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Particle size distribution and mechanical analysis
of soil.
Major Soil Groups
Cohesive Granular soils or
soils Cohesionless soils
Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder
0.002 0.075 2.36 63 200
Grain size (mm)
Fine grain Coarse grain
soils soils
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Soil Particle Sizes, Shapes and Gradings
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Important terms to know
• Coarse – grained / Fine – grained soil
• Coarse – grained/ Granular soils
Gravel and sand
In general, exhibits desirable engineering properties
Relatively large bearing capacity and small settlement
Make good foundation materials
Good for retaining wall backfill materials
• Fine – grained soils
Silt and clays
Clays in general, exhibits undesirable engineering properties
compared to granular soils
• Lower shear strength
• Compressible
• Expand (wetting) and shrink ( drying) when moisture level
varies
• Develop large lateral pressure and less permeability not good
for retaining walls
Silts, in general, is on the border between clayey and sandy soils
Important terms to know
• Cohesive/ Cohesion less soil
• Cohesive soils
Clay
• Cohesion less soils
Gravel, sand, silt
Clays in general, exhibits undesirable engineering properties
• Organic/Inorganic soil
• Inorganic soils
Rock fragments
• Organic soils
Spongy, crumbly and compressible
Undesirable for engineering purpose
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Mechanical analysis
• Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles
present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight.
• Purpose : Determine the particle size distribution curve.
sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter
hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in
diameter.
Sieve analysis
100
US sieve Sieve opening Mass Mass passing Percent finer
number (mm) retained (g) (g) by weight 80
d M Mp p
4 4.750 0.00 190.20 99.53
60
10 2.000 2.10 188.10 98.43
20 0.850 4.60 183.50 96.02
35 0.500 15.80 167.70 87.76 40
60 0.250 40.90 126.80 66.35
100 0.150 122.00 4.80 2.51 20
200 0.075 4.70 0.10 0.05
pan 0.10 0.00 0.00 0
0.01 0.1 D60 1 10
Grain siz e (mm)
C c D30
2
D60 D10
Coefficient of curvature
Cu D60 D10
Coefficient of uniformity
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Grading of different soil types
100
Dune sand
80
Cu = 1.8
D10 = 0.16 mm
60
% finer by weight
Cu = 1 => uniform soil, poorly
40
Glacial till graded soil
Cu = 16.2
D10 = 0.05 mm Large Cu => well graded soil.
20 e.g some glacial till Cu = 30
Gap graded soil
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain Size (mm)
Example 3
The results of a dry-sieving test are given below. Plot the
particle size distribution curve and give a classification for the
soil.
Sieve size Mass retained (g) % retained % passing
4.75 mm 0 0 100.0
2.36 mm 2.6 1.2 98.8
1.18 mm 12.5 5.7 93.1
600 m 57.7 26.6 66.5
425 m 62..0 28.6 37.9
300 m 34.2 15.7 22.2
212 m 18.7 8.6 13.6
150 m 12.7 5.8 7.8
75 m 13.1 6.0 1.8
pan 3.9 1.8
Total 217.4
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Example 3
100
90
80
70
60
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.16 0.35 0.53
0.01 0.1 1 10
particle size (mm)
2
D30 0.35 2
D 0.53 cc 1.44 1 3
cu 60
D10 0.16
3.31 6 D10 D60 0.16 0.53
Particle Grading – hydrometer analysis
Hydrometer analysis is used to determine the grain size
distribution of fine-grained soils (< 75 m).
Uses Stoke’s Law
L s w 2
v D
t 18
18 L
D
s w t
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Particle Grading – hydrometer analysis
Time Meniscus Tem Corrected % %
(min) corrected p Hydrometer Particl finer finer
Hydromete Reading e size by by
r reading mass total
(g/ml) F1 F2 F3 D mass
Rh (C) Rc (m) p K
0.5
15
30
60
240
300
Example
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Plot the particle size distribution curve for the soil from the results of the
hydrometer test shown below.
Analyst name: John
Test date: 5/3/2017
Sample description:
Mass in suspension M0 (g) = 45 g
Specific unit weight, Gs = 2.65
Dispersing agent correction Ca = 4 g/L
Meniscus correction Cm = 0.5 g/L
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Example
Time Meniscus Temp Corrected Particle % finer % finer
(min) corrected Hydrometer size by by total
Hydrometer Reading mass mass
reading
(g/l)
t Rh (C) Rc F1 F2 F3 D (m) p K
0.5
40.0 22.5
1
34.0 22.5
2
32.0 22.0
4
30.0 22.0
8
27.0 22.0
15
25.0 21.5
30
23.0 21.5
60
21.0 21.5
240
17.0 20.0
900
14.0 22.5
Example
Rh Rh C m is the hydrometer reading
Rc Rh C t C a is the corrected hydrometer reading
Factor F1 relates to distance of falling particles (see chart)
Factor F2 relates to viscosity of fluid, soil density, fluid density
(see table)
Factor F3 relates to time (see table)
18 L
D F1 F2 F3 D
s w t
0.623 Gs
p Rc 100
M0 Gs 1
mass of soil remaining in pan
K p
total mass of soil used in sieving analysis
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
1. Mix the fines collected in the pan with distilled water
using the Milk shake machine for 2 minutes
2. Pour suspension into 1000 ml cylinder. Add more
distilled water to make up to 1000 ml.
