings and structures,
that NSEs have not received yet the due attention.

1.3.1 Some Damage Types

NSEs that are massive have a tendency to slide and/or topple, if they are unanchored to the
vertical or horizontal SEs. For instance, if a wet battery bank is just rested on some supports that are
not designed to resist earthquake effects, the batteries can topple, and cause loss of function and
even spillage of acid (Figure 1.12a). On the other hand, if the same battery bank is held on supports
that are designed to resist the earthquake effects and anchored at the base on horizontal SEs, then its
performance is significantly improved during earthquakes (Figure 1.12b)

Some NSEs cannot be held individually from toppling, e.g., small items, like bottles and books
on shelves. For instance, when a bookshelf is shaken, the losses can be by toppling of shelf itself
(and NSEs) (Figure 1.13), or by toppling of books even though the shelf is in place (Figure 1.14). For
such NSEs, a common sense approach is taken to prevent damage or loss during earthquake
shaking; a wire rope is tied across the items (like books and bottles) on the supports of the shelves,
and the shelves themselves are anchored to the vertical SEs (like structural walls or columns) or
horizontal SEs (like slabs or beams) and prevent them from toppling. Such simple mitigation
measures adopted in past earthquakes have been successful (Figure 1.15).

12
 (a) (b)

Figure 1.12: Poor earthquake performance of NSEs was avoidable through design during 1971 San Fernando
Earthquake: (a) heavy battery bank collapse owing to un-designed supports, and (b) improved
performance with formal supports (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.13: Poor earthquake performance of NSEs 1987 during 1987 Whittier Narrows Earthquake: (a)
Books placed on shelves toppled, and the unanchored shelves also toppled as they were not
anchored to the vertical SEs; and (b) bookshelf distorted owing to poor design of the shelf for
resisting earthquake effects (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

13
 (a) (b)

Figure 1.14: Poor earthquake performance of NSEs during (a) 1989 Loma Prieta, California Earthquake and
(b) 1994 Northridge Earthquake: objects placed on shelves anchored to the vertical SEs, but not
prevented from toppling (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.15: Good earthquake performance of NSEs is achievable through simple and innovative, but careful
design of the anchors: (a) holding back the bottles on a rack during 1978 Coyote Lake Earthquake, and
(b) holding back the heavy book shelves to the wall (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection,
1997)
14
 If an NSE (say, light fixtures or false ceiling) is hung from horizontal SEs, it tends to swing
like a vertical string pendulum. Under strong horizontal earthquake shaking, the lateral swing may
be too much, and under strong vertical shaking, there is a threat of the NSE being pulled out of the
horizontal SEs (namely the ceiling slab of the room). This vulnerability of NSEs should be examined
during architectural design stage, to avoid threat to life and property (e.g., Figure 1.16). Light
fixtures and false ceilings should be held by both horizontal and vertical SEs (Figure 1.17).

(a) (b)

Figure 1.16: Poor earthquake performance of NSEs during (a) 1983 Coalinga Earthquake and (b) 1994
Northridge Earthquake: (a) hanging light fixtures, and (b) collapse of false ceiling (Photos: The
EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

Figure 1.17: Poor earthquake performance of NSES is avoidable through design: false ceiling systems
require diagonal brace-like anchors also; just vertical elements alone make the NSE swing
horizontally (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)
15
 Vertical projections made of unreinforced masonry (URM) walls are most vulnerable to
earthquake shaking (Figure 1.18); they tend to fall in their thin direction, whether they are parapet
walls or boundary walls. Collapse of parapet walls from large elevations can cause threat to life.
These URM walls need to be anchored formally to the horizontal SEs.

1.3.2 Importance of Securing NSEs

Experiences from several past earthquakes in countries with advanced provisions for
earthquake safety show that even when the building structure is made earthquake-resistant, there
are three negative effects of earthquake behaviour of NSEs, namely threat to life, threat to loss of
function, and threat to loss of property. On the basis of these threats, two sets of hazards are perceived,
namely
(a) Primary Hazard, when the NSE can get damaged, can impair its own function and jeopardize
safety of people’s lives. For instance, a window glass in the upper elevation of a multi-storey
building can break, if it is subjected to large in-plane deformation, fall down to the ground from
that elevation, and injure/kill persons walking on the sides of the building. In another instance,
toppling of unreinforced masonry parapet wall or chimney of a house can harm life of persons
below (Figure 1.19a); and
(b) Secondary Hazard, when the NSE can cause such actions that lead to yet another disaster
involving safety of people’s lives, building and its contents. For instance, toppling of chemical
bottles can lead to spill of chemicals in a laboratory, which, in turn, can cause fires (Figure
1.19b).

(a) (b)

Figure 1.18: Poor earthquake performance of NSEs is avoidable through design: (a) unreinforced masonry
parapet collapse during 1980 Italy Earthquake, and (b) unreinforced masonry boundary wall
collapse during 1994 Northridge Earthquake (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

16
 (a) (b)

Figure 1.19: Earthquake performance of non-structural elements can cause first and second order disasters:
(a) toppling of masonry chimneys can cause loss of life of persons below - 1987 Whittier Narrow
Earthquake, and (b) chemical spill in a laboratory can cause loss of life - 1971 San Fernando
Earthquake (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

Loss due to an NSE can be small or substantive depending on the function it is serving and its
cost. For instance, if book shelves of a library are not properly secured, they can get distorted
(Figure 1.13) or topple; the former may only dislodge books, but the latter can cause threat to life.
This may not seem to be a significant loss of NSE or its function. But, on the other hand, an
unreinforced masonry chimney can topple from the roof top and cause threat to life (Figure 1.19b).
Similarly, if gas cylinders trip and pipelines are pulled apart (Figure 1.20a), or electric wires are
stretched out of the toppled control panels (Figure 1.20b), then they can cause secondary disaster,
like fire and/or deaths due to asphyxiation. A similar situation of a second order crisis arises when
chemical spill happens in a laboratory. Further, if the sprinkler system fails in a hospital, the use of
the hospital may be jeopardized after an earthquake (Figure 1.21a). On a contrasting note, if the
holy scriptures in a monastery are damaged due to collapse of the shelves (Figure 1.21b), estimating
the loss will be difficult, because in that case, the heritage of the country may be lost.

17
 (a)

(b)

Figure 1.20: Earthquake performance of non-structural elements: (a) toppling of gas cylinders during
1971 San Fernando Earthquake, and (b) pullout of electrical control panel (Photos: The EERI
Annotated Slide Collection, 1997)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.21: Earthquake performance of non-structural elements: (a) failure of sprinkler system during
1994 Northridge Earthquake (Photos: The EERI Annotated Slide Collection, 1997) and (b) toppling of
shelves holding Holy Scriptures of Buddhist religion during 2011 Sikkim Earthquake

18
 Whether the NSE topples or pulls apart, direct and indirect losses can be significant. Today,
already about 60-70% of the total cost of construction in new buildings being built in urban India is
of NSEs, and the rest of the SEs. Since NSEs account for significant part of the total cost of most
buildings, it is recognized in counties prone to seismic hazard, that good earthquake performance of
NSEs also is extremely important.

Securing of NSEs needs to be carried out together by all stakeholders involved in the building
project, including (a) Tenants, (b) Owners, (c) Architect and Designers, (d) Contractors, (e)
Manufacturers, (f) Building Officials and (g) Researchers. Public awareness on possible threats to
life and potential economic loss that could be incurred due to failure of NSEs may strengthen the
need for securing NSEs. Public awareness can be brought about by educating the common man
(especially tenants and owners) on seismic protection and disaster mitigation. With prior
understanding of the importance of securing NSEs, clients (owners) may now warrant architects
and designers to incorporate safety features to secure NSEs. Consequently, architects and designers
are required to be familiar with the current design and detailing procedures to secure NSEs.
Further, designer may choose to use only those NSEs that are tested to possess capability to resist
earthquake shaking over those that are not. This will improve the survivability of NSEs during
strong earthquake shaking, and in turn initiate manufacturers to test and sell only quality products.
This seismic pre-qualification of NSEs leads to improved understanding of the behaviour of NSEs
subjected to earthquake-induced shaking. In time ahead, there would be increased pressure on
manufacturers of NSEs to ensure earthquake safety.

Clearly, there is immense scope to improve significantly the design provisions for securing
NSEs. Strict building regulations are required to ensure proper implementation of the design by
contractors, and stringent building regulation enforcement regime is required to ensure proper
compliance by officials and owners. In all, it is the primary responsibility of all stakeholders involved
to ensure that both the building and the NSEs are safe against the effects of earthquake shaking, and
thereby to ensure safety of life and property.

Inherent problems in the effort of securing NSEs [ATC 29, 1990; ATC 29-1, 1998, ATC 29-2,
2003] include:
(a) Lack of public awareness amongst owners: Interest of the building owners is inversely proportional
to time since the last earthquake;
(b) Lack of awareness amongst professionals: Often architects and structural designers are unaware of
the attention to be paid to NSEs in the building, but spend lavishly on these NSEs. Thus, it is not
guaranteed that this investment on NSEs is safe, because the NSEs are not protected against
damage during earthquake shaking;
(c) Lack of legal framework: Regulatory systems are not in place yet in many places of the world to
ensure safety of even buildings, not to mention about NSEs. And, developers are getting away
with being miserly about spending any money on ensuring safety of buildings and NSEs;
(d) Lack of champions: Currently, no one professional group (civil engineers or architects) is taking
responsibility to further the cause of NSE safety; and
(e) Inadequate literature: There is limited continuing education material for practising architects and
design engineers to improve understanding of earthquake safety of NSEs.

As a direct consequence, losses due to failure of NSEs are on the rise in urban buildings.
Learning how to secure NSEs also takes time, and hence should be started immediately.
Experiences from countries with advanced practices of earthquake safety suggest that even though
loss of life has been minimized due to structural collapses, the economic setback due to lack of
safety of NSEs is still large.

