Contents

1 WAVE MOTION 1
1.1 Mechanical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Types of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Traveling waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.2 Transverse wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Longitudinal wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.4 Sinusoidal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Energy Transport in Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Interference of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Standing or stationary Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.1 Nodes and antinodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.2 Resonance in a vibrational string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Index 15

i
Chapter 1

WAVE MOTION

There are two ways of transporting energy from one place to another place. The first involves the
actual transport of matter. For example, a bullet fired from a gun carries its kinetic energy with it which can
be used at another location. The second method of transporting energy from one place to another by wave
motion. To transport energy using wave motion is very important and useful in practical life. In this process
the wave carries energy but there is no direct transport of matter. When a drummer beats a drum its sound is
heard at distant places. The sound carries energy and hits the diaphragm of ear. When a stone is dropped in
the still water in a pond, water waves move steadily along the water until they reach the shore. When a bulb
is switched on the room it fills the room with light. The light wave carries energy as electromagnetic wave.
The key word in wave motion is disturbance or perturbation of medium particles. Initially the wave can be
classified in two kinds, one is mechanical waves and the another is electromagnetic waves. In this chapter
we will discuss the mechanical waves.

1.1 Mechanical Waves

We are surrounded by different mechanical waves, such as sound waves, water waves and
other kinds of waves, which can be controlled and use to convey information or transport energy
form one location to another. In particular, we choose one special type of mechanical wave; the
oscillation of a stretched string such as found on guitar. Mechanical waves travel through an elastic
medium. Atoms of the elastic medium are responsible for the propagation of mechanical waves.
Each atoms exerts a force on the atoms that surrounded it, and this force makes a disturbance
through the medium and transmit waves its neighbors. However, the particles of the medium do
not experience any net displacement in the direction of the wave. The wave passes but the particles
move back and forth through the small distances about their equilibrium positions. A sound wave
can travel through air, but their is no net motion of the air molecules in the direction that the wave
is moving.

1.2 Types of Waves

1.2.1 Traveling waves
We shall now consider forced oscillations of open systems. Waves generated by a driving
force are called traveling waves: these waves travel away from the point where the driving force
produces the disturbance. If the driving force produces a harmonic disturbance in the system, this
type of traveling wave is called harmonic traveling wave. Let a string, is under oscillating mode,
fixed one end and other end is free. If the oscillations is produced by the driving force near the
fixed point, the disturbance will travel from the fixed end to the free. The traveling wave travels

1
1.2 Types of Waves Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

with a speed v. Let a pulse is created in the string by a tuning fork and you will see it moves along

y
1
v
(a)
x
t=0 1
v
(b)
x
t
2
3 1
v
(c)
x
2t
2

Figure 1.1: Travelling waves (pulsed shape) through a string.

the length of the string. The particles of the string simply move up and down as the pulse passes
by. Each Pulse is moving with a velocity v. Let a pulse 1 be created at time t = 0 (see Fig. 1.1a).
It travels a distance x in time t when a second pulse labeled 2 is created by moving the tuning fork
downward direction (see Fig. 1.1b). Whatever may be the pulse shape or size, the second pulse
will travel same distance x in time t. At time 2t another pulse labeled 3 is produced (see Fig. 1.1c).
Here, it should be remembered that for harmonic waves all pulses are created in equal intervals of
time.
On the basis of these observations, the following two conclusions can be drawn: (i) the pulse
travel on the string carrying energy with it but the string does not bodily travels with it and no
matter is transported; and (ii) the velocity of the pulse in independent of the shape or size of the
pulse.
The coordinate y indicates the transverse displacement of a particular point of the string. This
coordinate depends on the position x and time t. We can represent the wave form of Fig. 1.1a as
y(x, 0) = f (x), (1.1)
where f is a function that describes the shape of the wave. Thus at any time t, the shape of the wave
can be represented by
y(x,t) = f (x − vt) (1.2)
This remains true for any location of the wave form for any time t. Thus for the motion of any
particular phase of the wave we must have
x − vt = constant, (1.3)
which gives
dx dx
− v = 0, or = v. (1.4)
dt dt
It the wave moves in the negative x direction, by replacing v by −v, the Eq. 1.2 can be rewritten as
y(x,t) = f (x + vt). (1.5)
Again for the motion of any particular phase of the wave we must have
x + vt = constant, (1.6)
which gives
dx dx
+ v = 0, or = −v. (1.7)
dt dt

