Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Greenhouse effect in double-skin facade

Elisabeth Gratia *, André De Herde
Université Catholique de Louvain, Architecture et Climat, Place du Levant 1, B-1348 Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
Received 12 April 2006; received in revised form 12 June 2006; accepted 19 June 2006

Abstract
In these last years, a great deal of interest has been devoted to double-skin facades due to the advantages claimed by this technology (in terms of
energy saving in the cold season, high-tech image, protection from external noise and wind loads).
One of the great characteristics of the double-skin facade is the greenhouse effect. We identify the factors that influence the greenhouse effect.
The identified parameters are solar radiation level, orientation and shading devices use, opaque wall/window proportion of the interior facade,
wind speed, colour of shading devices and of interior facade, depth of the cavity of the double-skin, glazing type in the interior facade and openings
in the double-skin.
We analyze the impact of these parameters on the mean air temperature evolution in the cavity.
After that analyse, the article answers the question: is greenhouse effect favourable?
The answer is moderate according to the double-skin orientation.
# 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Double-skin facade; Greenhouse effect; Thermal simulation; Office building; Cooling strategies

1. Introduction The recent advent of computers and other office equipments

increased the internal heat gains in most offices. Highly glazed
The double-skin facade is an architectural phenomenon facade, often with poor shading, have become very common.
driven by the aesthetic desire for an all-glass facade. This, together with the extra heat gains from the electric
The transparency is often seen as the main architectural lighting made necessary by deep floor plans, and the wider use
reason for a double-skin facade, because it creates close contact of false ceilings, increased the overheating risk.
to the surroundings. This in fact is also derived from a client’s The addition of a double-skin still increases this risk. A
point of view saying that physical transparency of a company faulty operation of the double-skin facade openings can
gives a signal of a transparent organization with a large degree generate catastrophic scenarios such as the injection of the hot
of openness [1]. air of the double-skin facade in the offices [5–8].
This ‘‘emerging technology’’ of heavily glazed facades is Double-skin facades are assuming an ever-greater impor-
also often associated with buildings whose design goals include tance in modern building practice. They are already a common
energy efficiency, sustainability, and a ‘‘green’’ image. feature of architectural competitions in Europe; but there are
So, there is an increase of the number of this type of still relatively few buildings in which they have actually been
building. The success of these facades also lies in that they realized, and there is still too little experience of their behaviour
admit a high degree of daylight and have an outdoor uniformity in operation [9–11].
and attractive aesthetics [2,3]. There are many unknowns: optical and thermal modelling of
The costs of double-skin facades are higher than normal these systems is not routine and coupling heat transfer and air flow
facades, but claims of energy and productivity savings are used from an isolated facade system to the whole building is complex.
to justify some of them [4]. A variety of thermal coupling strategies between the facade and
the whole building must be adequately simulated [12,13].
More, it is extremely difficult to find any objective data on
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 10 47 22 23; fax: +32 10 47 21 50.
the performance of actual buildings implementing double-skin
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Gratia), facades. Only, subjective claims abound in the architectural
[email protected] (A. De Herde). literature.

0378-7788/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.06.004
200 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

Fig. 1. Greenhouse effect in a double-skin facade.