19
1.4 MAJOR CONCERNS
The share of cost of NSEs has been rising out of the building construction cost of the project
over the last four decades in India. Table 1.4 presents details of special features of buildings built in
different eras over the last four decades. The broad evolution of costs is depicted in Figure 1.22.
From a meager ~5% in the 1970s, cost of NSEs rose to a dominant ~70% in the 2000s with high
expectations of functional performance of buildings and increased maintenance costs. A saturating
trend is expected in NSE costs over the next decade, because changes in the building performance
are expected to be only nominal and that too only in select buildings. Also, many varieties of NSEs
(that are used in current day buildings) are not tested to demonstrate that they are capable of
resisting strong earthquake shaking. Manufacturers may spend more to demonstrate that NSEs
have enough capacity to maintain their integrity under seismic action. In turn, this may raise the
cost of NSEs.

In USA, the average economic loss due to earthquake-related failure of NSEs alone is
estimated to be around US$2-0-4.5 billion per year over the last three decades [ATC 69, 2008;
Kircher, 2003]. Figure 1.23 shows summary of studies undertaken following 1994 Northridge
earthquake in USA and 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in Japan, in terms of cost share of
different items in buildings in USA and Japan [Kanda and Hirakawa, 1997; Taghavi and Miranda,
2002; and Takahashi and Shiohara, 2004]. Economic losses are as shown in Table 1.5 due to failure of
NSEs during different earthquakes.

Table 1.4: Evolution of NSEs used in building over the last four decades in INDIA

Era Dominant Overview of NSE Highlights

Building Type NSE Features
1960- Masonry Nothing Cement mortar plastering of walls, battened electrical
1970s buildings special wiring, ceramic plumbing lines
1970- RC buildings Primary + Wall cements, advanced paints, rooftop water tanks,
1980s concealed electrical wiring
1980- Multi-storey Additional + Wall putties and Plaster of Paris coating on walls,
1990s RC buildings elevators, window ACs, PVC and metallic plumbing
lines, …
1990- High-rise RC Advanced + False Ceilings, Façades (e.g., glass, stone), Finishes
2000s buildings Services (e.g., Split and central ACs, advanced electrical
power control devices, advanced plumbing features, fire
fighting, multiple elevators, multiple water tanks on
rooftops, data and communication cables, advanced
bathroom fixtures), expensive furniture and contents of
buildings

Table 1.5: Economic losses due to failure of NSEs [ATC 69, 2008]

S No. Earthquake Losses due to failure of Nonstructural elements

1 Loma Prieta 1989 $ 50 million reported at some facilities
2 Northridge 1994 Economic loss associated with Northridge earthquake is as high as $5.2
billion, which is five-sixth of the total direct economic loss to non-
residential buildings
3 Nisqually 2001 Estimated $2 billion loss was associated with damage to nonstructural
components and business interruption
4 Niigata Ken 2004 Economic loss, both direct and indirect, sustained at Sanyo Electrical
Company was in the tune of $ 690 million

20
 100 %

90 %
Countries with
Cost of NSEs (% Project Cost)
80 % advanced seismic
design provisions
70 %

India

20 %

10 %
5%

1970 s 1980 s 1990 s 2000 s 2010 s

Figure 1.22: Evolution trends in costs of NSEs used in buildings over the last four decades: in India and in
countries with advanced seismic provisions for design of buildings and NSEs

100% 17
20 20
Cost (% Project Cost)

80% 44
40
60%
62 70
40%
48
20% 40
18 13 8
0%
Residentials Offices Hotels Hospitals

Structure NSE (Finishes & Services) NSE (Contents)

Figure 1.23: Cost share of structure and NSEs in building projects implemented in USA and Japan: Major
cost share is of NSEs [Adapted from Takahashi and Shiohara, 2004]

21
 Ideally, the response of NSEs should be studied in detail, and designed and detailed by the
manufacturers of the NSEs for use in various projects. Details provided by manufacturers for use of
NSEs should provide adequate caution to ensure that damage does not accrue beyond what is
possible to be sustained by NSEs. Design provisions should be arrived at in consultation with the
manufacturers, after thorough testing of NSEs on shake tables for examining levels of shaking that
they can sustain without sustaining significant irreparable/repairable damage. Independent design
for each and every individual NSE is tedious, and may not be suitable for NSEs that are used
commonly in normal buildings and structures. But, such measures may be required for NSEs
employed in important, critical and lifeline buildings and structures, such as nuclear power plants and air
traffic controls. This book presents basic issues relevant to performance of NSEs during strong
earthquake shaking, along with basic strategies for protecting them against such hazard.

22
 Chapter 2
Conceptual Earthquake Behaviour of NSEs

2.1 THE TWO CHALLENGES

An NSE in a building or structure is faced with two challenges during earthquake shaking,
namely
(1) Inertia force induced arising from the mass of NSE due to acceleration at the base of the SE on
which the NSE is rested, and
(2) Deformation (primarily displacement, but can be rotation also) imposed on the NSE between its
support points on the SEs, when the support points undergo differential movement.
The former is concern especially for NSEs that have large mass and are tall and narrow, and the latter
for NSEs that are long and supported at more than one point on the same or adjoining SEs or buildings.
Both of these challenges are a concern for some NSEs that posses all of the above characteristics,
namely massive, high, narrow and multiple supports. Usually, one of these effects is more
significant than the other; the more significant effect is called the primary effect, and the other, the
secondary effect.

When an NSE with large mass and large height (e.g., a cupboard) that is simply rested on a
base surface is shaken lightly at its base, it can stay as is (Figure 2.1a) or start rocking in its current
position (Figure 2.1b). When its base dimension is large and shaking moderate, it may not rock, but
just slide (Figure 2.1c). When the shaking is large, it may slide and rock together (Figure 2.1d), and
when the shaking is severe, it may even topple (Figure 2.1e). Which of these actions will happen is
determined together by overall dimensions of the NSE, mass of NSE, severity of shaking and
coefficient of friction between the NSE and surface of SE on which it is rested.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 2.1: NSEs with large mass shaken at its base: (a) tall NSE, (b) rocking of NSE, (c) sliding of NSE,
(d) sliding and rocking of NSE, and (e) toppling of NSE
 Consider an NSE of large length supported at more than one point on SEs. When the
support points are shaken differentially during earthquake shaking, the NSE is subjected to
differential axial, lateral or combined axial-lateral movement between its ends, depending on the
orientation of the NSE and the direction of movement of the supports. Consider the pipe of a water
main running along the height of the building (Figure 2.2a) in a low rise building. During
earthquake shaking at the base of the building, the pipe is shaken differentially between successive
support points at the floor levels (Figures 2.2b and 2.2c). The relative movement ∆ is in the
horizontal direction and transverse to the pipe, irrespective of whether the shaking at the base is to
the right or the left.

Thus, NSEs are of three types, namely (1) Force-sensitive NSE, (2) Displacement-sensitive NSE,
and (3) Force-and-Displacement-sensitive NSE. Table 2.1 shows a list of NSE and categorises them into
the above types.

NSE

Building

(a)

∆
Floor
Displacements

∆
(b) (c)

Figure 2.2: NSEs of long length shaken at its support points: (a) Water Main in a building, (b) swing of
the building to the right, and (c) swing of the building to the left

24
Table 2.1: Categorisation of commonly used NSEs based on earthquake behaviour [from FEMA 74,
2011]

Category Sub-category Non-Structural Element Sensitivity

Force Displacement Both
Consumer Furniture and minor 1. Storage shelves 9
Goods inside items 2. Multi-level material stacks
buildings Appliances 1. Refrigerators 9
2. Washing machines
3. Gas cylinders
4. TVs
5. Diesel generators
6. Water pumps (small)
7. Window ACs
8. Wall mounted ACs
Architectural Openings 1. Doors and windows Secondary Primary 9
finishes 2. Large-panel glass panes with
inside frames (as windows or infill
buildings walling material)
3. Other partitions
False ceilings Directly stuck to or hung from roof 9
Suspended integrated ceiling system Secondary Primary 9
Stairs Primary Secondary 9
Partitions not held Secondary Primary 9
snugly between
lateral load resisting
members
Appendages Vertical projections 1. Chimneys & Stacks 9
to buildings 2. Parapets
3. Water Tanks (small)
4. Hoardings anchored on roof tops
5. Antennas communication towers
on rooftops
Horizontal 1. Sunshades 9
projections 2. Canopies and Marquees
Hoardings anchored to vertical face Secondary Primary 9
Exterior or Interior Tiles (ceramic, stone, glass or other) Secondary Primary 9
Façade (i) pasted on surface
(ii) bolted to surface
(iii) hung from hooks bolted to
surface
Exterior Structural Secondary Primary 9
Glazing Systems
Services and From within and 1. Water supply pipelines 9
Utilities from outside to 2. Electricity cables & wires
inside the building 3. Gas pipelines
4. Sewage pipelines
5. Telecommunication wires
6. Rainwater drain pipes
7. Elevators
8. Fire hydrant systems
9. Air-conditioning ducts
Inside the building 1. Pipes carrying pressurized fluids Secondary Primary 9
2. Fire hydrant piping system
3. Other fluid pipe systems
Storage Vessels and 1. Flat bottom containers and vessels 9
Water Heaters 2. Structurally Supported Vessels
Mechanical 1. Boilers and Furnaces 9
Equipment 2. General manufacturing and
process machinery
3. HVAC Equipment

25
2.2 THE PROTECTION STRATEGIES
Heavy and stiff NSEs are susceptible to sliding, rocking and toppling during earthquake
shaking, if UN-ANCHORED, e.g., heavy motor; such NSEs are called Force-Sensitive NSEs (Figure
2.3a). And, light and flexible NSEs are susceptible to stretching, shortening and shearing, if
ANCHORED, and are called Displacement-Sensitive NSEs (Figure 2.3b). Some NSEs are both massive
and flexible; such NSEs are susceptible to both force and displacement effects. A list of NSEs used in
practice is provided with photographs in Annexure A.