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 2 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.2 Types of Waves Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

1.2.2 Transverse wave

We can classify mechanical waves by considering how the direction of motion of the parti-
cles of the medium is related to the propagation of the wave. If the the medium particles vibrate
perpendicularly to the direction of propagation of the wave, is called transverse wave. For ex-
ample, when a string under tension is set oscillating, the disturbance moves along the string but
the string particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation of the disturbance. Water
waves is also transverse waves.

1.2.3 Longitudinal wave

If the medium particles vibrate back and forth along the same direction of propagation of the
wave, is called longitudinal wave. For example, when a spring under tension is set oscillating, a
longitudinal wave travels along the spring but the particles of the spring vibrates back and forth
along the direction of propagation of wave. Sound wave is also a longitudinal wave.

1.2.4 Sinusoidal waves

We have learnt that wave motion (both transverse and longitudinal) generates by the result of
oscillations of any system by the driving force. The oscillations repeats an equal interval of time is
called time period. For the characteristics of repetition of oscillations in equal interval of time, any
wave motion can be represented by sine or cosine function. A waveform that represents a SHM in
which the ratio of the displacement at any point to the amplitude is equal to the sine of the phase
angle that is visualized as sine curve (shown in Fig. 1.2).
Let us consider a transverse wave form having sinusoidal shape. Suppose at time t = 0 we
consider a wave train along the string given by
2π
y(x, 0) = ym sin x. (1.8)
λ
The wave shape is shown in Fig. 1.2. The displacement ym is called the maximum amplitude of the
wave train. The symbol λ represents the wavelength of the wave train. If the wave travels in the

ym
y (x,t)

Figure 1.2: A sinusoidal waveform.

positive x direction with phase speed v, the equation of the wave at any time t can be written as
2π
y(x,t) = ym sin (x − vt). (1.9)
λ
Notice that it has a function f (x − vt) required for a traveling wave. The time required for a
complete cycle, is called period of oscillation and denoted by T . During this time T , the wave

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 3 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.3 The Wave Equation Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

travels a distance is equal to wavelength λ , and given that λ = vT. The inverse of the time period
T is called frequency f and written as f = 1/T .
Now using the value λ = vT in Eq. 1.9, we have
(x t)
y(x,t) = ym sin 2π − . (1.10)
λ T
To reduce Eq. 1.10 to more useful compact form, we introduce the wave number k and the angular
frequency ω , which are defined by
2π 2π
k= and ω= = 2π f . (1.11)
λ T
The units of k and ω stand from the Eqs. 1.11 are rad. m−1 and rad. s−1 , respectively. Using these
terms, the equation of sine wave travelling in the positive x direction is expressed as

y(x,t) = ym sin(kx − ω t). (1.12)

And the equation of sine wave travelling in the negative x direction is expressed as

y(x,t) = ym sin(kx + ω t). (1.13)

We find that the phase speed ( or phase velocity) of the wave is given by

λ 2π /k ω
v = fλ = = = . (1.14)
T 2π /ω k

1.3 The Wave Equation

Figure 1.4 shows an element of a sinusoidal waveform produced in a long string that is under
tension F (see Fig. 1.3). Let the wave element to be displaced from its equilibrium position y = 0.
We take a very small part of the string element and consider the length of the part of the string be
δ x, as it is shown in Fig. 1.4. The force ⃗F is executed on either sides of the element δ x and acted
tangentially on both sides but in opposite directions (see Fig. 1.4). Now we find the net force along
y direction is
∑ Fy = F sin θ2 − F sin θ1. (1.15)
Since the element δ x is very small, we take angles θ1 and θ2 are also very small. Then we can
consider as sin θ1 ≈ tan θ1 and sin θ2 ≈ tan θ2 . From Eq. 1.15 we have