So, it is important to identify the factors that influence the solution for the thermal simulation of a building, and a powerful
greenhouse effect, to analyze the impact of these parameters on design tool in the optimization of a building environmental,
the temperature evolution in the cavity and answer the question: energy and comfort performance [14].
‘‘is greenhouse effect favourable?’’
A double-skin facade consists in an entirely glazed external 2.2. Studied building
wall and an interior wall often more massive, composed of
glazed walls and opaque walls able to accumulate heat. The The simulations were realized on the building proposed in
double-skin facade applies the same principles as those of a the frame of the subtask A of the Task 27 (performance of
greenhouse, but it does not propose liveable space. The air layer solar facade components) of the International Energy
can be used multiple ways according to climatic conditions, Agency, Solar Heating and Cooling Program. Some
hours of occupation, orientation, type of construction and modifications were made to adapt this one to the practices
system of air-conditioning . . .. The temperature of the air in this of Belgium.
one is influenced by many factors (solar radiation, outside The building is a middle-size office building with office
temperature, wind speed, windows openings, type of glazing, modules aligned on two facades, separated by a central
presence of shading systems . . .). corridor, with staircase/service spaces at both ends of the
When the solar radiation strikes the external skin, it is building.
partially reflected, absorbed and transmitted. The solar The office building comprises 150 office modules,
radiation which crosses the glazing is then absorbed by the distributed over 5 floors and 2 orientations: 15 office modules
interior skin which warms up. This one re-emits in all the per floor at each of the 2 orientations. The schemes are shown in
directions a long wave radiation. Almost the whole of this Fig. 2.
radiation arrives on the external skin, consequence of the Geometrical data of the office building are described here.
morphology of the double-skin. When this long wave radiation Vertical cross-section of office module with main measures is
strikes the external facade, it is partially reflected and partially shown in Fig. 3.
absorbed. The absorptive fraction is re-emitted on both sides The internal wall between office module and corridor has an
glazing. Part of the radiation is thus trapped, involving the openable window above the door to facilitate the air flow
increase of the interior air temperature due to convective between northern and southern spaces (the false floor is not
exchange between walls and air of the double-skin. This comprised in the drawing).
process is known as greenhouse effect (Fig. 1). Each office has four windows (two top and two below) to
The first element which influences the greenhouse effect is allow natural day or night ventilation.
the solar radiation quantity which penetrates in the double-skin.
It is directly proportional to the solar radiation level, to the 2.2.1. Thermal characteristics
glazing percentage of the external skin (generally near to the Building envelope:
100%), to the solar factor of the external glazing, function of the Roof, U = 0.3 W m 2 8K 1; ground floor, U = 0.379
orientation and the slope of the external skin and to the solar W m 2 8K 1; opaque part of facade, U = 0.373 W m 2 8K 1.
masks generated by environment and building itself. Low-e double glazing, U = 1.8 W m 2 8K 1; direct solar
transmission, 0.62; total solar transmission, 0.708.
2. Method Double-skin:
Clear single glass, U = 5.33 W m 2 8K 1; shading factor,
2.1. TAS program 0.76.
Width of the air cavity: 1.2 m.
The simulations were realized with TAS. It is a software H (double-skin facade) = H (building) + 1 m.
package for the thermal analysis of buildings. It is a complete Internal gains in the offices: 29.37 W m 2.
 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211 201

Fig. 2. View of the office building studied.

Fig. 3. Geometrical data of the office building.

2.3. Climatic data assumptions - 50.6 8C in spring, in other words, a 38.3 8C increase compared
to the outside temperature. Sunning duration is 12 h, the
We chose to analyze Belgian standard days (week day). Each incidence angle of the sun rays on the double-skin being lower
modelled day is preceded by the simulation of ten previous days than 608, solar radiation crossing glazing remains significant.
to take account of the effect of inertia. - 47.8 8C in June, in other words, a 23.7 8C increase compared
to the outside temperature. Sunning duration is longest (16 h)
3. Parameters influencing greenhouse effect but the double-skin receives sun radiation only during 12 h.
The sun being high in the sky, incidence angle of solar
3.1. Solar radiation level radiation is important; the quantity of solar radiation crossing
glazing is weaker. Moreover, the meteorological data of this
Fig. 4 gives temperature evolution in a closed southern day correspond to more significant wind speeds which cause
double-skin, according to the cloud cover. cooling of the external single glazing.
Three types of sky are analyzed: - 65.8 8C in September, in other words, a 43.2 8C increase
compared to the outside temperature. This period presents the
- clear sky conditions; greatest increase in temperature. Sunning duration is 12 h, sun
- mean sky conditions; path is identical to that of March, and solar profits are thus
- cloudy sky conditions. significant. Moreover, the outside temperature is more
significant than in March (10 8C moreover) thus the losses
Solar protection devices are shut down in all the cases. One by transmission through the single glazing external skin are
could have imagined that they are up when the sky was covered. less important.
We did not do it with the aim of making possible the
comparisons. Whatever the season, the southern double-skin By cloudy sky conditions, whatever the season, the
always reaches its maximum temperature at 1 p.m. maximum temperature increase compared to the outside
By clear sky, the maximum temperature in the double-skin temperature is about a few degrees: 3 8C in winter, 7 8C in
is: spring and autumn and 10 8C in summer. The increase in
temperature is related to the diffuse radiation.
- 38.6 8C in winter, in other words, a 35.8 8C increase
compared to the outside temperature. Sunning duration is 3.2. Orientation and shading devices use
short (8 h) but solar radiation is almost perpendicular to the
external glazing. The quantity of radiation crossing the single Fig. 5 gives, by clear sky conditions, temperature evolution
glazing is thus significant. in a double-skin facade according to the orientation of this one
202 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