Force-sensitive NSEs are relatively more rugged (by virtue of their manufacture) than
displacement-sensitive NSEs. Thus, defiance is the strategy for protecting the former type NSEs and
compliance for the latter type. This means that in force-sensitive NSEs, the inertia force induced is to
be resisted by NSEs ANCHORED to adjoining SEs (Figure 2.3a); the anchors are designed to have
the requisite resisting force capacity. And, in displacement-sensitive NSEs, the expected relative
displacement between the two support points of NSE is to be allowed to occur freely without any
restraint against the expected deformation, i.e., UNANCHORED to the adjoining SEs; this is
achieved by providing required physical space between NSEs and adjoining SEs, or using
connectors that permit the expected deformation without allowing NSEs to separate from the SEs
(Figure 2.3b).

Fp Fp

Un-anchored NSE Anchored NSE

(a)
∆

NSE
not deformed

NSE
deformed

Anchored NSE Unanchored NSE

(b)

Figure 2.3: Strategies for securing NSEs: (a) Force-sensitive NSEs to be anchored, and not left
unanchored, and (b) Displacement-sensitive NSEs to be unanchored, and not anchored
26
 2.2.1 Force-Sensitive NSEs
A force-sensitive NSE (that can rock, slide and topple) can be at any elevation on a building
(Figure 2.4a). They can be secured by connecting them to any SE of the building, namely the vertical
elements (like walls and columns), the horizontal elements (like slabs and beams), or both. In turn,
these SEs of the building carry the inertia forces of these NSEs along the load path of the structural
system of the building down to the foundation. For designing the connectors between the NSEs and
the SEs of the building, separate calculations are required when NSEs are anchored to
(1) Only horizontal SEs of building (Figure 2.4b),
(2) Only vertical SEs of building (Figure 2.4c), and
(3) Both horizontal and vertical SEs of building (Figure 2.4d).

(a) NSEs anchored only to Horizontal SEs

NSEs can topple under lateral earthquake shaking, if they are massive (but not necessarily
tall) and do not have adequate width or grip at the base (Figure 2.5a), e.g., parapets on roof tops,
television set placed on table, plastic water storage tanks on roof tops, and machines & generators.
Sometimes, these NSEs may not topple, but their sliding may cause other losses. Such NSEs can be
made safe against toppling and/or sliding by just anchoring them at the base by taking support
from the horizontal SEs. Sometimes, NSEs are hung from the horizontal SEs (e.g., a chandelier
hanging from the roof slab); they are vulnerable under strong shaking of SE, especially with
dominating vertical component.

(b) NSEs anchored only to Vertical SEs

NSEs that are massive (but moderately tall) can topple under lateral earthquake shaking
(Figure 2.5b), e.g., refrigerators and cupboards. Such NSEs can be secured against toppling by
anchoring them just at the top by taking support from vertical SEs. In special cases, even light and
short NSEs can be anchored to vertical SEs, e.g., LPG cylinders. These NSEs cannot be tampered
with to create a proper grip to anchor them at their bases to horizontal SEs, but have a feature (like
the top ring in a LPG cylinder) to enable anchoring them to vertical SEs. Some NSEs may have to be
mounted directly on walls from functional considerations, e.g., shelves and flat televisions mounted
on walls. Caution is essential to ensure that walls on which such NSEs are mounted, can safely
carry the NSEs and resist earthquake shaking in their out-of-plane directions. This is particularly a
concern, when NSEs are mounted on unreinforced masonry infill walls. NSEs that are on shelves
held against the wall also can be treated as wall mounted.

SEs Vertical SE

Load
paths

Horizontal SE

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.4: Securing force-sensitive NSEs: (a) Safety of NSEs is ensured by connecting NSEs to
adjoining SEs of the building, (b) Connecting NSEs to horizontal SEs only, (c) Connecting NSEs
to vertical SEs only, and (d) Connecting NSEs to both horizontal and vertical SEs
27
 NSE

NSE
SE

SE
NSE SE
NSE

SE
Connector

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.5: Anchors to secure force-sensitive NSEs: Anchor bolts are required to connect NSEs to SEs of
the building, (a) Connecting NSEs to horizontal SEs only, (b) Connecting NSEs to vertical SEs
only, and (c) Connecting NSEs to both horizontal and vertical SEs

(c) NSEs anchored to both Horizontal and Vertical SEs

NSEs that are massive (and tall) can topple under lateral earthquake shaking (Figure 2.5c),
e.g., industrial storage racks stocking raw material or finished products. Such NSEs have a
significant part of their mass at higher elevations, narrow width and large height. These factors
make such NSEs candidates to topple, because they cannot be made safe against toppling by just
anchoring them to horizontal SEs at their bases; supports are required at the upper elevations from
vertical SEs also. Some false ceilings are held by both horizontal and vertical SEs.

2.2.2 Displacement-Sensitive NSEs

Displacement-sensitive NSEs (that can pull, compress and shear) move or swing by large
amounts in translation and rotation under elastic and/or inelastic deformations of the SEs imposed on
them during earthquake shaking, foul with adjoining NSEs, or pull off from supports on SEs, if
anchored to them (Figure 2.6). Three situations of relative displacements in NSE arise when NSE
spans between:
(1) Two SEs on the same building but at different elevations (e.g., façade glass panels appended on the
outside surface across the height of the building) (Figure 2.6a);
(2) Two SEs that shake independently (e.g., a water main pipeline passing between the two parts of the
building with a separation joint in between) (Figure 2.6b); and
(3) An SE on a building and the ground (e.g., a gas pipe between the building and a tank resting on
ground) (Figure 2.6c).
The strategy of design of connections should be to ensure that the relative displacement imposed at
the support points is accommodated to occur freely, and not prevented from occurring.

(a) NSEs supported on two SEs on the same building, but at different elevations
Usually, NSEs (that run across the height of a building) are supported at floor levels. During
earthquake shaking, they are subjected to relative lateral displacement between successive
supports. The relative displacement induced in the NSE between successive support points is
estimated though the actual lateral displacements induced in the building at these floor levels. Long
and slender NSEs, like segmented sewage pipes (Figure 2.7), are most vulnerable to such relative
lateral translation between successive floor levels; the pipe joints open up leading to loss of function
of the sewage pipe. Often, sufficient slot is left in the floor slab to allow movement of the pipe
without relative deformation.

28
 Un-deformed
Glass Panel

Glass
Panel

Deformed
Building

(a)

Pipe with flexible portion

Pipe

(b)

Gas Pipe with

sufficient slack to
not snap during
Gas Pipe earthquake shaking

(c)

Figure 2.6: Displacement-sensitive NSEs: Spanning between (a) SEs running across height of a
building, (b) SEs on two portions of a building across a construction joint, and (c) SE on a
building and the ground

29
 Sewage Pipe Slot in floor slab
to allow free movement of
sewage pipe within it
Sewage Pipe is
un-deformed

Figure 2.7: Displacement-sensitive NSEs between two SEs on the same building, but at different elevations:
Sewage pipes running across the height of the building (a) should not be restrained, but (b)
should be allowed to remain without deformation (the deformed shape of the building is
exaggerated deliberately to amplify the action)

(b) NSEs supported on two SEs that shake independently

When plan dimensions of buildings are large, they are usually given a construction joint,
which is designed as a seismic joint in building built in seismic areas. Understandably, two parts of
the building at such seismic joints move relative to each other. NSEs held rigidly by supports that
rest on these two parts of the building, are subjected to axial compression and elongation effects.
Gas pipes, water mains, electric wires and communication wires running across this seismic joint
from one part of the building to the other at any floor level, or electric supply cables that come form
the nearby pole to the building (Figure 2.8), are subjected to these undesirable relative axial
deformation effects. In keeping with the strategy of protection of such displacement-sensitive NSEs,
it is appropriate only to allow this relative deformation to occur freely without any restraint. Often,
extra slack or flexible pipe length is introduced to accommodate this relative deformation.

Electric cable with

sufficient slack to not
snap during shaking
Electric
cable

Figure 2.8: Displacement-sensitive NSEs between two SEs shaking independently: Electric cable from pole
to the building (a) is tied taut, if relative displacement arising during seismic shaking is not
considered, and (b) has sufficient slack to accommodate the relative displacement between its
support points, if relative displacement arising during seismic shaking is considered
30
 (c) NSEs supported on a SE on building and the ground
Many critical NSEs span from outside ground to buildings, e.g., water mains, gas mains, and
electric cables. These should be provided with the freedom to move freely to accommodate the
relative lateral displacement that is imposed when the ground and the floor on building shake
differentially (Figure 2.9). For water pipes, two options are available – to provide slack in the pipe
with a flexible segment, or through the use of flexible couplers that are known to accommodated
designed amounts of relative displacement.

Water Pipe with

flexible pipe
coupler to prevent
fracture of pipe
during shaking
Water Pipe

Figure 2.9: Displacement-sensitive NSEs between a SE on building and the ground: Water pipe from a
water tank on ground to the building (a) is snug between the building and the tank, and
vulnerable during earthquake shaking, and (b) is protected by the flexible coupler that is
included along the length of the pipe to ensure safety during earthquake shaking

2.3 INTERACTION BETWEEN NSEs and SEs

When building shakes, NSE is shaken; this is expected. But, when the NSE shakes, does it
affect the building, in turn? If it does, it is called interaction between the building and NSE. In
literature [e.g., Chen and Soong, 1988], when the interaction is present, the NSE is called a Structural
Secondary System, and if it does not, it is called Non-Structural Secondary Systems. Table 2.2 lists the
differences between the above two sets of NSEs. In this book, the NSEs discussed classify under
Non-Structural Secondary Systems ONLY.