∑ Fy = F tan θ2 − F tan θ1 = F δ (tan θ ), (1.16)

where δ (tan θ ) = tan θ2 − tan θ1 . Let the mass of the element δ x be δ m(= µ δ x), where µ is the
mass per unit length of the string. Equation 1.16 follows as

∑ Fy = δ m ay = µ δ x ay = F δ (tan θ ),
or µ δ x ay = F δ (tan θ ),
δ (tan θ ) µ
or = ay . (1.17)
δx F
The slope of the string to be written

tan θ = ∂ y/∂ x.

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 4 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.3 The Wave Equation Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

y
y=0
x

F=mg

y≠0

F=mg
Figure 1.3: A string under tension (upper-line) has produced a waveform (lower-line).
F sinθ2

y F
θ2
F cosθ1
F cosθ2
θ1
F sinθ1

F
x
δx
Figure 1.4: A small element of a sinusoidal waveform.

δ (tan θ ) δ (∂ y/∂ x) d2y

∴ = lim = 2 (1.18)
δx δ x→0 δx dx .
For the displacement of a particle along y axis, the y component of the acceleration

d2y
ay = . (1.19)
dt 2
Finally from Eqs. 1.17, 1.19 and 1.18 we find the equation of a wave in a string is

d2y µ d2y
= , (1.20)
dx2 F dt 2
d2y 1 d2y
or = . (1.21)
dx2 F/µ dt 2
Let us try to find the dimension of the term F/µ which follows

F f orce kg m s−2 m2
= = = 2 = (speed)2 = v2 .
µ mass per unit lenght kg m−1 s

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 5 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.4 Energy Transport in Traveling Waves Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

√
F
∴ v= . (1.22)
µ
√
Therefore, substituting v = F/µ , the general equation of a wave passing with a speed v is given
by the equation as follows
d2y 1 d2y
= , (1.23)
dx2 v2 dt 2
which describes that the second derivative of the wave displacement along y with respect to the
coordinate x in the direction of propagation of wave is equal to 1/v2 times the second derivative of
displacement y with respect to time.

1.4 Energy Transport in Traveling Waves

We wish to discuss the transport of energy by a wave traveling in a complete cycle. In the
purpose, we consider a traveling wave passing through a long string. When we shake one end of a
long string, our hand do the work on the string. Thus we provide energy to the string and the string
transport this energy producing traveling waves.
Now consider a wave is traveling on a string and propagating in the +x direction. The displace-
ment of a particle at any time t can be represented by Eq. 1.9
2π
y(x,t) = ym sin (x − vt),
λ
√
where v = F/µ for a stretched string as mentioned in previous Sec. 1.3. Differentiating with
respect to x we have ( )
dy 2π 2π
= ym cos (x − vt), (1.24)
dx λ λ
and differentiating with respect to t we have
( )
dy 2π v 2π
= uy = ym − cos (x − vt). (1.25)
dt λ λ
Consider a small element of length dx of the string, whose mass dm = mass per unit length times
dx = µ dx. The kinetic energy of the element dx is to be found
( 2 2 2)
1 1 4π ym v 2π
dK = dm uy = (µ dx)
2
cos2 (x − vt),
2 2 λ 2 λ
( 2 2 2)
1 4π ym v 2 2π
or dK = µ cos (x − vt) dx. (1.26)
2 λ2 λ
We shall now calculate the total energy associated by a complete cycle which causes a displacement
λ along x axis of wave propagation. Thus by integrating the above Eq. 1.26 over one wavelength
we have ∫ ( 2 2 2)∫ λ
1 4π ym v 2π
K = dK = µ cos2 (x − vt) dx,
2 λ 2
0 λ
( 2 2 2)∫ λ
π ym v 2 2π
or K = µ 2 cos (x − vt) dx,
λ2 0 λ
∫ { }
µπ 2 y2m v2 λ 4π
or K = 1 + cos (x − vt) dx,
λ2 0 λ

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 6 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.4 Energy Transport in Traveling Waves Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

