Introduction

Logging is a way of recording the physical properties of the rocks

penetrated by a well. Logging started with simple electric logs
measuring the electrical conductivity of rocks, but it is now a technically
advanced and sophisticated method. Here only the basic principles will
be introduced but there are several specialised textbooks on well
logging. A drilling mud is used to balance the water pressure in the
formation and also any gas or oil which is encountered.

It is also used to transport the rock fragments (cuttings) from the drill
bit. The drilling mud which is lining the hole (the mudcake) or
penetrated into the formation may strongly influence the readings.
One of the advantages is that a continuous downhole record is acquired,
providing a detailed picture of both gradual and abrupt changes in
physical properties from one bed to the next. Usually only selected
parts of the reservoir rocks are cored, and samples of cuttings from the
rest of the well give no more than a general idea of the lithology.

Only the well logs are able to adequtely reveal the whole of the drilled
sequence. Logging has the added advantage that it measures, in situ,
rock properties which cannot be measured in a laboratory from either
core samples or cuttings.
A borehole is logged by sending a probe with measuring instruments
down a well after the drilling tool is pulled up. The measurements from
the instruments in the logging tool are recorded digitally at intervals of
between 3 and 15 cm and the data is processed near the well on land, or
on the platform in the case of offshore wells. Well logging is carried out
by specialised companies which work under contract for the oil
companies. Some types of logging and seismic analyses may also occur
while drilling.
Most logs (except radioactivity logs) are dependent on direct contact
with the rock via the walls of the well, and have to be run after
successive intervals of the drilling, before each stage of the steel casing
is installed in the well. Modern logging tools make several types of
recordsat the same time, and the instruments are built into a long steel
pipe which is only about 10 cm in diameter.
The following are the most important types of log:
1. Electric logs – self-potential, resistivity and conductivity logs. Electric
logs were the first type to be employed in petroleum exploration,
because it was fairly simple to make the measurements.
This involved measuring the electric resistance (R) (resistivity) and the
current that is set up between the drilling mud and the porewater in the
rock (formation), i.e. the self-potential (SP).
2. Radioactivity logs – gamma ray and neutron logs.
Gamma logs measure the natural emission of gamma rays from rocks in
the well. A neutron log is obtained by using a neutron source which
sends radiation into the rocks. The absorption, mostly by hydrogen
atoms, occurring in water and hydrocarbons is then measured.
3. Acoustic (sonic) logs – measure how fast sound travels through rocks,
and in particular provide information about porosity. This also indicates
whether a liquid or gas phase occupies the porespaces

.4. Dipmeter logs – a type of electric log which measures the slope of
beds and laminations in rocks. Logs which directly measure properties
of the wellitself:
– Caliper logs register variations in the diameter of the well.
– Temperature logs – record borehole temperature
and can be used to calculate the true formation temperature.
– Image logs provide a picture of the well wall and may reveal layering,
sedimentary structures and fractures.
Well logs are used both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitatively,
the characteristic reactions from different types of rocks are used for
stratigraphic correlation, identification of sedimentary facies etc.
Quantitatively it is possible on the basis of logs to determine porosity
and, if relevant, the water and oil saturation of the rock. Well logs are
the most important basis for correlating sequences in a sedimentary
basin and for evaluating the properties of reservoir rocks and
their fluid content for production purposes.
It is very important to know the type of drilling mud used, as it strongly
influences what is recorded on the logs. These may be muds with
seawater or freshwater and the salinity of the mud will determine the
resistivity. Oil-based mud is now also used more frequently.

The pressure in the drilling mud must exceed the formation water
pressure, which means the mud will therefore be squeezed into the
formation. A mudcake will line the borehole wall because the solid
particles in the mud are concentrated there as the fluid penetrates the
formation. Further into the formation there will be a flushed zone where
nearly all the primary pore fluids are replaced by the fluids from the
drilling mud. Beyond this there will be a zone where the primary pore
fluids are partially replaced by drilling fluids. This is called the invaded
zone. In the case of formations with low permeability, such as shales,
and tight sandstones and mudstones, flushing and invasion will be rather
limited. In porous sandstones, however, the drilling mud and fluid may
extend much more deeply into the formation, changing the formation’s
electrical and other properties
Well Logs: The Necessity
Geological sampling during drilling (cuttings) provides a very imprecise
record of the formations encountered. Entire formation samples can be
brought to the surface by mechanical coring, but this is both
slow and very expensive. In the narrowest sense, well logging
supplements the analysis of cores, side-wall samples and cuttings. Logs
are used for a variety of purposes depending on the nature of the data
recorded. Correlation from well to well is one of the oldest and probably
the most common use of logs. Correlation is usually based on the shapes
of the recorded curves versus depth. It allows the subsurface geologist
to map formation depths, lateral distributions and thicknesses, and then
to identify conditions that could trap hydrocarbons. Identification of the
lithology of the rock sequence is another important use. After acquiring
experience in an area it is possible for a log analyst tomake an educated
guess as to lithology by looking at the log from a new well. A set of logs
run in a well will usually mean different things to different
professionals.

Currently, over fifty different types of these logging tools exist in order
to meet various information needs and functions.
Some of them are passive measurement devices, others exert some
influence on the formation being traversed.
The applications fall into three categories: identification, estimation and
production. Identification concerns subsurface mapping or correlation.
The Interactive Petrophysical (IP)
The Interactive Petrophysical Evaluation System IPES allows a
petrophysicist to make computer evaluations quickly and easily in an
operating environment. IPES was designed by Shell International
Petroleum Maatschappij (SIPM). The software was developed to SIPM
specifications by Intergraph Corporation. The logs may first be depth
matched and edited before the actual analysis is started. available well
logs such as (sonic, density, neutron, gamma ray, SP, and resistivity
logs) are digitized using the Didger software package.

The environmental corrections and petrophysical parameters such as

porosity, water saturation, hydrocarbon saturation, bulk water volume,
etc. were computed and interpreted using Interactive Petrophysics
program. Cross plot facilities allow viewing the data of up to six curves
simultaneously and assist the user in choosing his evaluation parameters
and in defining his''menus''ie''jobstreams of calculations''most
appropriate to evaluate the zones of interest. The output consists of plots
and tables containing full documentation on input and output data. and
on the menus used to obtain the result.
Techlog software
Techlog is a Schlumberger owned Windows based software platform
intended to aggregate all the wellbore information. It allows the user to
interpret any log and core data. It addresses the need for a single
platform able to support all the wellbore data and interpretation
integration workflows, reducing the need for a multitude of highly
specialized tools. By bringing the whole workflow into a single platform
risk and uncertainty can be assessed throughout the life of the Wellbore.
Techlog also has the acoustics module which will add much more
functionality into the application.