NSEs that have mass much smaller than that of the building on which they are held, say
mass less than 1% of that of the building, the dynamic oscillation of the NSE does not alter the
shaking of the building. As the mass of the NSE increases, the interaction between the response of
the NSE and that of the building increases. If considerable interaction is expected between the
responses of NSEs and SEs, then the building-SEs-NSE system is called a HYBRID structure; in such
cases, the building should be modelled with both NSEs and SEs to determine the integrated
response of the combined system. And, any change in design of NSE and its connection with the SE
may even alter the structural demand on the SEs and hence their design. Response of NSE with
interaction effects can be calculated on the basis of modal analysis of combined SEs-NSE system.
The dynamic properties of combined system can be deduced from dynamic properties of both NSE
and SEs considered independently. The demands on SEs and NSEs computed without accounting
for interaction may be too conservative in some cases, and even un-conservative in others. With
increase in nonlinearities in the building, the demand imposed on NSE may be higher or lower.
Also, with increase in inelastic action, the natural period of the building increases; under such
circumstances, resonance effects can be observed if the reduced natural period of the building
coincides with that of the NSE.
31
Table 2.2: Comparison between NSEs and SEs [Chen and Soong, 1988]

Basis for Comparison Non-Structural Secondary System Structural Secondary System

Interaction between Lateral inertia force generated by NSE is Interaction is considered as NSE
the secondary and transmitted back to the building, but modifies structural behaviour of
primary system interaction (influence on structural building on which it is mounted
behaviour of building) is NOT significant
Importance NSE plays a vital role towards functioning Such items can affect safety of
of critical and/or important structures building on which it is mounted
and their failure may have serious
implications
Examples Computer systems, control systems, Stairways, structural partitions,
machinery, panel, storage tanks and suspended ceilings, piping systems
heavy equipments and ducts

32
 Chapter 3
Behaviour of NSEs in Earthquakes

3.1 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE SHAKING ON BUILDINGS

Buildings oscillate during earthquake shaking. The oscillation causes acceleration, velocity and
displacement at every floor in the building. The intensity and duration of oscillation, and the amount
of acceleration, velocity and displacement induced at every floor level in a building depend on the
characteristics of the earthquake shaking and the dynamic characteristics of the building. Usually,
acceleration, velocity and displacement induced at a floor level are different from those induced at
other floor levels.

Characteristics of earthquake shaking that affect oscillations of floors (Figure 3.1) include
(1) Distance of the fault responsible for the earthquake from the building in which the NSE is
housed, the local soil type underneath that building,
(2) Frequency content, amplitude, and duration of shaking of the ground motion, and
(3) Dynamic characteristics of buildings like natural periods of the building in the direction of shaking
and the associated natural mode shapes of oscillation, which in turn are governed by the mass and
stiffness distribution in the building.
Here, if mass of NSE is small compared to that of the building or of the floor to which it is
connected (e.g., mass of an adequately anchored television set), the additional inertia force
mobilised in the NSEs is small and does not significantly affect the dynamic response of the
building. On the other hand, if the mass of the NSE is NOT sufficiently small compared to that of
the building or the floor to which it is connected (e.g., mass of an adequately anchored microwave
tower on roof of a two-storey building), the additional inertia force mobilised in the NSE may
significantly affect the dynamic response of the building. Such NSEs are also referred to as
Structural Secondary Systems. Other examples of Structural Secondary Systems are large water tanks
on roof tops of small buildings, stairways, structural partitions [Chen and Soong, 1988]. In such
cases, the primary (i.e., the building) and the secondary (i.e., the NSE) systems should be analysed
together as a complete model to obtain the effects of earthquake shaking. In general, these coupled
systems are required to be considered, if the mass ratio (i.e., ratio of mass of NSE to that of building
or floor to which it is connected) is more than about 0.10 and the natural frequency ratio (i.e., ratio of
natural frequency of NSE to fundamental frequency of building) is close to 1.0. In this book, complete
models are NOT discussed.

NSE
NSE Shaking
Floor Shaking

Earthquake Building
Fault
Ground Shaking
at building site
Focus Local
Soil

Bed rock

Figure 3.1: Seismic Setting of an NSE: All factors that affect building behaviour also affect earthquake
behaviour of NSEs
 Points on which NSEs are supported oscillate during earthquake shaking. As a consequence,
two actions are imposed on NSEs (Figure 3.2), namely (a) accelerations at their bases, and (b) relative
displacements between the two ends of NSEs, when NSEs are long and supported at two floor levels, on
two buildings or on ground and the building. Thus, it is necessary to study acceleration and
displacement responses of buildings.

NSE
Floor NSE Acceleration
Acceleration

Building

Ground
Acceleration

(a)

NSE

Floor
Displacements

Building

Ground
Acceleration

NSE

Floor
Building 2
Displacements Displacement

Building 1
NSE

Ground Acceleration Displacement

(b)

Figure 3.2: Two actions imposed on NSEs: (a) Accelerations at their base, and (b) Relative
displacement between their ends
34
3.1.1 Floor Acceleration Response
(a) Concept
When a building is subjected to an earthquake ground motion at its base, the resulting
acceleration histories are different at its various floor levels (Figure 3.3). The time histories of these
floor accelerations are different from those of natural accelerograms (i.e., acceleration time histories of
the ground during earthquakes). The acceleration history at a particular floor is the input at the base of
an NSE mounted on that particular floor, just as the earthquake ground acceleration history is the
input at the base of the building. Thus, identical NSEs placed at different floor levels experience
different shaking histories when the building is subjected to an earthquake ground motion. Hence,
studying the acceleration time histories at different floors of buildings is essential for meaningful
design of NSEs supported at different floor levels.

Storey

Figure 3.3: Acceleration histories at different floors: Absolute acceleration time histories at different
floors in a five storey RC building subjected to an earthquake ground motion at its base

35
 (b) Obtaining Floor Acceleration Response
In seismic design, a simple way of accounting for earthquake shaking effects is (i) estimating
the maximum inertia force induced in the building or in a NSE, and (ii) using this as an equivalent
static lateral force for design purposes. For rigid elastic NSEs, the induced inertia force is
proportional to amplitude of shaking experienced at its base, which in this case, is the amplitude of
floor acceleration at a particular floor in the building. Hence, the first step in seismic design of NSEs
in a building is to obtain maximum floor acceleration (from the complete time history of floor
acceleration) at each floor of the building, when the building is subjected to expected (i.e., design
level) earthquake ground motion at its base. This floor acceleration response is obtained through
dynamic analysis of the building, without considering the dynamic properties (i.e., mass, damping
and stiffness) of the NSEs; in Coupled Systems, these should be considered.

(c) Factors Influencing Floor Acceleration Response

Structural system and height of a building critically govern a floor acceleration response
under earthquake shaking. In general, proximity of fundamental natural period of a building
(governed by the magnitude and distribution of mass and stiffness in the building) to the dominant
frequencies carried by the earthquake ground motion largely governs acceleration response at any
floor level in the building. Thus, floor acceleration response changes with building configuration
and structural system (e.g., moment frames, braced frames, or frames with structural walls). Height
plays an important role in controlling fundamental natural period and fundamental natural mode
shape of buildings. Buildings become laterally flexible as their height increases. As a result, natural
periods of buildings increase with increase in height.

In general, low-rise buildings with small fundamental natural periods oscillate largely in
their fundamental mode during earthquake shaking; their higher modes are stiffer and participate
less in overall dynamic response. This leads to the commonly observed phenomenon of increasingly
larger amplitude of floor acceleration response along the height of the building. But, in tall
buildings, higher modes also have large fundamental natural periods and hence are shaken easily
during earthquake shaking. Participation of higher modes of oscillation changes floor acceleration
responses along height; this is evident from lower amplitude of floor acceleration response at an
intermediate floor levels compared to those at floors below and above them (Figure 3.4).

Additionally, the extent of participation of natural modes of oscillation of buildings is

influenced by characteristics of earthquake ground motion at their base. Usually, earthquake
ground motion contains a good mix of waves of different frequencies (in the range of 0-25 Hz, with
large energy associated with waves having frequencies in the range of 2-10 Hz) that set buildings in
motion. A dominant frequency of input motion close to a natural frequency associated with a
higher mode of building increases the participation of that higher mode of oscillation. Thus, while
floor acceleration response usually increases with height in buildings, a highly filtered ground
motion (e.g., due to local site effects) may excite higher modes of oscillation in buildings and cause
distinctly different floor acceleration response at different floors.

Damping is an important dynamic characteristic of buildings. Larger damping results in

smaller response, and vice-versa. Damping increases with increase in damage in buildings. Thus,
there is no one number that is considered exact. As an engineering practice, designers tend to use a
commonly agreed number of 5% of critical damping for all calculations related to design of
buildings. Hence, damping is not in focus in this book.

36
 Amplitude of acceleration response
at floors increases with height
when building oscillates
predominantly in its first mode of
oscillation (as in short buildings)

1st Mode of oscillation

Amplitude of acceleration response

at intermediate floor smaller than
those above and below it,
when building oscillates
predominantly in its second mode of
oscillation (as in tall buildings)

2nd Mode of oscillation

Figure 3.4: Floor Acceleration Response: Acceleration response at a floor is affected by building height
and by degree of participation of different modes of oscillation of the building

The above discussion is based on elastic behaviour of buildings during earthquake shaking.
Floor acceleration responses change significantly with onset of inelasticity (or damage) in the
building during strong earthquake shaking (Figure 3.5). In well designed buildings, inelasticity
initiates at beam ends in the lower storeys, and with increased intensity of shaking, hinges form in
beams in upper elevations of the building also. In poorly designed buildings with a lower weak
and/or soft storey, inelasticity is contained in that particular storey alone. In either case, natural
modes of oscillation and damping of the building change with increase in inelasticity, and, in turn,
changes floor acceleration responses at different floor levels. In general, amplitude of floor acceleration
decreases with increase in damage. Also, overall characteristics of acceleration response histories of
floors change during the total duration of earthquake shaking. This is attributed to the building
becoming more flexible with increased inelasticity and the overall lateral oscillation of the building
being accommodated at the damaged inelastic regions in the form of increased rotations and
displacements; this is in contrast to increased accelerations being generated in the building shaking
elastically.

37
 Elastic Response Inelastic Response

Figure 3.5: Floor Acceleration Response: Inelastic response significantly different from elastic response

(d) Amplification Factors of Floor Accelerations at Different Floors

The ratio of absolute maximum acceleration generated in a floor in a building to the peak
ground acceleration is called the floor acceleration amplification factor Afloor. Thus, all factors affecting
acceleration response at a floor level also affect the floor acceleration amplification factor at that
floor. Floor acceleration response (and hence amplification factor Afloor) increases along height of
buildings in most low-rise well-designed regular buildings, whose responses are primarily
governed by their fundamental mode of oscillation. In most codes, the variation of this
amplification factor Afloor is approximated to be linear along the height of the building, as
§ z·
A floor = ¨ 1 + α
© H ¹̧
, (3.1)

where z is height of floor under consideration from base of building, H the total height of building,
and α taking integer value of 1, 2 or 3.