µπ 2 y2m v2 µπ 2 y2m v2
or K= λ = .
λ2 λ
Since speed v can be written as v = f λ , finally we have the kinetic energy for a complete
wavelength
or K = π 2 µ y2m f 2 λ . (1.27)
To find the potential energy in the element, we
must evaluate the work done by the tension force
F as it stretched the element from length dx to y
length dl. Potential energy in the element

dU = F(dl − dx). dl
[
dy
( )2 ]1/2
dy
Now dl = (dx2 +dy2 )1/2 = dx 1 + . dx
dx
If we assume that the transverse displacement are
very small, so that dy/dx ≪ 1, we can approxi- x
mate the above expression using the binomial ex-
pansion as
[ ( ) ]
1 dy 2
dl = dx 1 + + ............... ,
2 dx

which gives the approximation

( )2
1 dy
dl − dx ≈ dx.
2 dx
Therefore, the potential energy in the element
( )2
1 dy
dU = F(dl − dx) ≈ F dx. (1.28)
2 dx

Substituting the value of Eq. 1.24 in Eq. 1.28

1 4π 2 y2m 2π
dU = F cos2 (x − vt) dx. (1.29)
2 λ 2 λ
Thus the potential energy over one wavelength by integrating the above Eq. 1.29 we have
∫ ∫ λ
1 4π 2 y2m 2π
U= dU = F cos2 (x − vt) dx,
2 λ2 0 λ
∫ λ
π 2 Fy2m 2π
or U = (x − vt) dx,
2 cos2
λ2 0 λ
∫ { }
π 2 Fy2m λ 4π
or U = 1 + cos (x − vt) dx
λ2 0 λ
π 2 Fy2m π 2 Fy2m π 2 (F/µ ) µ y2m π 2 v2 µ y2m
or U = λ = = = ,
λ2 λ λ λ
where v2 = F/µ .

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 7 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.5 Interference of Waves Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

Since speed v can be written as v = f λ , finally we have the potential energy for a complete
wavelength
U = π 2 µ y2m f 2 λ . (1.30)
From Eqs. 1.27 and 1.30, we see that the kinetic and potential energy over a length of the string
equal to a wavelength are equal in magnitude. The total energy per wave length is given by

E = K +U = 2 π 2 µ y2m f 2 λ . (1.31)

1.5 Interference of Waves

We have studied about principle of superposition in Section ?? of Chapter ??. According to
the principle of superposition, if two or more waves superimposed at a particular point, they are
said to be interfere, and the resultant phenomenon is called interference. The resultant modification
of amplitude obtained by the superposition of two or more waves varies from a minimum (zero) to
a maximum value. This is the resultant phenomenon occurred due to interference of waves.
Let us see, for simplicity, how interference occurs between two waves. We take two waves of
same amplitude and frequency but different phase constants ϕ1 and ϕ2 , respectively, are moving in
the +x direction with constant speed. Here the amplitude and frequency of the waves have been
taken same for a simple example. The equations of two waves are

y1 = ym sin(kx − ω t − ϕ1 ) (1.32)

and
y2 = ym sin(kx − ω t − ϕ2 ) (1.33)
According to principle of superposition, we have

y = y1 + y2 ,

or y = ym sin(kx − ω t − ϕ1 ) + ym sin(kx − ω t − ϕ2 ). (1.34)

Using trigonometric formula like as, sin B + sinC = 2 sin 21 (B +C) cos 12 (B −C), we have from Eq.

y
δφ≈0ο y = y1+y2

y1
x
y2

Figure 1.5: When two waves are interfere in phase, the resultant amplitude is almost twice of either
component.

1.34,
{ } { }
kx − ω t − ϕ1 + kx − ω t − ϕ2 kx − ω t − ϕ1 − kx + ω t + ϕ2
y = 2ym sin cos ,
2 2
{ ( )} { }
ϕ2 + ϕ1 ϕ2 − ϕ1
or y = 2ym sin kx − ω t − cos .
2 2

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 8 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.6 Standing or stationary Wave Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

δφ≈180o y1 y2 y = y1+y2

Figure 1.6: When two waves are interfere out of phase, the resultant amplitude is almost zero.