Fig. 4. Temperature evolution in a closed southern double-skin according to cloud cover.

and according to the use or not of mean coloured solar shading In autumn, by clear sky conditions, the most unfavourable
devices in the double-skin facade. All the openings of the orientations are south, east and west. Cooling consumption of
double-skin are closed. When the solar protection devices are the building is higher. During this period, outside temperatures
shut down, an important temperature increase is observed in the are still important and sun height is relatively low. So, autumn is
double-skin. The greenhouse effect increases since an the season when overheatings risks are significant.
additional part of the sun rays is absorbed by the solar
protection devices rather than transmitted in the offices. 3.3. Opaque wall/window proportion of the interior facade
In winter, the increase in temperature compared to the
outside temperature in the southern double-skin is of 35.8 8C. The importance of the greenhouse effect depends on the
On the other hand, the building with northern double-skin capacity of receiving surfaces solar radiation absorption.
facade is most sparing in energy. Indeed, the southern offices Indeed, the short wavelength solar radiation is transformed after
benefit from the direct sun profits and the northern offices are absorption by opaque surfaces into long wave radiation. This
protected by the double-skin (Table 1). radiation trapped in the double-skin facade is responsible for
In spring, if double-skin is used in a dynamic way, the the greenhouse effect. If the glazing proportion in the interior
buildings with a southern double-skin, and moderately with a facade increases, most of solar radiation will not be absorbed by
eastern or western double-skin, can use hot air from the double- the opaque walls but will be transmitted directly in the offices.
skin to contribute to heat the zones requiring a heating demand. If interior facade glazing is not absorbing, temperature in the
In summer, the most unfavourable orientations are east and double-skin is always lower in a double-skin facade which the
west; building cooling consumption is higher. If double-skin is proportion of glazed surface in the interior facade is 74.1%, than
east oriented, overheatings appear early in the morning. If the in a double-skin facade which the proportion of glazed surface in
double-skin is west oriented, largest cooling request appears at the interior facade is 39.5% (Fig. 6). In the case of a southern
the end of the day. Solar gains are then cumulated with the internal double-skin, if one examines the consumption of the two
gains of all the working day. On the other hand, these overheatings buildings during a sunny winter day, we see that heating need of
appearing at the moment of the employees’ departure can be the more glazed building (in spite of lower temperature in the
eliminated naturally later in the evening (Table 2). double-skin) is lower than the heating need of the basic building
 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211 203

Fig. 5. Temperature evolution in a closed double-skin according to orientation and use of mean coloured solar shading devices.

thanks to the direct solar gains received by southern offices. On increases. This external skin being made up mainly of not
the other hand, during summer period, direct solar gains being insulating single glazing, interior surface temperature also
higher, cooling need is higher in the more glazed building. decreases. The single glazing constituting most of the double-
skin envelope, its surface temperature influences in its turn the
3.4. Wind speed air temperature of this one.
A difference of 13.6 8C can be observed in December, by
For this study we choose a constant wind speed during all the clear sky conditions, at 1 p.m. between the two following cases:
day and we place the building in open site. The wind speed has a a null wind speed and a 4 m s 1 wind speed (Fig. 7).
significant influence on the external surface temperature of the
single glazing of the external skin. Indeed, the external surface 3.5. Colour of shading devices and of interior facade
exchange coefficient (W m 2) ‘‘He’’ is a function of the wind
speed. Its standardized value is 23 W m 2 K for a 4 m s 1 wind Fig. 8 compares temperature evolution in the closed double-
speed. For other speeds, we apply the formula: He = 8.1 + 3.6v skin facade when there is no blind and when light coloured
in W m 2 K, (with v, the wind speed at the considered surface blinds or mean coloured blinds are placed. The characteristics
in m s 1). Double-facade external skin cools when wind speed of the solar protection devices are given below:

Table 1
Maximum temperature in double-skin facade and building consumption during a December sunny day
South double-skin North double-skin East double-skin West double-skin
Blinds up Blinds down Blinds up Blinds down Blinds up Blinds down Blinds up Blinds down
Tmax (8C) 32 38.6 6.3 6.9 14.2 16.6 12.8 14.9
hmax 1 p.m. 1 p.m. 1 p.m. 1 p.m. 11 a.m. 11 a.m. 3 p.m. 3 p.m.
Dt (dskin-out) (8C) 29.2 35.8 3.5 4.1 12.4 14.8 10.6 12.7
Heating (kWh day 1) 531 589 506 524 674 731 675 716
204 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

Table 2
Maximum temperature in double-skin facade and building consumption during a June sunny day
South double-skin North double-skin East double-skin West double-skin
Blinds up Blinds down Blinds up Blinds down Blinds up Blinds down Blinds up Blinds down
*
Tmax (8C) 44 47.8 30.5 31.7 45.8 51.2 44.7 49.5*
hmax 1 p.m. 1 p.m. 2 p.m. 2 p.m. 10 a.m. 9 a.m. 5 p.m. 5 p.m.
Dt (dskin-out) (8C) 19.9 23.7 6.1 7.5 24.3 31.3 22.1 26.9
Heating (kWh day 1) 1223 999 1222 1105 1691 1374 1661 1388
*
the maximum temperature in the west double-skin is slightly lower than that in the east double-skin because the solar radiation at 5 p.m. is lower than that at 9 a.m.
and 10 a.m.

- Light coloured blinds: maximum observed difference reaches 8.0 8C in December in

coefficient of solar absorptance, 0.17; the case of a southern double-skin.
coefficient of solar reflexion, 0.65. Moreover, Table 3 presents hot air flow from the double-skin
- Mean coloured blinds: when there is a slit of 1.5 cm in bottom and top of the double-skin
coefficient of solar absorptance, 0.42; between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m., in December, by clear sky
coefficient of solar reflexion, 0.40. conditions. This air can be recovered for northern zones heating.
The difference between the temperatures of the two cases
remains important and the air flows by the openings are higher
As the percentage of glazed surface of interior facade is not in the second case. The influence of the temperatures of the
very high, the influence of the colour of the solar protection walls heated by the sun on the air temperature is significant in a
devices on the interior temperature is only a few degrees. This double-skin. Temperature in a double-skin with an interior
impact would become more significant in the case of a more facade darker coloured is higher. So, chimney effect is also
largely glazed facade. more significant and generates more important air flows.
Fig. 8 also compares temperature evolution in the closed
double-skin when the brick of the opaque part of the interior 3.6. Depth of the double-skin cavity
facade is mean coloured (solar absorptance coefficient, 0.5)
(our basic case) with an interior facade darker coloured (solar Fig. 9 compares temperature evolution in a 1.2 m depth
absorptance coefficient, 0.8). The colour choice of the opaque closed double-skin (our basic case) with the same double-skin
part of the interior facade is rather significant. Indeed, the with a depth of 0.3, 0.6 and 2.4 m. Temperature in deeper
temperature difference is far from to be negligible since the double-skin is slightly lower than temperature in lower depth

Fig. 6. Temperature evolution in a closed double-skin according to orientation and glazing proportion in the interior facade.
 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211 205

Fig. 7. Temperature evolution in a closed southern double-skin according to wind speed.

double-facade. The maximum difference observed is 5.8 8C in double-skin is closed. The interior skin is 39.5% glazed.
September when a 0.3 m depth southern double-skin is Characteristics of the low emissivity double glazing of the
compared with a 2.4 m depth southern double-skin. If the interior skin are as follows:
volumes of hot air recoverable during winter to heat the zones
requiring heat contribution are compared, we observe that the - Clear glazing:
depth of the double-skin has little importance. direct solar transmission, 53%;
solar reflexion, 19%;
3.7. Glazing type in the interior facade solar absorption, 28%.
- Reflective glazing:
To know the impact of glazing type of the interior facade direct solar transmission, 13%;
on greenhouse effect, solar protection devices are up and solar reflexion, 51%;