The above approximation is not necessarily always true. Floor acceleration response can be
smaller, at least in certain floors, in high-rise buildings with significant contribution of higher
modes of oscillation. In such buildings, floor acceleration amplification does NOT vary linearly along
height. Also, ratio of absolute maximum floor acceleration to peak ground acceleration can be less
than 1.0 in some floors owing to inelastic effects in the building, and hence sometimes Afloor is
referred to as floor acceleration reduction factor. In general, maximum amplification is experienced
during elastic shaking of buildings (Figure 3.6), and hence codes tend to take a conservative
approach, even though maximum reduction may be seen during high inelastic shaking.

38
 1.0

0.8

0.6

Floor
0.4

0.2
Elastic
Inelastic
0.0
0 1 2 3
Floor Acceleration Amplification Factor

Figure 3.6: Floor Acceleration Amplification Factor: Normalised maximum floor acceleration at
different floors in a five storey RC building

3.1.2 Displacement Response

(a) Concept
Displacement histories at different floors of a building also can be obtained just the way
acceleration histories at different floors were. As with floor acceleration responses in a building,
floor displacement responses also are different at various floor levels when building is subjected to
earthquake ground motion at its base. And, floor displacement histories in buildings are different
from ground displacement histories at their bases during earthquake shaking. Thus, NSEs
extending between and anchored at two or more floors (e.g., water pipes, sewage pipes, and gas
mains) are subjected to relative deformations due to different shaking at floors to which they are
connected (Figure 3.7). Therefore, displacement time histories should be studied at different floor
levels in a building for design of displacement-sensitive NSEs supported at different floor levels.

(b) Obtaining Displacement Response and Inter-storey Drift

Seismic design involves obtaining maximum stress-resultants (i.e., axial force, shear force,
bending moment and torsion) induced in a NSE due to imposed relative deformation between its
supports. For elastic systems, these stress-resultants generated are proportional to amplitude of
relative deformations between supports at different floor levels. The relative lateral displacement
between two consecutive floors or storeys in a building is called the inter-storey drift, and is
expressed as a fraction or percentage of the storey height. This measure is useful in understanding
the demand on displacement-sensitive NSEs. Hence, the first step in seismic design of displacement-
sensitive NSEs in a building is to obtain the history of floor displacements at different floor levels and
estimate from them maximum inter-storey drift generated in each storey during earthquake shaking.
This floor displacement or inter-storey drift response is obtained through dynamic analysis of building,
usually without considering the dynamic properties (mass, damping and stiffness) of NSEs; in
Coupled Systems, these should be considered.

39
 5

1
Storey

Figure 3.7: Displacement histories at different floors: Floor displacement time histories at different
floors in a five storey RC building subjected to an earthquake ground motion at its base

(c) Factors Influencing Displacement Response and Inter-storey Drift

Factors that affect floor acceleration response also affect floor displacement response, in particular,
building structural system and height. As stated before, fundamental natural period of building
governs displacement response at any of its floors, and floor displacement response changes with
building configuration, structural system and height. Fundamental mode shape in well-designed
low-rise moment frame buildings is of shear-type. This leads to the commonly observed
phenomenon of larger amplitude of floor displacement response at higher elevations of buildings.
On the other hand, participation of higher modes can be high in tall buildings with large
fundamental period. Participation of higher modes of oscillation in tall buildings changes floor
displacement responses along height, wherein floor displacement responses can be smaller at
intermediate floor levels compared to those in floors below and above it (similar to floor
acceleration response as in Figure 3.4).

But, since design of displacement-sensitive NSEs is governed by relative displacement between

its supports, maximum relative displacement or maximum inter-storey drift is more important than just
maximum absolute displacement at a floor. In well-designed low-rise buildings, inter-storey drift
decreases upwards along height, although absolute maximum floor displacements increase under
elastic shaking dominated by fundamental mode. On the other hand, in tall buildings, inter-storey
drift can be small or large at intermediate storeys depending on participation of higher modes
under elastic shaking. Also, since extent of participation of natural modes of oscillation of buildings
is influenced by characteristics of earthquake ground motion experienced at the base, filtered far
field motions can increase participation of higher modes of oscillation and cause high inter-storey
drifts at intermediate storeys in tall buildings. Further, under inelastic conditions, buildings may
sustain high inter-storey drift in storeys where inelasticity is present; in general, inter-storey drift
increases with increase in damage.
40
3.2 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE SHAKING ON NSEs
When buildings oscillate during earthquake shaking, NSEs mounted on them also oscillate.
The oscillation causes acceleration, velocity and displacement in NSEs. The intensity and duration of
oscillation of NSEs, and the acceleration, velocity and displacement induced in them depend on
dynamic characteristics of NSEs, in addition to characteristics of the earthquake and the building. As
mentioned earlier, accelerations induced in NSEs at a floor level are different from those induced in
identical NSEs mounted on other floors of the same building.

3.2.1 Acceleration Effects

Seismic design of connections between force-sensitive NSEs and adjoining SEs is performed
using maximum force induced in NSEs. This arises from acceleration in the building at the floors
supporting the NSE during earthquake shaking. The force induced in NSEs can be estimated in two
ways, namely: (i) inertia force, i.e., mass m times acceleration a, or (ii) elastic force, i.e., stiffness k times
relative displacement x, as
­ma
F=® .
¯ kx
(3.2)

It can be tedious to analyse each NSE under the different acceleration time histories that are possible
at different floors. The mass and stiffness of different NSEs vary. Hence, it is sufficient to study
NSEs with different natural periods TNSE subjected to the same base shaking (representing various
possibilities of floor acceleration time histories). This is similar to analysing different buildings with
different natural periods TBUILDING subjected to a particular earthquake ground motion; structural
design process is simplified by generating ground acceleration response spectrum of the particular
ground acceleration motion (this represents maximum acceleration response of buildings with
different natural periods, but same structural damping, under same earthquake ground motion).

Floor acceleration response spectrum, or in short, floor spectrum, of a particular floor acceleration
time history (and a specific value of damping) is a graph of maximum acceleration experienced by
NSEs as ordinate and natural period TNSE of NSEs as abscissa. It can be obtained for a spectrum of
NSEs of different natural periods, but with same damping and adequately anchored to that
particular floor, and subjecting them to the same acceleration time history associated with that floor
(Figure 3.8). This eliminates need to perform dynamic analysis for each NSE. Five floor acceleration
spectra corresponding to the acceleration at five floors of a five-storey RC building is shown in
Figure 3.9 for 5% damping under the action of 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake ground motion (El
Centro; S00E component) at the base of the building. The seismic inertia force generated in an
anchored acceleration-sensitive NSE is obtained by multiplying the floor acceleration response
spectrum value (from the floor acceleration response spectrum) with the mass of the NSE.

Figure 3.8: Dependence of Response on Natural Period: Time history of acceleration and displacement
of mass is same for a number of NSEs with same natural period when subjected to the same
floor acceleration history, and with same damping
41
 5.0

Spectral Acceleration of NSE (g)

4.0

3.0

2.0 5th Floor

4th Floor
3rd Floor
1.0
2nd Floor
1st Floor

0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Natural Period of NSE (s)

Figure 3.9: Floor Acceleration Response Spectra: Acceleration response of a spectrum of NSEs with
different natural periods, but with the same damping (5% of critical) and subjected to the five
different horizontal floor acceleration histories in a five storey RC building

The inertia force induced in an NSE (obtained using floor acceleration response spectrum) can
cause the NSE to slide, rock or topple during random earthquake shaking, if it is unanchored in either
the vertical or lateral direction, or if the anchor fails (Figure 3.10). Sliding means the base of NSE is
completely in contact with the surface on which it is rested, but the NSE is horizontally translating
on that surface after overcoming friction (Figure 3.10c). Rocking means NSE is not sliding, locked at
its toe (i.e., point A in Figure 3.10d) and lifts off from its heal (i.e., point B in Figure 3.10d). Toppling
means NSE is rocking, loosing balance and finally ends up sideways on the surface on which it is
rested (Figure 3.10e). Which of these three actions is possible depends on
(a) Intensity of shaking of surface on which the NSE is rested (reflected by acceleration of that surface,
or floor, in horizontal and vertical directions), and
(b) Geometry of NSE.
In addition to the above three basic possibilities, the NSE also may simultaneously slide and rock.

Anchors

F CG
2h
h W
B
2b 2l
b A A A

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 3.10: Sliding, Rocking and Toppling Hazard of NSEs: Tendency in unanchored NSEs to displace
during earthquake shaking depends on the level of lateral shaking and on the aspect ratio (B/H)
of the object - (a) Geometry of NSE, (b) Forces acting on NSE, (c) Sliding, (d) Rocking, and (e)
Toppling

42
3.2.2 Displacement Effects
During earthquake shaking, NSEs shake along with SEs. Sometimes, NSEs are obstructed by
SEs from freely shaking, if paths of oscillations of SEs and NSEs foul with each other and are not
pre-rehearsed to accommodate the movements in the process of design. Since many NSEs are brittle
and/or expensive, NSEs are damaged by SEs during earthquake shaking; sometimes, this damage
can lead to threat to life of occupants of buildings. Hence, protection of NSEs is necessary. Also,
relative displacement causes damage to NSEs or to their anchors to SEs. Thus, earthquake
protection of these NSEs, called displacement-sensitive NSEs, requires understanding and estimation
of relative movement between SEs and NSEs.