Now we chose ϕ ′ = (ϕ1 + ϕ2 )/2 and δ ϕ = (ϕ2 − ϕ1 ), where δ ϕ is called the phase difference
between the two waves. Then finally we have
y = [2ym cos(δ ϕ /2)] sin(kx − ω t − ϕ ′ ). (1.35)
Equation 1.35 gives the resultant wave after interference of two waves. The resultant wave keeps
itself the sinusoidal wave form, same frequency and same wavelength like individual waves, but
defers the amplitude from its individual wave components. In Eq. 1.35 the quantity 2ym cos(δ ϕ /2)
represents the resultant amplitude of interference.
When δ ϕ is very small or close to zero the resultant amplitude is nearly 2ym (i.e. 2ym cos δ2ϕ ≈
2ym ), as shown in Fig. 1.5. When δ ϕ is exactly zero, the two waves overlap completely; the crest of
one falls on the crest of the other or the trough of one falls on the trough of the other. The resultant
amplitude is just twice of either waves. This type of interference is called constructive interference
and the individual wave components are said to be interfere in phase.
When δ ϕ is close to 180o the resultant amplitude is nearly zero (i.e. 2ym cos δ2ϕ ≈ 0), as shown
in Fig. 1.6. When δ ϕ is exactly 180o , the crest of one falls on the trough of the other. The resultant
amplitude is zero. This type of interference is called destructive interference and the individual
wave components are said to be interfere out of phase.
If the individual wave components do have their individual amplitude like as y1m and y2m ,
respectively and they interfere in phase (i.e. δ ϕ = 0), the resultant amplitude will be (y1m + y2m ).
If they interfere out of phase (i.e. δ ϕ = 180o ), the resultant amplitude will be (y1m ∼ y2m ).

1.6 Standing or stationary Wave

A wave that oscillates in place, without transmitting energy along its extent. The oscillation
is the periodic disturbance in a medium resulting from the combination of two waves of equal
frequency and intensity traveling in opposite directions. The periodic disturbance can not travel
from point to point.
In the previous Section 1.5 we studied the superposition of two waves moving in the same
direction. Let us see what will be the effect if the two waves are moving along the string in opposite
directions. Consider a string is fastened between two rods A and B, as shown in Fig. 1.7. Let a
wave is moving from A end to B end, i.e. in the +x direction, can be written as
y1 = ym sin(kx − ω t). (1.36)
Due to reflection of this wave at the end B, it moves in the −x direction and can be written as
y2 = ym sin(kx + ω t). (1.37)

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 9 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.6 Standing or stationary Wave Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

According to the principle of superposition, we have

y = y1 + y2 = ym sin(kx − ω t) + ym sin(kx + ω t).

Using trigonometric formula, sin B + sinC = 2 sin 12 (B +C) cos 12 (B −C), we have

y = [2ym sin kx] cos ω t. (1.38)

Equation 1.38 represents the equation of a standing wave. It can not represent a traveling wave,
because x and t do not appear in the combination (x − vt) or (x + vt) required for a traveling wave.

A B
+x
y1

y2
-x
λ Antinode
λ/2 node
λ/2

Figure 1.7: Two waves travelling in opposite directions are to be interfere and make standing wave.

1.6.1 Nodes and antinodes

The amplitude, in a standing wave, is not the same for different particles but varies with the location
x of the particle. Due to interference, the resultant amplitude |2ym sin kx| has a maximum value 2ym
at the positions
π 3π 5π 7π
when kx = , , , , .........
2 2 2 2
which can be written in general
( )
1
kx = n + π, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ......
2

Substituting k = 2π /λ we have
( )
1 λ
x = n+ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....... (1.39)
2 2
These points are called antinode and are spaced one-half wavelength apart (see Fig. 1.7). The
amplitude |2ym sin kx| has a minimum value 0 at the positions

when kx = 0, π , 2π , 3π , .........

which can also be written in general

kx = nπ , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ......