Fig. 8. Temperature evolution in a closed double-skin according to colour of shading devices and of interior facade.
206 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

Table 3
Temperature and hot air flow from the double-skin for a slit of 1.5 cm in bottom and top of the double-skin, in December, by clear sky conditions, according to colour
of interior facade
Temperatures ( 8C) Hot air flow from the double-skin (kg s 1)
South double-skin, South double-skin, South double-skin, South double-skin,
absorptance = 0.5 absorptance = 0.8 absorptance = 0.5 absorptance = 0.8
11 a.m. 18.7 22.4 2.1 2.3
12 a.m. 22.3 26.7 2.2 2.4
1 p.m. 23.2 27.8 2.2 2.4
2 p.m. 21.4 25.5 2.1 2.3
3 p.m. 16.6 19.6 1.9 2.1

solar absorption, 36%. If the interior skin is equipped with absorbing glazing, most
- Absorbing glazing: of the solar radiation (68%) which strikes the glazing is
direct solar transmission, 11%; absorbed. After absorption, radiation re-emitted towards the
solar reflexion, 21%; double-skin is long wave radiation and is trapped in the double-
solar absorption, 68%. skin. Temperature in the double-skin is more significant than in
both other cases since
The impact of glazing type is weaker in June since the
interior facade receives less direct solar radiation, the sun rays - there is only 18% of solar radiation which is transmitted
being more vertical (Fig. 10). towards the offices;
The clear glazing transmits most of the solar radiation (62%) - 61% of radiation is re-emitted towards the double-skin in the
in the offices adjacent to the double-skin. form of long wave radiation.
The reflective glazing returns most of the solar radiation in
the double-skin (51% is directly reflected and 31% is re- The difference in behaviour of the various glazing is clearly
emitted towards the double-skin after being absorbed by the shown when one observes the superficial inside skin glazing
glazing). The reflected radiation is short wavelength and when temperature (double-facade side) at 1 p.m. during various
it reaches the single glazing of the external skin, it is mainly seasons. Table 4 shows that temperature difference between
transmitted towards outside. While the long wave radiation re- clear glazing and absorbing glazing can reach 30 8C.
emitted towards the double-skin after being absorbed by the
interior skin glazing is trapped in the double-skin. The 3.8. Openings in the double-skin
temperature in the double-skin is more significant than in the
case of the clear glazing due to the fact that there is only 18% of Simulations were performed for four sunny days represen-
solar radiation transmitted towards the offices with reflective tative of the four seasons. We made the assumption that wind
glazing. speed is null. Thus, only stack effect is concerned (Fig. 11).

Fig. 9. Temperature evolution in a closed double-skin for various cavity depths.

 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211 207

Fig. 10. Temperature evolution in a closed southern double-skin according to glazing type in interior facade.

The moment of double-skin opening and the openings size During winter, double-skin opening must remain lower than
vary according to the season. The temperature reduction in the 5 cm in such way that temperature of the air leaving double-skin
double-skin does not vary in a linear way with openings size. In remains at a temperature higher than 20 8C. This air can then be
fact the first centimetres of opening imply a greater temperature recovered to ensure hygienic ventilation. A slit of 2.5 cm allows,
decrease. for example, to recover 12198 m3 air at 28.5 8C (Table 5). This air
volume is sufficient to ensure hygienic ventilation of all the
Table 4
simulated office building. This air being at a temperature higher
Superficial inside skin glazing temperature (double-facade side) at 1 p.m. than 21 8C, it heats partially the office building.
during various seasons During spring, double-skin hot air can be used to ensure
Superficial inside skin glazing temperature (double-
hygienic ventilation as well as heating needs in northern offices
facade side) at 1 p.m. (8C) and in halls. Heating need in southern offices is not necessary
and cooling need is cancelled thanks to solar blinds (Table 6).
December March June September
In summer and autumn, double-skin opening is necessary to
Clear glazing 42.2 51.6 48.6 65.6 evacuate surplus heat.
Reflective glazing 53.3 62.3 56.3 78.8
In summer, at 1 p.m., 10 cm slit opening reduces double-skin
Absorbing glazing 72.3 79.3 68.3 99.9
temperature from 59.3 to 34.4 8C. Fifty centimetres slit opening
208 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