NSEs that are long (such as pipes) may need two or more supports. Consider two adjacent
supports that hold an NSE (Figure 3.11). These supports of the NSE can be resting:
(i) One on a building and the other on an adjoining building (Figure 3.11a),
(ii) One at a certain level of a building and the other at a different level of the same building
(Figure 3.11b), and
(iii) One on ground and the other on the building (Figure 3.11c).
During earthquake shaking, these support points (which are basically SEs of the building in focus)
can shake by different amounts and can lead to relative displacement in the NSE. Let one end of the
NSE sustain an absolute lateral displacement of ∆NSE1 and the other ∆NSE2 (Figure 3.11b). For safety
of the NSE, the relative displacement ∆p to be accommodated is the relative movement between the
two supports. If the supports are moving away from each other, the elongation-type relative
displacement ∆p that needs to be accommodated is:

∆ p > ∆ NSE1 + ∆ NSE 2 , (3.3)

and if they move towards each other, the compression-type relative displacement ∆p that needs to be
accommodated is:

∆ p > ∆ NSE1 − ∆ NSE 2 . (3.4)

The maximum relative displacement ∆p, say, between consecutive floors in a building needs to be
obtained for every storey (successive points of attachment of NSEs running along the building
height). Structural analysis of building results in this relative displacement estimate; often, the
relative displacement between adjacent floors is expressed as percentage of the storey height, and is
called as storey drift (Figure 3.12).

Only some NSEs can accommodate some relative displacements between their supports. If
the above relative displacement is not explicitly accommodated through special strategies/devices,
the NSE spanning between the supports is damaged. Thus, from point of view of safety of NSE
during earthquake shaking, it is prudent to reduce this relative displacement demand by making
buildings stiff in their lateral direction. For safety of NSEs in buildings, the main concern is the
lateral movement of the supports of the NSEs (Figure 3.11a and 3.11b). But, when an NSE is resting
on a horizontal cantilever, even vertical movements of the support points should be considered
(Figure 3.11c); likewise, if it is resting on a vertical cantilever, horizontal movements of the support
points should be considered. The imposed relative displacement between the ends of the NSE can
be lateral translational type (Figure 3.11b), axial type (Figure 3.11b), or both (Figure 3.11c).

43
 SE
NSE Horizontal Movement
∆top

Floor
Displacements
NSE

Building

Ground
Acceleration Horizontal Movement
∆bottom
SE

(a)

NSE
Building 2 ∆NSE1 ∆NSE2

Support 1 Support 2

Building 1 NSE
SE SE

Ground
Acceleration

(b)

Vertical
Movement

Cantilever SE

Building 2
Displacement NSE

NSE

Displacement
SE
Ground
Acceleration

(c)

Figure 3.11: Pulling and Shearing Hazard NSEs: Movements at supports of NSE can be (a) both
horizontal, but at different levels of same building, (b) both horizontal, but at same level in
adjoining buildings, and (c) both vertical and horizontal, at different levels of same building or
adjoining building/structure

44
 5

Floor
2

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Inter-storey Drift (%)

Figure 3.12: Inter-storey Drift: Normalised maximum inter-storey drift in different storeys in a five
storey elastic RC building

3.3 BEHAVIOUR OF UNANCHORED FORCE-SENSITIVE NSEs

Force-sensitive NSEs are usually massive and frictional resistance mobilised due to the self-
weight of the NSEs provides the initial anchoring, that in turn, allows mobilisation of seismic inertia
force in the NSE. Further, when a building is shaken by strong earthquake ground motion, the
response at floor levels of the building is reasonably cyclic and of low frequency. The response is
largely at frequencies close to natural periods of the building, especially those associated with lower
modes of vibration.

The actual behaviour of NSEs is complex and nonlinear under dynamic earthquake shaking.
Also, geometry and distribution of mass in a NSE could be non-prismatic and non-uniform,
respectively. In this section, simplified response of unanchored force-sensitive NSEs is presented.
Two basic assumptions are made, namely
(1) All NSEs are considered to be rectangular in shape with their mass uniformly distributed along
the entire volume of the object;
(2) The motion at the base of the NSE is a simple sinusoidal motion of different frequencies.
In this section, simplified checks are presented for assessing the safety of the NSE against each of
the 3 basic motions of acceleration-sensitive unanchored NSEs, namely sliding, rocking and toppling.

3.3.1 Behaviour of SINGLE Block

Many items, such as refrigerators and televisions, used in daily life can be idealised as
rectangular rigid objects with uniform mass rested directly on ground, floor and other supports
(like tables). Thus, understanding behaviour of rigid unanchored blocks is critical to ensure seismic
safety of these items. Consider a prismatic object of height 2h and base dimensions 2b (Figure 3.13),
and shaking along the breadth 2b of the object. Let the mass of the object be m; its weight may be
represented as W. Let r be half of the diagonal length of the rigid block. If the support under the
object moves to the left with acceleration aeq, then it is required to assess whether the object will
slide, rock or topple to the right about point A. The conditions under which each of these basic modes
response are possible are discussed below considering equivalent static horizontal earthquake
inertia force.

45
 (a) Sliding Only
Owing to self weight of the NSE, a frictional force of µW is generated at its base, where µ is
the coefficient of static friction. Under horizontal earthquake shaking, the object only will slide when
BOTH of the following two conditions are satisfied, namely
(1) The earthquake-induced lateral inertia force Feq is more than the frictional force µW at the base,
Feq > µW , and (3.5)
(2) The restoring moment due to self-weight of the NSE is more than the overturning moment due to
lateral inertia force (when the moments are considered about point A)
Wb > Feq h . (3.6)
Using gravity force W=mg and earthquake-induced inertia force Feq=maeq, the above two conditions
reduce to
a eq > µg , (3.7)
and
b
a eq < g. (3.8)
h

(b) Rocking Only

Here, the frictional force is more than the earthquake-induced inertia horizontal force.
Under horizontal earthquake shaking, the object only will rock when BOTH of the following
conditions are satisfied, namely
(1) The earthquake-induced lateral inertia force Feq is less than the frictional force µW at the base,
Feq < µW , and (3.9)
(2) The restoring moment due to self-weight of the NSE is less than the overturning moment due to
lateral inertia force (when the moments are considered about point A)
Wb < Feq h . (3.10)
Again, substituting W=mg and Feq=maeq, the above two conditions reduce to
a eq < µg , (3.11)
and
b
a eq > g. (3.12)
h
The above is based on simple static consideration that the object returns back to the original vertical
position, if the line of action of the self weight does not cross the toe, represented by point A.

G
2h θ
r r
θc
A

2b 2b

Figure 3.13: Configuration of single rigid unanchored block: Geometries used in analyses
46
 (c) Toppling Only
Here the frictional force is more than the earthquake-induced inertia horizontal force. Under
horizontal earthquake shaking, the object only will topple when the restoring moment due to self-
weight of the NSE is less than the dynamic overturning moment due to lateral inertia force (when the
moments are considered about point A). Hence, dynamic equations of equilibrium are required,
which are available in literature and reproduced below [e.g., Yim et al, 1980, Makris and Roussos,
2000]. This is because all cases where the line of action of self-weight crosses the toe, may not lead to
toppling of the block. Under dynamic condition, it is possible for an object not to topple but rock,
even if momentarily the line of action of self-weight cross the toe represented by point A.

Therefore, there are four possibilities of a single rigid unanchored block shaken at its base
with a sinusoidal excitation of frequency ω . These are sliding, rocking, combined sliding-and-
rocking, and toppling. Equations governing rocking response subjected to horizontal acceleration
aeqbx (t ) at the base of the block in terms of θ(t) (Figure 3.13), the angle between vertical and normal
to base of the block are:
I 0θ(t ) + mgr sin (− θ c − θ (t )) = − maeqbx (t )r cos(− θ c − θ (t )) for θ (t ) < 0
, (3.13)
I 0θ(t ) + mgr sin (+ θ c − θ (t )) = − maeqbx (t )r cos(+ θ c − θ (t )) for θ (t ) > 0
( )
where I 0 = 4mr 2 / 3 is the mass moment of inertia of the block and r half the diagonal length.
Expressing Eq.(3.13) in a compact form,
ª º
lj(t) = p 2 «sin{θcsgn (θ(t )) − θ(t )} + cos{θcsgn (θ(t )) − θ(t )}» ,
aeqbx
¬ ¼
(3.14)
g
where p = 3 g 4r .

Eq.(3.14) is nonlinear and can be solved numerically. It provides the maximum toppling
acceleration values, and thereby the condition of overturning. There are two modes of toppling of
the block, namely
(a) Mode 1, where the block rocks and eventually topples, and
(b) Mode 2, where the block does not rock, but simply topples.
Thus, for different values of ω p , peak base accelerations can result in three cases (Figure 3.14) of
(i) No Toppling (only Rocking),
(ii) Toppling without Rocking, and
(iii) Toppling with Rocking.

Unsafe
Amplitude of Acceleration aeqbx

Toppling without Rocking

at base of NSE

Unsafe
Toppling with Rocking

Safe
No Toppling (Rocking)

0
Frequency ω of Excitation at base of NSE
Figure 3.14: Rocking and Toppling behaviour of a single unanchored rigid block: Domain of safety against
toppling
47
 In general, toppling of unanchored rigid NSEs depends on the product of the acceleration
amplitude of the forcing pulse by its duration, or incremental velocity (area under the acceleration
pulse); potential of toppling is not merely dependent on peak (ground) acceleration at base
[Housner, 1963; Milne 1885; Hogan 1989]. Also, larger of two geometrically similar rigid block NSEs
can survive a given excitation whereas smaller block NSEs may topple, i.e., rocking behaviour
depends on system parameters also [Housner, 1963; Yim et al., 1980]. Further, rocking response of
blocks subjected to earthquake motion is in line with the above conclusions derived from single
pulse excitations [Aslam et al, 1980]. Thus, the solutions presented above reasonably assess the
vulnerability of unanchored rigid blocks to rocking and toppling during earthquake shaking; the
safe and unsafe regions as shown in Figure 3.14 reasonably well represents seismic behaviour of
unanchored rigid blocks [Spanos and Koh, 1984; Makris and Roussos, 1998]. Also, toppling of
smaller blocks depends on duration of the pulse in addition to the incremental velocity at base (area
under the acceleration pulse), whereas toppling of larger blocks tends to depend solely on the
incremental support velocity. Accordingly, a smaller block is likely to topple due to the high-
frequency fluctuations that override long duration pulses, whereas a larger block, say rested on
ground, is likely to overturn due to long duration pulses, such as those in near-field motions
[Anderson and Bertero, 1986; Markis, 1997; Makris and Roussos, 1998].