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 10 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.6 Standing or stationary Wave Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

Substituting k = 2π /λ we have

λ
x=n , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....... (1.40)
2
These points are called the nodes and are also spaced one-half wavelength apart (see Fig. 1.7). The
separation between a node and antinode is one-quarter wavelength.
In a standing wave, the energy can not pass the points of nodes. For a complete vibrational
mode of a stretched string the amplitude in a node position is assumed to be zero. The energy can
not transported along the string to the right or to the left. So, the energy of a vibrational string is
stored as potential energy.

1.6.2 Resonance in a vibrational string

Consider a string is pulled by a tension T = mg as shown Fig. 1.8a. The length of the string
between the fixed points P & Q is L. Let a vibrating tuning fork is brought near to the string. By
the influence of vibrating tuning fork, traveling waves are produced in the string and reflected to
the both fixed ends of length L. Due to the reflection of the waves between the points P & Q, a
standing wave are formed in the string. The amplitudes of the standing waves is to be increased
from minimum to a maximum value as shown in Fig. 1.8b. When the amplitude of a standing wave
be reached to a maximum value (say 2ym ) then the frequency of the standing wave must be near to
the frequency of the tuning fork. Arising this phenomenon is called resonance. Practically if we
keep a small V-shaped piece of paper on the string, under the condition of resonance the paper will
be thrown out of the string. This resonance phenomena are also be found in the wires of guitar,
violin etc.

P L Q
string

(a) (b)
e
mg

Figure 1.8: (a) A string is stretched by a load mg. (b) Amplitudes of the standing waves are increasing
from the minimum to a maximum value.

Let the velocity of the travelling waves produce by the influence by tuning fork be v. Then v
can be written following the equation 1.22 as
√ √
T mg
v= = ,
µ µ

where µ be the mass per unit length of the string. Now putting v = f λ we have, the frequency of
the tuning fork which is responsible for producing the resonance in the standing wave
√
1 mg
f= . (1.41)
λ µ

We have seen the points of nodes (see Eq. 1.40)

λ
x=n .
2
Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 11 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur
1.6 Standing or stationary Wave Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

(a) n=1

(b) n=2

(c) n=3

(d) n=4

Figure 1.9: Different number of antinodes may be produced in the same length of a string by different
applied frequency (say tuning fork).

Putting x = L we have

λ
L=n , where n = 1, 2, 3, .......represents the number of antinode or loop.
2
Hence we have
2L
λ= . (1.42)
n
Substituting this value of λ in Eq. 1.41 we find,
√
n mg
f= , (1.43)
2L µ

where n = 1, 2, 3, .......represents the number of antinodes or loops.

Now we notice the Fig. 1.9, where we see the different number of antinodes produced in the same
length L. Figure 1.9a has produced one antinode, we find the frequency of the applied source or
tuning fork as √
1 mg
f1 = where n = 1. (1.44)
2L µ
Figure 1.9b has produced two antinodes, hence we find
√ √
2 mg 1 mg
f2 = = where n = 2. (1.45)
2L µ L µ

Figure 1.9c has produced three antinodes, hence we find

√
3 mg
f3 = where n = 3. (1.46)
2L µ

Figure 1.9d has produced four antinodes, hence we find

√ √
4 mg 2 mg
f4 = = where n = 4. (1.47)
2L µ L µ

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 12 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.7 Examples Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

1.7 Examples
( )
Example 1.1: At time t = 0, a wave train has the form y = 4 sin 2π x
100 . The velocity of the wave
is 30 cm/s. Find the equation giving wave form at time t = 2 s.
Solution: The general equation of traveling wave is

y(x,t) = ym sin(kx − ω t)
(x )
= ym sin 2π − ft .
( xλ )
At time t=0 y(x) = 4 sin 2π .
100
( x )
Now comparing the equation y = 4 sin 2π 100 we have λ = 100 cm.
∴ v = 30 cm/s = f λ = f 100 cm, or f = 0.3 /s.
Therefore, we have the wave equation at time t = 2 s as
(x )
y(x,t) = 4ym sin 2π − 0.3 × 2
( xλ )
= 4 sin 2π − 0.6 .
100