Table 5 cooling consumption during this sunny day. If interior facade

Air temperature and outgoing air flow by stack effect in southern double-skin
was less insulated, ventilation impact would be more
for a top and bottom 1.5 cm slit, during winter
significant.
Slit of 2.5 cm
Double-skin Outgoing Outgoing air 4. Is greenhouse effect favorable?
temperature ( 8C) air flow (kg s 1) flow (m3 h 1)
11 a.m. 23.9 3.9 11603 In preceded chapter, we described how influence greenhouse
12 a.m. 27.6 4.1 12198 effect. We will examine in this chapter the interest or not of
1 p.m. 28.5 4.1 12198 significant greenhouse effect.
2 p.m. 25.9 3.9 11603 If no natural strategy is implemented to try to decrease
3 p.m. 19.8 3.5 10413
cooling consumption (the double-skin remains closed, solar
protections are not used, the strategies of day and night natural
ventilation are not used), cooling loads in an insulated building
are more important than heating loads.
Table 6 Cooling loads are 2.5–3 times more significant in the case of
Air temperature and outgoing air flow by stack effect in southern double-skin
for a top and bottom 5.0 cm slit, during spring a building well insulated, 2 times more significant in the case of
a mean insulated building. In this case, it is preferable to reduce
Slit of 5.0 cm
to the maximum the greenhouse effect to decrease cooling
Double-skin Outgoing air Outgoing air loads.
temperature (8C) flow (kg s 1) flow (m3 h 1) On the other hand, if everything is implemented to
10 a.m. 19.3 5.4 16066 reduce cooling loads by natural cooling strategies use, the
11 a.m. 24.4 6.1 18149 level of the optimal greenhouse effect is function of the
12 a.m. 28.6 6.5 19339 orientation.
1 p.m. 30.0 6.6 19636
2 p.m. 28.4 6.3 18744
3 p.m. 24.9 5.7 16959 4.1. If double-skin is south oriented
4 p.m. 20.8 5.0 14876
Well insulated building:
heating loads = 67% of the energy demand;
cooling loads = 33% of the energy demand.
brings back double-skin temperature to 28.2 8C. It is noted that Mean insulated building:
first centimetres of opening are most effective. When double- heating loads = 76% of the energy demand;
skin has an opening of 50 cm slit, ventilation rate reaches 105 cooling loads = 24% of the energy demand.
ach (Table 7). The double-skin opening decreases by 8.1% Not insulated building:
building cooling consumption during this sunny day. If interior heating loads = 90% of the energy demand;
facade was less insulated, ventilation impact would be more cooling loads = 10% of the energy demand.
significant.
During autumn, at 1 p.m., 10 cm slit opening reduces Greenhouse effect must be sufficiently significant to
double-skin temperature of 40 8C, that is to say from 77.6 to increase the hot layer effect and to allow more significant
37.5 8C! An opening of 50 cm brings back double-skin heat recovery for the buildings heating requirement. The
temperature to 28.4 8C and generates ventilation rate of 125 increase in the greenhouse effect will be more interesting less
ach. Double-skin opening decreases by 14.8% building the building is insulated.

Table 7
Air temperature and outgoing air flow by stack effect in southern double-skin for a top and bottom 5.0 cm slit, during summer
Slit of 10.0 cm Slit of 50.0 cm
3 1
Double-skin temperature (8C) Outgoing air flow (m h ) Double-skin temperature (8C) Outgoing air flow (m3 h 1)
8 a.m. 21.6 17851 19.6 58314
9 a.m. 24.5 20231 21.8 65157
10 a.m. 28.1 23802 24.2 76760
11 a.m. 31.4 26479 26.3 85686
12 a.m. 33.6 28264 27.7 91041
1 p.m. 34.4 28860 28.2 92529
2 p.m. 33.9 27967 28.1 89851
3 p.m. 32.4 26182 27.3 83603
4 p.m. 29.8 23207 26.0 74083
5 p.m. 27.2 19934 24.5 63372
6 p.m. 25.2 17554 23.0 56231
 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211 209

A large opening of the double-skin during summer brings 4.3. If double-skin is north oriented
back the double-skin temperatures to a value close to outside
temperature. The double-skin receives only very little solar radiation, only
very early and very late in summer, when heat is not necessary.
4.2. If double-skin is east or west oriented Greenhouse effect does not have interest.