3. Palm over top of the cylinder and turn upside down for
about 5 times
4. Start taking hydrometer readings as soon as cylinder is
placed on the table.
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
5
Take readings at:
30 seconds With hydrometer left in cylinder
1 minute
2 minutes
4 minutes
remove and wash hydrometer after 4 mins
8 minutes - re-insert hydrometer into cylinder just prior to taking
reading
After this, remove, wash and re-insert hydrometer before taking
each reading
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
. There are two types of hydrometer being used. Must
familarise yourself with hydrometer:
- first type measures fluid specific gravity (g/ml)
- second type measures grams of soil per litre (g/l)
Hydrometer type Capacity Accuracy Unit
Fluid specific gravity 0.995-1.04 0.001 g/ml
Grams of soil per litre 0.0-50.0 1.0 g/L
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
7. Corrections for hydrometer test: 3 corrections are
applied to the hydrometer reading Rh:
(a) ct – temperature correction
(b) ca – dispersion agent correction
(c) cm – meniscus correction
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
Temperature correction ct
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
meniscus
correction reading
corrected
reading
meniscus correction cm
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
.
8. Compute:
Rc Rh ct c a
Rh Rh c m
9. Compute particle size (D): Stoke’s Law
D F1 F2 F3 D
18 L
s w t
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
Grams Per Liter Hydrometer Calibration
. 4.4
4.2
Rh1
4.0 Rh2
3.8
Factor F1
3.6
3.4
Factor F1
3.2 (g/L)
3.0
2.8
2.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Hydrometer reading (g/l)
For each reading after 4 mins, remove and rinse the hydrometer before re-inserting to
take reading.
Rh1 = when hydrometer remains in suspension at start of test (up to 4 mins)
Rh2 = when hydrometer is inserted to take a single reading
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
. Specific Gravity Hydrometer Calibration
4.4
4.2
Rh1
4.0 Rh2
3.8
Factor F1
3.6
Factor F1
3.4
(g/mL)
3.2
3.0
2.8
1000 1010 1020 1030
Hydrometer reading (graduat)
For each reading after 4 mins, remove and rinse the hydrometer before re-inserting to
take reading.
Rh1 = when hydrometer remains in suspension at start of test (up to 4 mins)
Rh2 = when hydrometer is inserted to take a single reading
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
.
10 Computer p (% finer by mass)
0.623 Gs
p Rc 100%
M0 Gs 1
11 Computer K (% finer by total mass)
mass of soil remaining in pan
K p
total mass of soil used in sieving analysis
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Hydrometer Test - Procedures
Time (min) Meniscus Temp temp Corrected Particle % finer by mass % finer by
corrected corrections Hydrometer size total mass
Hydrometer (g/L) Reading
reading (g/L)
t R' c (C) Rc F1 F2 F3 D (m) p K
1 40.0 22.5 0.80 36.8 3.41 1.324 10 45.15 81.82
2 34.0 22.5 0.80 30.8 3.58 1.324 7.07 33.51 68.48
3 32.0 22.0 0.65 28.7 3.62 1.332 6.04 29.12 63.70
4 30.0 22.0 0.65 26.7 3.64 1.332 5 24.24 59.26
8 27.0 22.0 0.65 23.7 3.52 1.332 3.54 16.60 52.59
15 25.0 21.5 0.50 21.5 3.65 1.356 2.58 12.77 47.81
30 23.0 21.5 0.50 19.5 3.7 1.356 1.83 9.18 43.36
60 21.0 21.5 0.50 17.5 3.75 1.356 1.29 6.56 38.91
240 17.0 20.0 0.00 13.0 3.85 1.364 0.78 4.10 28.91
900 14.0 19.0 -0.30 9.7 3.92 1.381 0.36 1.95 21.57
Hydrometer Test - Procedures
90
80
70
percentage finer
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.00 10.00 100.00
particle size (m)
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Particle Shapes
• Particle shape has significant influence on the physical
properties of soil.
• Can be categorized into the following groups
– Bulky
– Flaky
– Needle shaped
• Shape of bulky particles
Particle Shapes
Gravel, Sand, silt - rounded or angular in shape
Clay – very thin plates
r R N
N
ri i
i 1
Roundness/angularity
R Dc
index
Dd/Dc
Roundness 0.09 Sphericity index
Roundness 0.48 Sphericity 0.35
Sphericity 0.81 Dd = equivalent
diameter of particle
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