3.3.2 Behaviour of TWO Stacked Blocks

Another common situation with force-sensitive NSEs is that they are stacked one on top of
the other. These can be at any level of the building. There are different possibilities of the response
of stacked blocks, when the base of the lower block is shaken by the floor oscillating during
earthquake shaking of the building. Figure 3.15 shows geometric characteristics of two symmetric
rigid blocks. The rocking response is discussed in this section of this two-block system standing
freely on a rigid horizontal floor surface, assuming no sliding; the top block rests symmetrically on
the base block. The blocks have:
(1) Masses m1 and m2,
(2) Mass moments of inertia I1 and I2 about the axis passing through the centroid,
(3) Base widths 2b1 and 2b2, and
(4) Heights 2h1 and 2h2.
The bottom right (corner) points of the blocks are denoted as O1 and O2 and the left (corner) points
as O1’ and O2’. The edge distance of the top block on the bottom block on the right side is e and that
on the left side e’. Angles between the vertical and normal to the base of the blocks are lj1 and lj2.
Center of mass of the two blocks denoted as G1 and G2; their distances from the bottom right
(corner) points are r1 and r2.

The two-block system has two degrees of freedom, namely θ1 and θ2, denoting the angles of
rotation of the two blocks with respect to the vertical. When subjected to base excitation, the system
has four possible patterns of rocking motion with respect to the angles of rotation θ1 and θ2 (Figure
3.16). In Modes 1 and 2, both degrees of freedom are exercised (Figure 3.16a and b); they involve
rotations of the two blocks in the same or opposite direction. In Modes 3 and 4, only one
degree of freedom is exercised (Figure 3.16c and d); Mode 3 describes motion of the system rocking
as one rigid system, and Mode 4 describes motion of the system with only the top block
experiencing rocking.

48
 Block 2
2h2 G2

r2 θc2
O2’ O2

Block 1

G1
2h1

r1 θc1

O1 ’ O1

e' 2b2 e

2b1

Figure 3.15: Configuration of two rigid blocks stacked atop each other: Geometries used in analyses

(a) Initiation of Motion

Appropriate criteria are derived below for the initiation of rocking motion of the system
when subjected to a base excitation with horizontal and vertical components aeqbx and aeqby,
respectively. Specifically, the system may be set into rocking either in Mode 3 or in Mode 4, when
the overturning moment of the horizontal inertia force (arising from abx) about bottom corner of one
block exceeds the restoring moment due to weight(s) of block(s) and vertical inertia force (arising
from aby). The criteria for motion initiation of rocking are:
− habx − b1aeqby > b1 g for transition from rest to Mode 3 (swing to the right)
+ habx − b1aeqby > b1 g for transition from rest to Mode 3 (swing to the left)
, (3.15)
− h2 abx − b2 aeqby > b2 g for transition from rest to Mode 4 (swing to the right)
+ h2 abx − b2 aeqby > b2 g for transition from rest to Mode 4 (swing to the left)
where g is acceleration due to gravity, and h the distance of the center of mass of the system from
the base of the base block, given by
m1 h1 + m2 (2h1 + h 2 ))
h= . (3.16)
m1 + m2

(b) Equations of Motion

The equations of motion are derived by Lagrange’s Method for rocking of the two-block

¦
system. The kinetic energy of the system is
1 2
KE = KE1 + KE2 =
2 i −1
( )
mi vG2 + I G θ i2 , (3.17)

¦ (mi hG g ) .
and potential energy by
1 2
PE = PE1 + PE2 = (3.18)
2 i =1
49
 θ2

θ2 < θ1 < 0
(a) θ2 > θ1 > 0 θ1

θ2

θ2 > 0
θ1 θ1 < 0
θ2 < 0
(b)
θ1 > 0

θ2

(c) θ2 = θ1 > 0 θ1 θ2 = θ1 < 0

θ2

θ2 > 0 θ2 < 0
(d) θ1 = 0 θ1 = 0

Figure 3.16: Possible rocking modes of 2-block system: (a) Mode 1: both blocks rock in same direction,
(b) Mode 2: the blocks move in opposite directions, (c) Mode 3: Only bottom block rocks, and
top one does not, and (d) Mode 3: Only top block rocks, and bottom one does not
50
In Eqs.(3.17) and (3.18), vG denotes velocity of the centre of mass, and hG height up to centre of
mass from the bottom block, i.e., block 1. Equating the two energies,

For Mode 1:
( )
I0 + m2l 2 θ1 + (m2lr2 cos γ1 )θ2 + (m2lr2 sin γ 1 )θ 22 − m1 gr1 sin(θ1 − Sθθc ) − m2 gl sin (θ1 − Sθβ)
(3.19)
= [(m1r1 + m2l ) cos(θ1 − Sθθc )]aeqbx + [(m1r1 + m2l )sin (θ1 − Sθθc )]aeqby
For Mode 2:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
I0 + m2l 2 θ1 + m2l'r2 cos γ 2 θ2 + m2l'r2 sin γ 2 θ 22 − m1 gr1 sin(θ1 − Sθθc ) − m2 gl' sin θ1 − Sθβ'
(3.20)
= [− m1r1 cos(θ1 − Sθθc ) + m2l' cos(θ1 − Sθβ' )]aeqbx + [m1r1 sin (θ1 − Sθθc ) + m2l' sin (θ1 − Sθβ' )]aeqby
For Mode 3:
[
I 0θ1 − MgR sin (θ1 − Sθθc ) = − MR aeqbx cos(θ1 − Sθθc ) − aeqby sin (θ1 − Sθθc ) ] (3.21)
For Mode 4:
[
I 0θ2 − m2 gr2 sin (θ2 − Sθθc ) = m2r2 aeqbx cos(θ2 − Sθθc ) − aeqby sin (θ2 − Sθθc ) ] (3.22)

The above equations are highly nonlinear and depend on number of parameters. Numerical
solutions are possible for known values of parameters, but simplified design recommendations are
NOT available yet for use in design codes.

3.4 BEHAVIOUR OF ANCHORED FORCE-SENSITIVE NSEs

The decision to anchor force-sensitive NSE at its base to floor is based on its vulnerability in
its unanchored condition. Two possibilities are expected in anchored force-sensitive NSEs, namely
damage in the connection elements and in NSE itself, if the effective shaking of the NSE is violent.
To prevent violent rocking of equipment, restrainers (hold-downs) are provided. Consider an
anchored block in rocking motion (Figure 3.17). In this section, only horizontal excitation is
considered at the base of the NSE. Anchors on each side of the block represent the net stiffness of all
anchors on the side that uplifts. These anchors have finite strength Fu. The first simplified
idealization of the behaviour of an anchor is elastic-brittle behaviour (Figure 3.18a); it is linear elastic
until the ultimate strength Fu is reached, fractures thereafter, and the block rocks without any
restraining force, like an unanchored one. The stiffness K of the restrainer is constant, until the
anchor fractures. The second idealization of the behaviour of an anchor is elastic-plastic behaviour
(Figure 3.18b). It is linear elastic until the ultimate strength Fu is reached, and deforms plastically
thereafter until the fracture displacement uf is reached; the block rocks without any restraining force
thereafter, like an unanchored one.

G
2h θ
r r
θc
K

2b 2b

Figure 3.17: Possible rocking mode of an anchored rigid block: Undeformed and deformed geometry of
an anchored rigid NSE undergoing rocking
51
 F F

Fu Fu

-uy -uf -uy

u u
uy uy Uf

-Fu -Fu

(a) (b)

Figure 3.18: (a) Elastic-brittle anchors: Most anchor behaviour can be idealized as this; (b) Elastic-
plastic anchors: Ideal anchor behaviour

Figure 3.19a illustrates the moment-rotation relation of a free-standing NSE undergoing

rocking, and Figure 3.19b that of an NSE with elastic-brittle anchors. Under horizontal excitation
only, the equations that govern the rocking motion of an anchored block with mass m are:

I 0lj(t) + mgrsin (− θc − lj(t)) + 4Kb 2sinlj(t) = −maeqbx (t)rcos(− θc − lj(t)) for lj(t ) < 0
, (3.23)
I 0lj(t) + mgrsin (+ θc − lj(t)) + 4Kb 2sinlj(t) = −maeqbx (t)rcos(+ θc − lj(t)) for lj (t ) > 0

( )
where I 0 = 4mr 2 / 3 is the mass moment of inertia of the rectangular block, and r half the diagonal
length. Expressing Eq.(2.23) in a compact form,

ª º
lj(t) = p 2 «sin{θcsgn (θ(t )) − θ(t )} + cos{θcsgn (θ(t )) − θ(t )}» ,
3Ksin 2 θc aeqbx
¬« ¼»
2
+ (3.24)
mp g

in which p = 3g /( 4r ) . Eq.(2.24) is valid so long as anchors are present. If they fail, Eq.(3.24)
reduces to Eq.(3.14), that of an unanchored block under horizontal excitation only.

M M

mg r sin θc + 2bFu

mg r sin θc mg r sin θc
mg r sin (θc - θ)
mg r sin (θc - θ)
-θc -θc -θy
θc θ θy θc θ
mg r sin (-θc - θ) mg r sin (-θc - θ)
- mg r sin θc - mg r sin θc

- mg r sin θc – 2bFu

(a) (b)

Figure 3.19: Moment-rotation relation of rigid NSEs undergoing rocking: (a) Unanchored NSE, and (b)
Anchored NSE with elastic-brittle anchors
52
 Figure 3.19b shows the moment-rotation relation during the rocking motion of an anchored
block. For rotation angle lj (t ) ≤ lj y , energy is lost only during impact. Once lj y is exceeded, the
anchor from the uplift side fractures and additional energy is dissipated equal to the area of the
small triangle in the moment-rotation curve of the freestanding block. This energy is dissipated
once, since in subsequent post-fracture oscillations the moment-rotation relation reduces to that of
an unanchored block.