Double-skin does not receive solar radiation during the 5. Conclusion

coldest months, period during which greenhouse effect has a
positive impact. What to make to increase greenhouse effect and thus double-
Heat recovery can be practiced only during March, April skin temperature
(under conditions of average sky) and October during the first
hours of the day if the double-skin is east oriented and during - to protect the building from the cold;
the afternoon if the double-skin is west oriented. Moreover, - to recover double-skin hot air to heat the coldest zones;
only, the halls can benefit from this heat recovery. During this
period, offices do not require significant heating need because in winter, by clear sky conditions, at 1 p.m. (outside
of internal and solar gains. Moreover, the reached temperatures temperature 2.8 8C)?
in the double-skin, at that period, are less important than those Maximum sunning is reached for a south oriented double-
reached in a south double-skin. skin; air temperature reaches 32.3 8C when the sky is clear. If
On the other hand in summer period, double-skin high mean coloured solar protection devices are down, a temperature
temperature represents a handicap for the building cooling. increase is observed in the double-skin (38.6 8C). Greenhouse
We thus recommend rather to make greenhouse effect the effect increases since an additional part of the sun rays is
least significant possible to decrease hot layer effect during absorbed by the solar protection devices rather than transmitted
summer period. in the offices.

Fig. 11. Temperature evolution in a southern double-skin according to opening importance.

210 E. Gratia, A. De Herde / Energy and Buildings 39 (2007) 199–211

Table 8 deep double-skin and 42.1 8C in 2.4 m deep double-skin).

Double-skin air temperature and percentage of solar radiation transmitted in the
Ventilation is also easier in a deeper double-skin.
offices in summer, by clear sky conditions, at 1 p.m. according to various
glazing type in the interior facade Double-skin temperature decrease does not vary in a linear
way with the size of the openings. In fact the first centimetres of
Double-skin air Percentage of solar
opening cause a greater temperature decreasing. In summer,
temperature (8C) radiation transmitted
in the offices (%) solar protection devices down, an opening of 10 cm causes
25 8C temperature decreasing.
Clear glazing + light 45.4 11
A difference of 10.2 8C can be observed in the double-skin,
coloured blinds
Reflective glazing 46.2 18 blinds down, in June, by clear sky, at 1 p.m. between the case of
Absorbing glazing 48.7 18 a null wind speed and a 4 m s 1 wind speed.

Temperature in the double-skin is always lower in a double- 5.1. Is greenhouse effect favourable?
skin facade which the proportion of glazed surface in the
interior facade is more important. In winter, by clear sky If natural cooling strategies are not used, greenhouse effect
conditions, at 1 p.m., must be decreased.
If natural cooling strategies are used,
- if glazed surface in the interior facade is 39.5%, air
temperature is 32.3 8C; - greenhouse effect is favourable if double-skin is south
- if glazed surface in the interior facade is 74.1%, air oriented;
temperature is 26.5 8C. - greenhouse effect has no impact if double-skin is north
oriented;
The colour choice of the sun blinds and of the opaque part of - greenhouse effect is defavourable if double-skin is east or
the interior facade is rather significant. Indeed, the temperature west oriented.
difference is far from to be negligible since the maximum
observed difference reaches 8.0 8C in December in the case of a Acknowledgements
southern double-skin.
Temperature in deeper double-skin is slightly lower than The authors wish to thank the Walloon regional government
temperature in lower depth double-facade. for its support in funding the research.
The glazing type in the interior facade influences also We would also thank José Flémal (draftsman) who helped us
greenhouse effect. In winter, by clear sky conditions, at 1 p.m., to illustrate this article.

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