Example 1.2: Two waves travel in the same direction along a string and interfere. The waves
have the same wavelength and speed. The amplitude of each wave is 9.7 mm, and there is a phase
difference of 110o between them. (a) What is the amplitude of the combined wave resulting from
the interference of the two waves? (b) To what value should the phase difference be changed so
that the combined wave will have an amplitude equal to that of one of the original waves?
Solution: (a) The amplitude of the combined wave is given (see Eq. 1.35) by

2ym | cos(δ ϕ /2)| = 2(9.7 mm)| cos(110o /2)| = 11.13 mm.

(b) One of the original wave (see Eq. 1.32) is ym sin(kx − ω t − ϕ1 ) having the amplitude ym .
According to the condition we have

2ym | cos(δ ϕ /2)| = ym ,

or δ ϕ = 2 cos−1 (1/2) = 120o or − 120o .

Either wave can be leading the other by 120o (or 120o plus or minus any integer multiple of 2π ) to
produce the desired combination.

Example 1.3: A motor sets 4 loops in a string with resonance vibration. The frequency of the
motor is 120 Hz. The string has a length of L = 1.2 m, and its linear mass density is 1.6 g/m. To
what value must the tension be adjusted (i.e. hanging weight) to obtain the pattern of motion having
four loops.
Solution: From eq. 1.43
4L f 2 µ
T = mg = ,
n2
4(1.2 m)(120 Hz)2 (0.0016 kg/m)
or T= = 8.3 N.
42

Example 1.4: A string fixed at both ends is 8.36 m long and has a mass of 122 gm. It is
subjected to a tension of 96.7 N and sets vibration. (a) What is the speed of the waves in the string?

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 13 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.7 Examples Chapter 1. WAVE MOTION

(b) What is the wavelength of the longest possible standing wave? (c) Give the frequency of that
wave.
Solution: The wave speed can be found by the equation
√
F
v= .
µ

We need the mass per unit length µ = mL = 0.122 kg

8.36 m = 0.0146 kg m−1 .
√
96.7 N
∴ v= = 81.4 ms−1 .
0.0146 kg m−1

(b) The longest possible standing wave length will produce when the string will vibrate creating
a single loop. So using n = 1 Eq. 1.42 gives the longest wave length
2L 2L
λ= = = 2L = 2(8.36 m) = 16.7 m.
n 1
(c) The frequency of the wave is found by
v 81.4 ms−1
f= = = 4.87 Hz.
λ 16.7 m

Example 1.5: Vibrations from 622 Hz tuning fork set up standing wave in a string clamped
at both ends. The wave speed for the string is 388 m/s. The standing waves has 3 loops and
an amplitude of 1.90 mm. (a) What is the length of the string? (b) Write an equation for the
displacement of the string as a function of position and time.
Solution: (a) Given that the frequency f = 622 Hz, and wave speed v = 388 m/s. We find
wavelength
v 388 m/s
λ= = = 0.624 m.
f 622 Hz
The standing wave has 3 loops, so from Eq. 1.42
2L λ
λ= , or L=n .
n 2
Therefore, the length of the string is
λ 0.624 m
L=n =3 = 0.936 m.
2 2
(b) Now rewrite the Eq. 1.38
y = [2ym sin kx] cos ω t.
Here, 2ym = 1.90 mm = 0.0019 m, k = 2π /λ = 2π /0.624 m = 9.7869 m−1 , ω = 2π f =
2π (622 s−1 ) = 3908 s−1 .
Therefore, the equation of the displacement of the string is
y = (0.0019) sin(9.7869 x) cos(3908 t),
where distance is measured in meter and time in second.

>≈>≈>≈>≈>≈>≈>≈>

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 14 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

Index

Antinode, 10

Constructive interference, 9

Destructive interference, 9

Interference, 8

Longitudinal wave, 3

Mechanical waves, 1

Node, 11

Resonance, 11

Sinusoidal waves, 3
Standing waves, 9

Transverse wave, 3
Traveling waves, 1

15