The transition from Eq.(3.23) to Eq.(3.13) is tracked through a fracture function f (θ) . The
finite ultimate strength Fu of anchor in conjunction with linear pre-fracture behaviour defines angle
of rotation lj y that anchors yield at, and eventually fracture. From basic mechanics,
Fu = Ku y = 2Kblj y , (3.25)
from which
Fy
ljy = . (3.26)
2 Kb
Here, the fracture function f (θ) is defined as
­°1
f (θ) = ®
for θ(t ) ≤ lj y
°̄0
. (3.27)
for θ(t ) ≥ lj y
( )
With the help of this fracture function, after replacing K m with Fu uy (g W ) , the pre-fracture and
post-fracture equation of motion of the rigid block can be expressed as
ª º
lj(t) = p2 «sin{θcsgn (θ(t )) − θ(t )} + u cos{θcsgn (θ(t )) − θ(t )}» .
3F gsin 2 θc aeqbx
«¬ »¼
2
f (θ)sin θ(t ) + (3.28)
Wuy p g
In Eq.(3.28), the rocking response of anchored blocks is described by four parameters, namely the
block slenderness θc , the frequency parameter p (that includes size effect), the strength parameter
Fu W (= σ ) , and the influence factor u y p 2 g (= q ) .

The solution of Eq.(3.28) gives acceleration induced in anchored rigid blocks. This is
dependant on geometric properties of the block and the strength and stiffness of the anchor. The
ratio of maximum induced acceleration in the block and the peak support acceleration is called the
component acceleration amplification factor ap. A value of 2.5 is commonly recommended by design
codes for acceleration-sensitive NSEs with flexible anchors. Further, when anchors with plastic
deformation capacity are used, the peak response is reduced, which is accommodated in a
component response reduction factor Rp (discussed in Chapter 4).

53
3.5 BEHAVIOUR OF DISPLACEMENT-SENSITIVE NSEs
NSEs subjected to pulling and shearing hazard can be at any elevation of the building and
occurs when the relative displacement at the ends are not accommodated either by the connections
or the NSEs. Based on the displacement restraint imposed by the SEs supporting the NSEs, different
approaches are required to estimate this relative displacement and ways of accommodating the
same. For the purposes of designing the connections between the NSEs and SEs and of
accommodating the relative displacement, NSEs subjected to pulling and shearing hazard can be
classified into three types, namely
(1) NSEs having relative displacement with respect to ground (Figure 3.20a),
(2) NSEs having Inter-storey relative displacement (Figure 3.20b), and
(3) NSEs having relative displacement between 2 buildings shaking independently (Figure 3.20c).
Some of the typical examples are discussed in the following.

3.5.1 NSEs having Relative Displacement with respect to Ground

Some lineal NSEs run between the outside ground and the building, but are connected to an
upper elevation of the building in contrast to the base of the building. Examples of this type of NSE
are Water Mains running from outside ground to the building (for normal use or for fire hydrant
purposes; Figure 3.21a), and Gas Pipes laid between the building and a ground-supported large
volume gas tank (placed at some distance away form the building; Figure 3.21b). In rare instances,
Sewage Mains also are run from the outside ground to an upper elevation of the building (Figure
3.21c); normally, sewage lines go down to the lowest level of the building and exit through the base
of the building to the outside ground. During earthquake shaking, the ground outside shakes
independent of the building at the level at which the NSE is connected. Thus, the ends of the NSE
are subject to differential shaking, implying that a relative axial deformation imposed between the
ends of the NSE. This relative deformation can be large, if the building is laterally flexible. Tensile
strains induced in the NSE can cause failure of the function of the sewage mains, if segmented pipes
are used as Sewage Mains. Compressive strains in water mains can cause buckling of pipes, and
thereby impede function. Design of NSEs and their connections to the SEs must find ways of
avoiding these strains from being generated, by accommodating the relative displacement.

NSE
NSE

NSE

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.20: Pulling and Shearing Hazard NSEs: 3 types of relative deformations are imposed on the
NSE, namely: (a) Relative Displacement with respect to Ground, (b) Inter-storey Relative
Displacement, and (c) Relative Displacement between two buildings shaking independently

54
 Water Mains Water Mains
in compression in tension

(a)

Gas Pipe Gas Pipe

in compression in tension

Gas Tank Gas Tank

(b)

Sewage Mains Sewage Mains

in compression in tension

(c)

Figure 3.21: Relative Displacement with respect to Ground: Lineal NSEs need to sustain axial
compression and tension strains without failure: (a) Water mains, (b) Gas pipes, and (c) Sewage
mains

Another example of a lineal NSE of this kind is the Exhaust Fume Chute in generator rooms
(Figure 3.22). The generator is normally anchored to its foundation that is directly constructed on
ground. And, the exhaust fume chute goes from the generator to outside the generator room; it is
supported by the wall of the generator room. The generator is relatively rigid, and the exhaust fume
chute is flexible. Hence, when earthquake shaking occurs, the wall of the generator room shakes
differentially from the generator, and all the relative deformation is accommodated only in the
chute. Design of NSE must ensure that the exhaust fume chute is not restrained at the SE and
accommodate the relative displacement.

55
 Exhaust Fume Chute Exhaust Fume Chute
in tension in compression

Generator Generator

(a) (b)

Figure 3.22: Relative Displacement with respect to Ground: Exhaust fume chutes from diesel generators
sustain axial compression and tension strains during earthquake shaking

3.5.2 NSEs having Inter-storey Relative Displacement

Some NSEs run through the full height of the building (e.g., façade stone or glass, and water
pipes and sewer pipes), and some occupy the whole of a single storey (e.g., French glass windows).
Since these NSEs are supported by the floor slabs, columns and walls at different levels, they are
subjected to relative deformation within each storey. The NSE needs to be capable of
accommodating this deformation imposed on it by the adjoining SEs within each storey (Figure
3.23a). When segmented ceramic pipes are used for sewage transport, the inter-storey drift can
cause rupture of the sewage lines (Figure 3.23b), which is a loss of function as well as second order
disaster. Manufacturers of segmented sewage pipes also indicate the maximum lateral drift that the
pipe joints can be subjected without leakage. Design of these sewage lines should verify this as part
of the design of the NSE.

3.5.3 NSEs having Relative Displacement between Two Items Shaking Independently
Many buildings have expansion joints or seismic joints in them, thereby separating the
buildings into parts that freely shake during earthquake ground motions. In many of these
buildings, lineal NSEs are continued from one part of the building to the adjoining one. Examples of
such lineal NSEs include (a) electric power wires and cables (Figure 3.24), (b) water pipelines, (c)
gas pipelines in hospital and laboratory buildings, (d) air-conditioning ducts, (e) chemical pipes in
industrial environments, (f) hazardous and chemical waste pipelines, and (g) in some instances,
sewage pipelines. While these items are normally carried from one part of the building to the other
at the same level, in some instances, the NSEs are continued from a certain level (in height) of one
part of the building to a different level in the adjacent part.

Differential movement occurs at ends of lineal NSEs that span across to adjoining parts of
the building. Design of these NSEs and their connections to SEs needs to accommodate these
relative deformations that occur between the two portions of the building during earthquake
ground shaking (Figure 3.25), and thereby prevent failure of NSEs and other secondary effects.

56
 Water Mains Water Mains Water Mains
laterally original laterally
deformed un-deformed deformed

(a)

Sewage Pipeline
Sewage Pipeline Sewage Pipeline
laterally deformed
original laterally deformed
un-deformed

(b)

Figure 3.23: Inter-storey Relative Displacement: Lineal NSEs need to sustain lateral translational
strains without failure: (a) Water pipelines, and (b) Sewage pipes

ǻb

ǻp

(a) (b)

Figure 3.24: Cable wire connected between building and pole: (a) Initial position, and (b)
Extreme position of building and pole causing maximum tension in cable

57
 Lateral movement
Lineal NSE of support of NSE
Support

(a)

Lateral movement
Multi-linear of support of NSE
NSE

(b)

Figure 3.25: Relative Displacement between two items shaking independently on ground: Lineal NSEs need
to sustain lateral and vertical displacements without failure: (a) connected to the same level on
both parts of a building, and (b) connected to different levels on the two parts of a building

3.6 EARTHQUAKE PERFORMANCE OF NSEs

The performance of NSEs may be assessed from:
(a) Performance evaluation of NSE employed in buildings and structures through post-earthquake
investigations,
(b) Detailed experimental investigations of NSEs on shake tables, under different ground motions
and performance parameters, or
(c) Rigorous analytical investigation of NSE under earthquake ground motion at the base of the
structure or building on which NSE is housed, based on concepts of structural dynamics and
through accurate modelling of interiors of NSEs along with that of the building and its SEs.
Time history analyses of the primary-secondary system are performed under a suite of ground
motions to understand the dependence of performance of NSEs on the motion characteristics.
Based on the above studies, attempts have been made to develop empirical equations for use in
design codes to protect NSEs through the design of their connections to SEs.

58
 Significant experimental research has been carried out on a number of NSEs. The
conclusions from these investigations have been of immense help in tuning design code provisions
[Chen and Soong, 1988; Villaverde, 1998]. On the analytical front, a number of challenges exist even
now in modelling earthquake behaviour of NSEs, similar to that in the analytical modelling of SEs.
For instance, damping in NSEs is considerably different from damping of SEs, and hence
considerable difference exists in level of responses of NSEs as against those of SEs. Thus, commonly
two methods of analysis are employed to obtain responses of NSEs, namely (a) Floor Response
Spectrum (FRS) Method and (b) Complete Model Method. The FRS method is based on the results
of numerous time history analyses. It predicts accurate results when, (a) mass of NSE is much lesser
than the mass of SEs and (b) natural period of NSE varies considerable from the natural period of
building. And, it fails when (a) dynamic interaction exists between SE and NSE, (b) NSEs are
supported at multiple locations on SEs of the building, and (c) natural periods of NSEs are close to
that of the building. Interaction between SEs and NSEs is not discussed in this book.

59